Three Dimensional Geometry

Chapter 5: Three Dimensional Geometry

This chapter builds upon the foundational concepts of two-dimensional coordinate geometry, extending them into
the three-dimensional space. We will explore the methods for defining the orientation of a line in space through
the use of direction cosines and direction ratios. A significant portion of the chapter is dedicated to deriving and
applying the equations of lines and planes, presented in both vector and Cartesian forms, under a variety of given
conditions. Furthermore, the chapter investigates the relationships between lines and planes. This includes
techniques for calculating the angle between them, locating their point of intersection, and establishing the
conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity. Finally, we will address the problem of calculating the shortest
distance between two lines, learning to differentiate between intersecting, parallel, and skew lines.

5.1 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios

5.1.1 Introduction to 3D Coordinate System

The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is a framework

used to define the position of a point in space. It is an extension of the
two-dimensional system and is constructed using three mutually
perpendicular axes, labeled as the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis. The point
where these three axes intersect is known as the origin, and its
coordinates are (0, 0, 0) . These axes define three coordinate planes:
the XY-plane, the YZ-plane, and the ZX-plane. Together, the three
axes divide the entire space into eight distinct regions, which are
referred to as octants. The position of any point in this space is uniquely
identified by an ordered triplet of numbers, (x, y, z) , where x , y , and z represent the perpendicular distances
of the point from the YZ, ZX, and XY planes, respectively.

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 Three Dimensional Geometry

5.1.2 Direction Cosines of a Line

The orientation of a directed line in three-dimensional space is precisely described by the angles it forms with the
positive directions of the x, y, and z axes. These angles, commonly denoted by α , β , and γ , are called the
direction angles. The cosines of these angles, namely cos α , cos β , and cos γ , are known as the direction
cosines (d.c.'s) of the line. For convenience, these are typically represented by the letters l , m , and n , so that
l = cos α , m = cos β , and n = cos γ . A fundamental and essential property of direction cosines is that
the sum of their squares is always equal to one. This relationship is expressed by the identity l2 + m2 + n2 =
1 . This identity is crucial for verifying the validity of a set of direction cosines and for solving various problems
related to the orientation of lines in space.

5.1.3 Direction Ratios of a Line

While direction cosines uniquely define a line's orientation, direction ratios (d.r.'s) offer a more general way to
describe it. Direction ratios of a line are any set of three numbers, let's say
a , b , and c , which are proportional to
the direction cosines l , m , and n . This proportionality can be expressed as al = m b = c = k , for some non-
n

zero constant k . Consequently, a line has only one unique set of direction cosines (for a given direction), but it
possesses an infinite number of sets of direction ratios. If the direction ratios (a, b, c) are known, the
corresponding direction cosines can be calculated using the formulas: l = ± 2 a 2 2 , m = ± 2 b 2 2 ,
a +b +c a +b +c
and n = ± 2 2 2 . Furthermore, the direction ratios of a line segment connecting two points
c
a +b +c
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are given by the differences in their coordinates: (x2 − x1 , y2 −
y1 , z2 − z1 ) .

5.2 Equation of a Line in Space

5.2.1 Equation of a Line through a Given Point and Parallel to a Given Vector

The equation of a line in 3D space can be expressed in two primary

forms: vector and Cartesian. To determine the vector equation of a line,
we need a point that lies on the line and a vector that is parallel to the
line. If a line passes through a point whose position vector is a and is
parallel to a given vector b , its vector equation is given by r = a +
λb . In this equation, r is the position vector of any arbitrary point on
the line, and λ is a scalar parameter that can take any real value. The
corresponding Cartesian equation can be derived from this vector form. If the coordinates of the given point are
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the direction ratios of the parallel vector b are (a, b, c) , the Cartesian equation of the line is
y−y1
given by the symmetric form: x−x a = b = c .
1 z−z1

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 Three Dimensional Geometry

5.2.2 Equation of a Line Passing Through Two Given Points

When a line is defined by two distinct points it passes through, we can use these points to establish both a fixed
point on the line and its direction vector. Suppose the two given points have position vectors a and b . The vector
connecting these two points, (b − a) , will be parallel to the line and can thus serve as its direction vector. Using
the first point (with position vector a ) as the fixed point, the vector equation of the line is r = a + λ(b − a) .
For the Cartesian form, let the coordinates of the two points be (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) . The direction
ratios of the line are then (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ) . The Cartesian equation of the line is therefore:
x−x1 y−y1 z−z1
x2 −x1 = y2 −y1 = z2 −z1 .

5.2.3 Angle Between Two Lines

The angle between two lines in three-dimensional space is defined as the angle between their respective direction
vectors. Consider two lines with vector equations r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + μb2 . The angle θ between
these lines is found using the dot product of their direction vectors, b1 and b2 . The formula is given by cos θ =
∣b1 ⋅b2 ∣
. In Cartesian form, if the direction ratios of the two lines are (a1 , b1 , c1 ) and (a2 , b2 , c2 ) , the formula
∣b1 ∣∣b2 ∣
∣a1 a2 +b1 b2 +c1 c2 ∣
for the angle between them becomes cos θ = . From this general formula, we can derive
a21 +b21 +c21 a22 +b22 +c22
∘
the conditions for perpendicularity and parallelism. Two lines are perpendicular if θ = 90 , which implies
cos θ = 0 . This occurs when their dot product is zero: b1 ⋅ b2 = 0 or, in Cartesian terms, a1 a2 + b1 b2 +
c1 c2 = 0 . Two lines are parallel if θ = 0∘ , which means their direction vectors are proportional: b1 = kb2
for some scalar k , or aa1 = bb1 = cc1 .
2 2 2

5.3 The Plane

5.3.1 Equation of a Plane in Normal Form

A plane in 3D space can be uniquely identified by its perpendicular distance from the origin and the direction of the
vector normal (perpendicular) to it. The vector equation of a plane that is at a perpendicular distance d from the
^ , is given
origin, and for which the unit vector normal to the plane (pointing from the origin towards the plane) is n
by r ⋅ n^ = d . Here, r represents the position vector of any point on the plane. The Cartesian equivalent of this
equation is lx + my + nz = d , where (l, m, n) are the direction cosines of the normal vector n ^ . This
"normal form" is particularly useful because it directly reveals key geometric properties of the plane, namely its
distance from the origin and its orientation in space.

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 Three Dimensional Geometry

5.3.2 Equation of a Plane Passing Through a Point and Perpendicular to a Vector

Another common method to define a plane is by specifying a point that lies on it and a vector that is normal to it.
Let the plane pass through a point with a position vector a and be perpendicular to a vector N . For any point
with position vector r on the plane, the vector connecting the given point to this arbitrary point, (r − a) , must
lie in the plane. Since N is normal to the plane, (r − a) must be perpendicular to N . This perpendicularity
condition is expressed by the dot product equation: (r − a) ⋅ N = 0 . This is the vector equation of the plane.
In Cartesian coordinates, if the given point is (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the direction ratios of the normal vector N are
(A, B, C) , the equation of the plane is A(x − x1 ) + B(y − y1 ) + C(z − z1 ) = 0 .

5.3.3 Equation of a Plane Passing Through Three Non-Collinear Points

A unique plane can be defined by any three points that do not lie on the same straight line (i.e., they are non-
collinear). Let the three non-collinear points have position vectorsa , b , and c . We can form two vectors that lie
within the plane by connecting these points, for instance, the vectors (b − a) and (c − a) . The cross product
of these two vectors, (b − a) × (c − a) , results in a new vector that is perpendicular, or normal, to the plane
containing them. Using this normal vector and one of the given points (e.g., the point with position vector a ), we
can write the vector equation of the plane as (r − a) ⋅ [(b − a) × (c − a)] = 0 . This is often referred to as
the scalar triple product form. The Cartesian equivalent of this equation can be expressed concisely using a
determinant, where (x1 , y1 , z1 ) , (x2 , y2 , z2 ) , and (x3 , y3 , z3 ) are the coordinates of the three points:

\begin{vmatrix}

x − x1 & y − y1 & z − z1 \\

x_2 - x_1 & y_2 - y_1 & z_2 - z_1 \\

x_3 - x_1 & y_3 - y_1 & z_3 - z_1

\end{vmatrix} = 0

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 Three Dimensional Geometry

5.4 Relationships and Distances

5.4.1 Shortest Distance Between Two Skew Lines

Skew lines are lines in three-dimensional space that are not parallel to
each other and do not intersect. The shortest distance between such
lines is the length of the unique line segment that is perpendicular to
both of them. Consider two skew lines given by the vector equations
r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + μb2 . The direction of the shortest
distance vector is perpendicular to both direction vectors b1 and b2 ,
and is therefore parallel to their cross product, b1 × b2 . The shortest
distance d is the scalar projection of the vector connecting a point on
each line, such as (a2 − a1 ) , onto this common normal direction. This
∣(a2 −a1 )⋅(b1 ×b2 )∣
is calculated using the formula: d= ∣b1 ×b2 ∣
. This concept is
fundamental for analyzing the spatial relationship between lines that are not coplanar.

5.4.2 Distance Between Two Parallel Lines

The distance between two parallel lines is constant along their entire length. Let the equations of the two parallel
lines be r = a1 + λb and r = a2 + μb . Note that because the lines are parallel, they share the same
direction vector b . The distance between them can be conceptualized as the perpendicular distance from a specific
point on one line (e.g., the point with position vector a1 ) to the other line. A more direct calculation using vector
products gives the distance d . This distance is the magnitude of the cross product of the direction vector b and
the vector connecting a point on each line (a2 − a1 ) , divided by the magnitude of the direction vector. The
∣b×(a2 −a1 )∣
formula is d= ∣b∣
. Geometrically, this formula calculates the height of a parallelogram formed by the
vectors b and (a2 − a1 ) .

5.4.3 Angle Between a Line and a Plane

The angle between a line and a plane is defined as the complement of the angle formed between the line and the
normal vector to the plane. Letb be the direction vector of the line and N be the normal vector to the plane. Let
θ be the angle between b and N . The angle between the line and the plane, denoted by ϕ , is given by the
relation ϕ = 90∘ − θ . Using trigonometric identities, this means that sin ϕ = sin(90∘ − θ) = cos θ .
Therefore, we can find the angle ϕ using the dot product formula for cos θ . The resulting formula is sin ϕ =
∣b⋅N ∣
. This relationship is particularly important in physics and engineering for problems involving trajectories,
∣b∣∣N ∣
reflections, or refractions with respect to a surface.

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 Three Dimensional Geometry

5.4.4 Distance of a Point from a Plane

The shortest distance from a point to a plane is the length of the perpendicular line segment from the point to the
plane. Given a point with position vector a and a plane defined by the equation r ⋅ N = D , the perpendicular
∣a⋅N −D∣
distance from the point to the plane can be calculated using the formula d= ∣N ∣
. In terms of Cartesian
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) to a plane given by the equation
coordinates, the perpendicular distance from a point
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is found using the widely applicable formula: d = ∣Ax1 +By1 +Cz1 +D∣
A +B 2 +C 2
2
. This is a
fundamental calculation used in numerous geometric and physics applications.

Activities

Activity 1: 3D Modeling with Geogebra

This activity uses a 3D graphing calculator, such as Geogebra, to help students visualize the abstract concepts
from the chapter. Students will be assigned tasks to plot specific lines and planes based on the equations they have
learned to derive. For example, they might be asked to plot two skew lines with given equations and then rotate the
3D view to visually confirm that the lines never intersect and are not parallel. Another task could be to plot a line
and a plane, use the software's measurement tools to find the angle between them, and then compare this
measured value to the result they calculated using the sine formula. The primary goal of this activity is to connect
the abstract algebraic formulas with their concrete geometric representations, thereby fostering a more profound
and intuitive understanding of three-dimensional geometry.

Activity 2: Classroom Coordinate System

This hands-on activity transforms the physical classroom space into a tangible three-dimensional coordinate
system. One corner of the room is designated as the origin (0, 0, 0) . The two floor edges meeting at this corner
serve as the x and y axes, while the vertical corner edge represents the z-axis. Students will then identify various
objects within the room, such as a clock on the wall, a doorknob, or the corner of a desk, and work in groups to
estimate their (x, y, z) coordinates. Following this, they can use pieces of string stretched between two of
these "points" to represent lines. Using meter sticks or measuring tapes, they can measure the changes in x, y, and
z between the points to determine the direction ratios and then attempt to write an approximate equation for the
line represented by the string. The objective is to provide a real-world, physical context for the concepts of 3D
coordinates, points, and lines, making them less abstract and more relatable.

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Three Dimensional Geometry

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