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CHAPTER 2
CHEMISTRY OF OUTER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Definition:

“All those elements whose electronic configuration is ended on ‘d’ orbital are called d-block elements.”

These elements are found between ‘s’ and ‘p’ blocks of the periodic table, that’s why they have intermediate properties of these
elements. They are also called outer transition elements.

Composition of d-Block:

Composition wise d-block elements are three different transition series, each series contains ten (10) elements.

i. 1st Transition Series: It begins with scandium (Sc) while terminates on Zinc (Zn).

Sc, Ti, V Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn

2. 2nd t. Series: This series begin with Ytterium (Y) while ended on cadmium (Cd).

T, Zy, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd

3. 3rd T. Series: It begins with Lanthanide while ended on Mercury.

La, Hf, Ta, Lu, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Ag

4. 4th T. Series: It begins with Actinium (Ac) and ends at Copernicium (Cn).

GENERAL FEATURES OF OUTER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

1. Electronic Configuration:

The elements of first transition series show the following configuration with irregularities at chromium and copper. In
chromium and copper, the irregularities are favored because the half-filled and completely filled orbitals have extra
stability.

1. Scandium: Sc (21) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d1
2. Titanium: Ti (22) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d2
3. Vanadium: V (23) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d3
4. Chromium: Cr (24) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d5
5. Manganese: Mn (25) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d5
6. Iron: Fe (26) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d6
7. Cobalt: Co (27) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d7
8. Nickel: Ni (28) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d8
9. Copper: Cu (29) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10
10. Zinc: Zn (30) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10

2. Atomic and Ionic Radii:

The atomic and ionic radii decrease from left to right in the transition series with the increase in nuclear charge.

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3. Density:

The densities of transition metals are high because of their low atomic volumes. The density increases from left to right
in the series.

4. Ionization Potential:

Transition metals have neither very high or very low ionization energies. Their value are intermediate between s and p
– block elements. Transition metals are less electropositive than s-block elements (group I & II) elements and more
electropositive than p – block (group III – VII) elements.

5. Melting and Boiling Points:

Mp and Bp depends upon interatomic forces of attraction. Therefore the top to bottom in a group due to increase of
atomic size w/h lowers. The Mp and Bp while in left to right in period the size of elements decrease which also increase
the force of attraction and increases Mp and Bp. Zn, Cd and Hg have exceptional low values because d orbitals are
completely filled.

6. Magnetic Property:
They also show magnetic property which can be defined as “The behaviour of a transition metal in presence of magnetic
field is called magnetic property.”

i. Paramagnetic: In this kind of magnetic behaviour metal feels attraction towards the magnet when introduce
in the field. This character is due to the presence of unpaired electrons in d-orbital.

ii. Diamagnetic: “The magnetic behaviour in which a metal doesn’t feel any attraction towards the magnet is
called diamagnetic behaviour.” It is due to the paired electrons in d-orbital.

iii. Ferromagnetic: “The magnetic behaviour in which a metal itself behave as magnet after introducing in
magnetic field called a Ferromagnetic property.” For Example: Fe, Co and Ni

7. Colour Formation:
All of d-block elements also form coloured compounds except of Zinc.
Actually, the formation of colour is due to the presence of unpaired electrons. The formation of colour was first discuss
by crystal field theory (CFT) when metal surround by ligands through coordinate bonds, then it ends the degeneracy of
d-orbital and it Splits into t2g (triply degenerate orbitals) and eg orbitals. And their energy difference is called CFSE
(Crystal Field Stabilization Energy) when an e jumps from lower energy t2g orbital to higher energy eg. orbital then it
absorbs energy of wavelength equal to the energy difference between the orbitals and t2g. Some of the component wave
length of white light is removed, so the remaining component wave length of the light reflected or transmitted shows
the colour to the viewers. For example, copper, cu2+ ions absorb red light, hence the transmitted light gives blue colour.

i. a higher energy pair, d xx 2 − y 2 and d zz 2 designated as eg; and

ii. a lower energy tio, dxy, dyz designated as t2g

8. Variable Oxidation State:

All d-block elements also have variable oxidation state. This variation is due to the very small energy difference in
between 3d and 4s orbitals. As a result, electrons of 3d as well as 4s take part in the bond formation under applied
magnetic field.

9. Catalyst:
“A chemical reagent which is used to increase or decrease rate of reaction without without being used during the
reaction is called catalyst.”
Most of d-block elements are used as catalyst because they form activated complex at lower energy of activation as
intermediate complex and have large interstitial spaces.

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For Example:

Fe used as catalyst in Haeber’s process.

Pt used as catalyst in Ostwalds process.
V used as catalyst in Contacts process.
Ni used as catalyst in during hydrogenation of oil.

10. Binding energy:

Binding energy in transition metals is the energy by which an atom is disassembled into free electrons and a nucleus.
The binding energy of an electron is the minimum energy by which an electron is removed from an atom. Transition
metals show good mechanical properties. They are tough, malleable, and ductile. The toughness of these metals indicate
strong metallic binding. This is because, apart from s-electrons of the outer most shell, the electrons of underlying half-
filled d-orbitals also participate in binding.

11. Alloy Formation:

Transition metals have very similar atomic sizes. One metal can easily replace the other metal from its lattice to form
solid solution (alloy). Transition metals are miscible with one another in the molten state. The molten state solution of
two or more transition metals on cooling forms alloy.

12. Complex Formation:

Another very important property of the transition elements is to form co-ordination compounds or complexes. This is
because the transition elements have highly charged ions and vacant d – orbitals. These vacant d-orbitals accept
electrons from atoms, ions or molecules called bigands. For example, [Cu(NH3)4] SO4, K4 [Fe(CN)6],
Na3 [Co (NO3)6].

NOMENCLATURE OF COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Complex Formation:
The cation of transition elements has a great tendency to form coordination compounds commonly called as complexes by
accepting lone pairs while donate their lone pairs are called ligands. These complexes are formed because transition elements
have small highly charged ions and vacant d-orbitals of suitable energy. For example:
Ferocyanide ion [Fe (CN)6]4- is a complex ion of iron in which six cyanide (CN –) ions donate lone pairs to the central ferrous
Fe2+ ion.
CN–
CN–

CN– Fe+ CN– = [Fe (CN)6]4–

CN–
CN–

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Co-ordination Number:
The number of ligands attached to a centre atom is called co-ordination number. This number varies from 2 to 6.

Composition:
Each complex compound is composed of two part:

i. Inner Sphere
ii. Outer Sphere

i. Inner Sphere:
It is further composed of two parts:

a. Central atom
b. Ligands

ii. Outer Spheres:

It always carries charge opposite to the inner sphere e.g.

K 44+ Fe (CN ) 6 4− Cu ( NH 3 ) 4 2+ SO 24−

Outer Inner Inner Outer
sphere sphere Sphere sphere

Ligands:

Anion or neutral molecules which donate electron pairs to central atom are called as ligands.

Types of Ligands:

Ligands are divided into following types on the basis of no. of electron pair donor atom. They also called Lewis bases.

i. Mono denate Ligands

ii. Multi dentate or poly dentate ligands

i. Mono Dentate:

Ligands containing only one electron pair donar atom or coordinating groups are called as mono dentate ligands.

..
F − , Cl − , Br − , −  H , H O
OH, CH 3 CO ..− , N 3 2
..
ii. Multi Dentate:

Ligands containing two or more electron pair donar atoms are called as poly dentate.

a. Di dentate:

COO–  H − CH − CH − N
N  H
2 2 2 2

COO– Eltylene diamine (en)

Oxalate ion (OX)

b. Tridentate:

 − CH − CH − N
H2 N  H − CH − CH − N  H
2 2 2 2 2
diethylene – triamine

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Classification of complex compounds:

Based on charge, three types of complexes are there.

1) Cationic complex is the complex which have positive remaining charge or outer charge on right hand side for e.g
[Cu (H2O)5]+2 or [Cu (H2O)5]SO4

2) Anionic complex is the complex which have negative remaining charge or outer charge on left hand side for e.g
Na3[Fe(CN)6] or [Fe(CN)6]-3

3) Neutral complex is the complex which have no remaining charge as well as outer charge for e.g [Ni (CO)4]

(NOTE: remaining charge is the charge on coordination sp here whereas outer charge is the charge present outside the
sphere and equals to the remaining charge)

Rules for writing IUPAC names of complex compounds:

1) Only the first letter should be capital and there should be no gap while writing the name of a complex.
2) If outer charge is present on left hand side of the inner shpere, mention its name first and if present on right hand side than
mention at last WITHOUT ITS QUANTITY.
3) Inside the coordination sphere, first write the quantity of ligands than its name.
4) If ligand is inorganic use DI, TRI, TETRA etc to mention its quantity and BIS, TRIS, TETRAKIS etc if ligand is organic.
5) If ligand is negative, add “O” in its name otherwise add nothing.
6) If two or more ligands are present than write their names in alphabetical order.
7) After the ligands name, write the name of transition metal.
8) Use the latin name for transition metal only if complex is anionic.
9) If complex is anionic, add “ATE” in metals name otherwise add nothing.
10) After the metals name, mention its oxidation state in roman enclosed in small bracket.
11) If there is a remaining charge on coordination sphere, add “ION” at the end of the name.

Chemistry of Chromium
A hard, silvery metal with a blue tinge, Chromium is used to harden steel, to manufacture stainless steel and to produce several
alloys.
Chromium plating can be used to give a polished mirror finish to steel. Chromium-plated car and lorry parts, such as bumpers,
were once very common. It is also possible to chromium plate plastics, which are often used in bathroom fittings.
About 90% of all leather is tanned using chrome. However, the waste effluent is toxic so alternatives are being investigated.
Chromium compounds are used as industrial catalysts and pigments (in bright green, yellow, red and orange colours). Rubies
get their red colour from chromium, and glass treated with chromium has an emerald, green colour.
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It shows high variations in its oxidation state. In lower oxidation state, it acts as reducing agent whereas in higher oxidation
state, it acts as oxidizing agent. Some common reactions of Cr with different reagents are given below.
1. With Hydrochloric acid: like other metals, Cr liberates Hydrogen gas.

2. With Oxygen: Cr reacts with oxygen to form oxides

[Link] Steam: with steam at high temperature, Cr forms oxides and Hydrogen gas liberates.

Chemistry of Potassium Dichromate

Potassium dichromate is formed using potassium. It is used as an agent for oxidising elements. It has a bright orange colour and
is inorganic and toxic. It is used in laboratories as well as industries on a large scale. It can be hazardous to the health of humans
and, therefore, must be handled with great care and precaution.
The production of potassium dichromate involves the reaction of chromates with either sodium or potassium carbonate. It is
used to clean glassware and as an etching material, in photographic screen printing, and more.
Chemical properties
1. With Water:
Equilibrium is attained which supports forward direction in basic medium and backward direction is acidic medium.

2. As oxidizing agent: it is a good oxidizing agent due to the presence of Cr with highest oxidation state i.e., +6. During reactions,
color change indicates the completion of reaction as well as the end point chemistry of the products.

Chemistry of Manganese
Manganese is a pinkish gray, chemically active element. It is a hard metal and is very brittle. It is hard to melt, but easily oxidized.
Manganese is reactive when pure, and as a powder it will burn in oxygen, it reacts with water (it rusts like iron) and dissolves in
dilute acids.
It exists in various oxidation state depending upon the applied magnetic field and the reactivity of reactant. For e.g.
Mn shows +2 charge in MnCl2, +4 in MnO2 and +7 in KMnO4.

Chemical properties:
1. with Air
Mn reacts with air to for manganese oxide as under

2. With Chlorine
Mn reacts with chlorine to for Manganese Chloride as under

3. With sulphuric acid

Mn reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to form salt and liberates Hydrogen gas as under

Uses of Manganese
• Manganese is used to produce a variety of important alloys and to deoxidize steel and desulfurize.
• It is also used in dry cell batteries.
• Manganese is used as a black-brown pigment in paint.
• It is an essential trace element for living creatures.

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Chemistry of Potassium Permanganate

The purplish-black color of solid potassium permanganate, and the intensely pink to purple color of its solutions, is caused by
its permanganate anion, which gets its color from a strong charge-transfer absorption band caused by excitation of electrons
from oxo ligand orbitals to empty orbitals of the manganese (VII)
Preparation:
Potassium permanganate is commercially prepared by mixing solution of KOH and powdered manganese oxide, with oxidizing
agents like potassium chlorate. The mixture is boiled evaporated and the residue is heated in iron pans until it has acquired a
pasty consistency.
Chemical properties:
It is highly water soluble and produce pink coloured solution. A powerful oxidizing agent due to the presence of Mn+7 and works
in acidic, basic and neutral medium as under.

In acidic medium it gains five electrons and convert into colourless Mn +2 oxidation state from pink coloured solution.

In basic or neutral medium it gains three electrons and converts into brown / black MnO2

It reacts with strong reducing agents like mohr salt and Fe (II) sulphate to gain five electrons to carry redox reactions as under.

Uses:

Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidizing agent with some disinfectant properties. It was used extensively before
hypochlorites as a drinking water disinfectant. In some parts of the world, it is still used on a small scale for this purpose and
also for washing fruits and vegetables.

Iron, Fe
Iron is a mineral that the body needs for growth and development. Your body uses iron to make hemoglobin, a protein in red
blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body, and myoglobin, a protein that provides oxygen to muscles.
It is also extensively used in construction and manufacturing companies.

Chemical properties

It reacts atmospheric Oxygen to get rusted, thin layer of oxide at the surface.

It reacts with excess Chlorine to form iron (III) Chloride as under.

Uses:

Iron is used to make alloy steels like carbon steels with additives such as nickel, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and manganese.
These are used to make bridges, electricity pylons, bicycle chains, cutting tools and rifle barrels. Cast iron contains 3–5% carbon.
It is used for pipes, valves, and pumps.

Types of Steel and its applications

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus,
sulphur and oxygen. Steel is the world's most important engineering and construction material. Additives in Iron improve the
physical properties of steel and make it more worthy.
Based on applications and purpose, variety of steels can be made simply by changing the composition. Some of the important
commercially used steels are given below

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Copper, Cu
Copper (Cu) in its pure form is a reddish-brown metallic element with high ductility and malleability that is an excellent
conductor of heat and electricity.
Properties of Copper:
• High electrical conductivity(2nd highest after silver).
• High ductility.
• Good heat conductivity.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Good machinability.
• Antimicrobial properties/biofouling resistance.

Chemical Properties
Being metal it reacts with mineral acids to give respective salts.

Uses:
Most copper is used in electrical equipment such as wiring and motors. This is because it conducts both heat and electricity very
well and can be drawn into wires. It also has uses in construction (for example roofing and plumbing), and industrial machinery
(such as heat exchangers).

METALLURGY OF COPPER
Extraction:

“The process through which a metal is isolated from its ore is called Extraction.”

Metallurgy:

“The whole process in which a metallic ore is mining from the earth, and then undergoes in extraction and reigning is called
metallurgy.”

Copper is a very useful metal which is found in 1st transition series of transition elements. It is a good conductor of heat and
electricity therefore usual for make wires and cables.

Occurrence: Like other metals copper also does not exist in free state. Therefore, it is mostly found in combine state.

Ores or Copper:
Following are the most significant ores of copper.

i. Cuprite (Cu2O)
ii. Calcite (Cu2S)
iii. Azurite {2 CuCO3 . Cu (OH)2}
iv. Copper pyrite or Copper Glance (CuFeS2)

But mostly sulphur containing ore, which is copper pyrite, is used for the extraction of copper.

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Extraction:

The extraction of Cu from copper pyrite consists of following steps.

1. Synthesis of Blister Copper from Copper pyrite

2. Refining of Blister Copper

1. Synthesis of Blister Copper From Copper pyrite:

The manufacturing of Blister Copper from copper pyrite consists of following three steps.

i. Concentration of ORE:

First of all, copper pyrite with impurities (SiO2, Fe2O3) is grinded into fine particles and then mixed with some
quantity of oil and water. Heavy particles of impurities are settled down while comparatively concentrated ore
of copper pyrite floats over the surface.

ii. Roasting:

In this step concentrated ore of copper pyrite is heated in an open furnace then it gets oxidize to form Cu2S,
FeO and SO2 gases.
2CuFeS2 + O2 ⎯
⎯→ Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2

iii. Smelting:

The roasted ore is then mixed with silica (sand) SiO2 to remove iron as ferrous silicate (slag) which floats on
the surface of molten matte. (Mixture of FeS and Cu2S)

2FeS + 3O2 ⎯
⎯→ 2FeO + 2SO2
1200-15000C

FeO + SiO2 ⎯
⎯→ FeSiO3 (Slag)
iv. Bessemerization:

Molten matte is taken into a Bassemer converter and is oxidized by passing air through it. Copper sulphide is
oxidized to groups oxide (Cu2O) which reacts with the remaining Cu2S to give copper metal in molten state.
The solid copper obtained on cooling is called blister copper because sulphur dioxide gas esapes producing
blisters on its surface. It is 99% pure and contains Fe, Ag and Au as impurities.
2Cu2S + 3O2 ⎯
⎯→ 2Cu2O + 2SO2

2Cu2O + Cu2S ⎯
⎯→ 6Cu + SO2
Blister
Cu (99%)

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v. Refining of Blister Copper:

The refining of blister copper is done in an electrolytic cell, to convert 99% copper into 99.9%.

Composition of Cell:

Electrolytic cell consist of iron or steel made tank, in which thick rods of blister copper ore used as anode. While then rods of
pure copper containing graphite lining are used as cathode. The aqueous solution of CuSO4 is used as electrotyte in the cell
acidified with H2SO4.

Working of Cell:

On electrolysis pure copper is deposited at the cathode. Less act metals like Ag and Au settle down as anode mud. The refining
produces 99.99% pure copper at anode.

Cu ⎯ ⎯→ Cu++ + 2e– (At anode)

Blister copper

Cu2+ + 2e– ⎯
⎯→ Cu (At cathode)

The electrolytically refined copper is 100% pure.

Commercial applications of some common transition metals

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Answers to Self-assessment questions from Textbook

1) Electronic configurations are given below (Textbook page no.38)

Vanadium: V (23) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s23d3
Manganese: Mn (25) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d5
Nickel: Ni (28) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2 ,3d8
Titanium: Ti (22) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 ,4s2, 3d2

2) Electronic configurations of the given ions are written below (Textbook page no.40)
i) Cu +2 (29) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d9
ii) Cu +1 (29) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d10
iii) Fe+3 (26) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d5
iv) Cr+3 (24) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d3
v) Fe+2 (26) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d6
vi) Mn+2 (25) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d5
vii) Co+2 (27) ⎯
⎯→ 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s0, 3d7

3) Copper has an unpaired electron due to which it shows d-d transition and allows electron transition in visible region
importing color while Zn+2 is having no unpaired electrons hence produce colorless compounds.(Textbook page no.42)

4) IUPAC names of the complexes are given below (Textbook page no.46)
i) Pentaaquochloroplatinum(IV)nitrate.
ii) Tetraaminechromium(III)ion.
iii) Potassiumtetracyanocuperate(II)
iv) Hexaflouroaluminate(III)ion.

5) KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are strong oxidising agent because the main metal atom (Mn) and (Cr) are in a very high +7 and
+6 oxidation state respectively, which means it's lost all its valence electrons. Although manganese can lose 7 electrons
and Cr can lose 6, it would prefer to have some, so it will readily grab them from somewhere else and in doing so
oxidize the other species. (Textbook page no.49)

Answers to Short questions from Textbook

1. IUPAC Names of complexes.
i) Sodiumhexahydroxoplatinate(IV).
ii) Potassiumpentacyanonitrosylferrate(III).
iii) Tetraaminezinc(II)ion.
iv) Tetrathicyanonickelate(II)ion.

2. Give reasons.
i) D- block elements show variable oxidation states because there is a very small energy difference in between
(n-1)d and ns orbitals. As a result, electrons of (n-1)d orbitals as well as ns-orbitals take part in bond formation.
ii) The atomic sizes of transition metals are very similar to each other. Therefore, these attributes to their nature
of forming the alloys. As the atomic sizes are very similar one metal can replace the other metal from its lattice
and form a solid solution which is the alloy.
iii) Cu2+ ion has incompletely filled 3d - subshell. The d - d transition of electrons takes place by absorbing
wavelengths from visible light. Hence, Cu+2 are coloured, whereas Zn2+ ions are colourless as no d-d transition
is observed due to complete d sub-energy level.
iv) The reason Chromium have a slightly odd electron configuration is because of stability. By only having 1
electron in the 4s orbital, Chromium is able to have 1 electron in each of its 3d orbitals, this configuration is
more stable.
v) Due to the absence of unpaired electrons in ns and (n–1)d shells, the interatomic electronic bonding is the
weakest in zinc. Consequently, zinc has the least enthalpy of atomization in the 3d series of transition elements.

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3. Balanced chemical equations.

i.
ii.

iii.

iv.
v.

vi.

4. The d-block elements are called transition elements because they exhibit transitional behaviour between s-block and p-
block elements. Their properties are transitional between highly reactive metallic elements of s-block which are ionic
in nature and the elements of p-block which are covalent in nature.
5. The chromates and dichromates are interconvertible in aqueous solution depending upon pH of the solution. Increasing
the pH (in basic solution) of dichromate ions a colour change from orange to yellow is observed as dichromate ions
change to chromate ions and vice versa.
6. This is because as we move across the period, we are adding more valence electrons to the element. For metals, this
increases the total number of delocalized electrons, which increases the strength of the metallic bonds that hold the
metal together. With stronger interacting forces, the melting point increases.
Alloy Composition

7.

Answers to Descriptive questions from Textbook

1. Following are the explanations.
a) Paramagnetic behavior
Most of the transition metals are paramagnetic due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the (n-1)d-orbitals.
Hence, they are easily attracted by the magnetic field. As the number of unpaired electrons increases from 1 to 5,
the magnetic movement and paramagnetic nature of the element also increases.
b) They exhibit the +2-oxidation state due to the two electrons in ns orbitals while the electrons of (n-1) d remain
unaffected. The increased oxidation state from +3 to +7 is due to the transition sequence of elements using both 4s
and 3d electrons.
c) The energy of excitation corresponds to the frequency of light absorbed when an electron from a lower energy d
orbital is excited to a higher energy d orbital. This frequency is usually in the visible range. The colour seen
matches the light absorbed complementary color.
2. A coordination complex is the product of a Lewis acid-base reaction in which neutral molecules or anions (called
ligands) bond to a central metal atom (or ion) by coordinate covalent bonds. Ligands are Lewis bases - they contain
at least one pair of electrons to donate to a metal atom/ion.

Chelating ligand: Ligands which have more than two or three donor sites from which they form a coordination
bond with the central metal and therefore, can form a ring-like structure. Thus, these ligands are called chelating
ligands and the process is called chelation.

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Classification of Ligands
Ligands can be classified on the basis of charge, number of donor sites, and bonding as follows.

3. Follow the above given notes.

4. Transition metals as catalyst

Transition metals have partially filled d- orbitals so they can easily withdraw the electrons from the reagents or
give electrons to them depending on the nature of the reaction. They also have a tendency to show large no. of
oxidation states and the ability to form complexes which makes them a good catalyst.
Transition metals and their compounds function as catalysts either because of their ability to change oxidation state
or, in the case of the metals, to adsorb other substances on to their surface and activate them in the process.

5. Binding Energy

Binding energy in transition metals is the energy by which an atom is disassembled into free electrons and a
nucleus. The binding energy of an electron is the minimum energy by which an electron is removed from an atom.

Trend of binding energy

As the number of protons increases along the period without increasing shells, binding energy increases at each
step as nucleus attracts the shells more firmly. Therefore, binding energy gradually increased. But at Zn, due to
complete d sub-energy level, attractive forces decreased and binding also decreases.

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SUMMARY
➢ The elements that possess partially filled d-orbitals in their atomic or any of their ionic states are called outer transition
elements.
➢ Transition elements are located in the mid portion of periodic table and cover up 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th periods.
➢ The general valence electronic configuration of transition elements is (n —I) d1–10, ns1'2.
➢ Chromium and copper deviate from the general trend of electronic configuration in 3d series of transition elements
because of achieving extra stability.
➢ Binding energy of Mn +2 and Fe+3 are highest because they possess maximum unpaired electrons in their 3d orbitals.
➢ The most common oxidation number of transition metal cations is +2.
➢ Paramagnetic behavior of transition elements is due to the availability of unpaired electrons in their 3d orbitals.
➢ The colour phenomena of transition elements is due to the excitation of electron from t2g to eg energy levels by the absorption
of light of specific wavelengths.

➢ Coordination number is the number of coordinate bonds formed between ligands and the transition metal in a complex
molecule or ion.
➢ The complexes of multidentate ligands are known as chelates.
➢ Potassium dichromate and potassium permagnate are powerful oxidizing agents.
➢ Transition elements have ability to form alloys with each other due to the similarities in their atomic sizes.
➢ Stainless steel is the most common alloy of iron. It is made up of iron, chromium and nickel.
➢ The most common ore of copper is chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2).
➢ Refining of copper is carried out in an electrolytic tank where thick plates of blister copper serve as anode and thin sheets
of pure copper act as cathode.

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 XII - CHEMISTRY

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

(i) Zn+2 ion is colourless because:
(a) Its undergoes d-d transition of electron
(b) Its 3d orbitals have all unpaired electrons
(c) Its 3d orbitals have all paired electrons
(d) Its d orbitals split up into tzg and eg
(ii) The coordination number of cobalt in Na4 [Co (C3 O4)3] is:
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 7

(iii) An example of a bidentate ligand among the following is:

̅
(a) O𝐻 (b) C2O4–2 (c) Cl– ̅
(d) C𝑁

(iv) A highly paramagnetic ion among the following is:

(a) Fe +2 (b) Fe+3 (c) Co+2 (d) Cr+3

(v) The highest oxidation state of chromium is:

(a) +4 (b) +5 (c) +6 (d) +7

(vi) The element is not used for electroplating:

(a) Zinc (b) Tin (c) Chromium (d) Manganese

(vii) The steel is typically used in making Fry pans:

(a) Carbon steel (b) Stainless steel (c) Tool Steel (d) Alloy Steel

(viii) The step which involved in the extraction of copper from chalcopyrite ore in the elimination of gangue impurities is:
(a) Concentration (b) Roasting (c) Smelting (d) Bessemerization

(ix) 5d series of outer transition elements is:

(a) Sc to Zn (b) Y to Cd (c) La to Hg (d) Ac to Cn

(x) Oxidation of manganese in air gives the following oxide:

(a) MnO (b) MnO3 (c) Mn2O3 (d) Mn3O4

ANSWER KEY
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

C C B A C D B C C D

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