Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

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Agricultural Water Management

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Influence and selection of nitrogen and phosphorus compound fertilizers on

emitter clogging using brackish water in drip irrigation systems
Yayu Wang a, b, Jaume Puig-Bargués d, Changjian Ma e, Yang Xiao a, *, Memetmin Maitusong f,
Yunkai Li a, c
a
College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
b
College of Water Conservancy & Architectural Engineering, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832000, Xinjiang, China
c
Engineering Research Center for Agricultural Water-Saving and Water Resources, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100083, China
d
Department of Chemical and Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Girona, Girona 17003, Spain
e
State Key Laboratory of Nutrient Use and Management, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan
250100, China
f
Xinjiang Kashgar River Basin Authority, Kashgar 844000, Xinjiang, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor - Dr. B.E. Clothier Emitter clogging is a major obstacle to the application of brackish water in drip irrigation systems, which can be
aggravated with inappropriate fertilizer application. Among the major element fertilizers, nitrogen and phos­
Keywords: phorus (NP) trigger a higher risk of clogging. However, the effect and selection of different types of NP com­
Water quality pound fertilizers on emitter clogging remain unknown. This study investigated the effects of no fertilizer (CK),
Fertigation
two types of industrial grade monoammonium phosphate (I_MAP) and diammonium phosphate (I_DAP), two
Irrigation uniformity
types of agricultural grade monoammonium phosphate (A_MAP) and diammonium phosphate (A_DAP), and two
Fouling
types of new urea phosphate (UP) and ammonium polyphosphate (APP) on the clogging of three types of
emitters. The results showed that the application of agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers exacerbated
emitter clogging compared to industrial grade fertilizers, decreasing the Christiansen of Uniformity (CU) by an
average of 18.5%− 22.8% and 21.4%− 25.6%, respectively, mainly due to an increase in the content of insoluble
particulate matter in the clogging material. Application of new UP and APP fertilizers reduced emitter clogging,
increasing CU by 29.9%− 37.1% and 10.2%− 16.4%, respectively, compared to industrial grade fertilizers,
mainly by decreasing the chemical precipitate content in the fouling material. Overall, the safe operation time of
agricultural grade fertilizer system is about 1.2 years within the safe operation life (CU≥80%) of drip irrigation
system, while the safe operation life of industrial grade and new NP compound fertilizers is about 1.6–3.4 times
of that of agricultural grade fertilizers on average. It is suggested that in drip irrigation systems using brackish
water, A_MAP fertilizer can be applied to annual crops whereas in perennial crops industrial and UP and APP
should be applied. This study is of great significance for the application and promotion of brackish water drip
fertigation technology.

1. Introduction reliable method of applying brackish water for irrigation due to its high
frequency and controllability (Xiao et al., 2023), which allows salts to
Water scarcity in agriculture has become a major constraint to the accumulate at the edges of the wetted body and reduces the level of salt
sustainable development of agricultural production (He et al., 2021; Han stress in the root zone (Slama et al., 2019). However, the key reason why
and Jia, 2022). Brackish water reserves are abundant and their use for brackish water is not widely used in drip irrigation system is that it
irrigation has become a major way to alleviate water scarcity (Yin et al., contains a large number of salt ions (Chen et al., 2019), which are highly
2022). However, unreasonable use of brackish water tends to exacerbate susceptible to clog drip irrigation emitters.
the level of salt stress in the crop root zone and could cause soil salini­ Fertilizer is often required for drip irrigation systems, and it has been
zation (Liu et al., 2021). Drip irrigation is considered to be the most shown that the coupling of components in fertilizers with multiple ions

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xiaoyang@[Link] (Y. Xiao).

[Link]
Received 1 November 2023; Received in revised form 19 December 2023; Accepted 19 December 2023
Available online 26 December 2023
0378-3774/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

in brackish water can lead to changes in emitter clogging behavior 2. Materials and methods
(Wang et al., 2022c; Wang et al., 2023), being the clogging mechanism
more complex. At present, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are the 2.1. Experimental setup
three primary nutrients most commonly used in fertilizers. In the past,
nitrogen and potash were mainly applied through drip irrigation sys­ The experiment was carried out at the Irrigation Experiment Station
tems, while phosphate was usually applied as a base fertilizer (Fan et al., of the First Division Water Resources Management Center of Xinjiang
2020). In recent years, some scholars have explored that applying Production and Construction Corps (81◦ 2′E, 40◦ 6′N). The experimental
phosphate fertilizer through drip irrigation systems can effectively drip irrigation system is shown in Fig. 1. System is divided into three
improve the transport distance and utilization efficiency of phosphate layers, each 15 m in length, with a drip irrigation belt internal diameter
fertilizer in soil (Dong et al., 2023). In general, potassium fertilizers of 16 mm, each layer representing a single type of drip irrigation belt.
(such as potassium chloride) pose less risk of emitter clogging, nitrogen There were 50 emitters evenly spaced along the drip irrigation belt with
fertilizers have a higher clogging risk, and phosphate fertilizers have the an average spacing of 30 cm between emitters. The head of the irrigation
highest clogging risk (Shi et al., 2022). At the same time, farmers tend to system had screen filters (length, width and height size: 290 × 260
use compound fertilizers. Compared with a single fertilizer, the nutrient × 150 mm, filter precision: 120 µm), as well as a two-stage manifold
content of a compound fertilizer is more balanced and easier to apply pressure regulator to ensure the pressure head of the water supplied into
(Chen et al., 2021). Therefore, it is necessary to study the effect of NP the system. No fertilizer (CK), monoammonium phosphate (A_MAP) and
compound fertilizers on emitter clogging. The production methods and diammonium phosphate (A_DAP) of agricultural grade NP compound
types of different NP compound fertilizers may also be the key factors fertilizers, monoammonium phosphate (I_MAP) and diammonium
affecting the clogging of the emitters. In general, due to the different phosphate (I_DAP) of industrial grade NP compound fertilizers, as well
impurity content, fertilizers can be divided into industrial grade and as urea phosphate (UP) and ammonium polyphosphate (APP) of new NP
agricultural grade. In general, the purity of agricultural grade fertilizers compound fertilizer were used in the experiment, and, therefore, there
is lower, while, in contrast, industrial grade fertilizers have fewer im­ were a total of 7 treatments. The basic information of fertilizers is shown
purities, having an effective fertilizer content of 98% (Li et al., 2021). in Table S1 of the supplementary materials, and the concentration of NP
Thus, due to its higher impurity amounts, agricultural grade fertilizers compound fertilizer applied was 0.5 g/L (Mtaki et al., 2021). The
have a higher risk of emitter clogging than industrial grade fertilizers. experimental water source was selected from locally mixed under­
The advantage of agricultural grade fertilizers is that they are cheaper. ground brackish water with a total dissolved salt (TDS) concentration of
Therefore, the effect of NP compound fertilizers on clogging should be 3 g/L. The experiment was conducted from May 1, 2022, to July 10,
weighed against the cost of fertilization. At present, the research on the 2022, using alternating brackish water-fertilizer water-brackish water.
effect of NP fertilizers on emitter clogging is mainly focused on indus­ The system was operated for 10 h per day, with the test running for a
trial grade fertilizers. Ma et al. (2020) concluded that the application of total of 64 days. Three different types of emitters were selected for the
NP compound fertilizer slowed down the emitter clogging in drip irri­ test, being their structural parameters shown in Table 1. There were
gation systems by reducing the calcium carbonate content in the clog­ eight replicates of drip irrigation belts for each treatment condition,
ging material. Wang et al. (2020) found that, under the condition of low which were used for sampling at different periods of the system’s
ion concentration, applying weak acid NP compound fertilizer can operation. And a flushing device was set up at the end of the system to
effectively reduce the formation of phosphate fouling. On the contrary, carry out lateral flushing every 8 days of operation, with a flushing
some scholars have found that NP compound fertilizer exacerbates velocity of 0.45 m/s.
emitter clogging. Yang et al. (2019) observed that application of NP
compound fertilizers can increase the content of amorphous substances 2.2. Effects of fertilizers on water quality
in the clogging material and exacerbate the clogging of emitters.
Muhammad et al. (2021) found that even if urea phosphate, which is The application of NP compound fertilizers mainly affects the clog­
able to reduce the pH of water, is applied, it will also increase the car­ ging of the emitter by influencing the water quality. In this study, the
bonate and silicate substances, which will result in higher clogging water quality parameters pH, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO-3, SO2- 2-
4 , PO4 , total
occurrence. Overall, the current research results on the emitter clogging hardness, and zeta potential of the brackish water were tested. The
of brackish water drip irrigation system (BWDS) by NP compound fer­ water quality testing method relied on China Hangzhou Research In­
tilizers are inconsistent and have not been addressed the use of different terest Information Technology Company Limited, in which Ca2+ and
purity grade fertilizers. In fact, the service life of drip irrigation belt is Mg2+ were determined by HJ 776–2015 Inductively Coupled Plasma
not fixed. For example, in the Xinjiang region of China, the service life of Emission Spectrometry (ICPES) standard, and the instrumentation used
drip irrigation belt is often only 1 year (Wen et al., 2022), while in other was ICP-OES spectrometer (Agilent Technologies, USA, model:
areas may be 10 years or even longer (Goyal, 2012). Therefore, it should Avio220MAX). The SO2- 2-
4 and PO4 were determined following Ion
be necessary to establish fertilizer selection methods with different Chromatography (ICC) (Metrohm, Switzerland, model: 940) Chinese
dripline service life. However, the effects of different types of NP com­ standard method HJ 84–2016.
pound fertilizer on BWDS emitter clogging and the appropriate selection
method of NP compound fertilizer are unknown. 2.3. Evaluation of emitter hydraulic performance
Therefore, the effects of the two most commonly used industrial
grade NP compound fertilizers, the corresponding two agricultural During operation of the system, all 50 emitters on each drip irriga­
grade NP compound fertilizers and two new types of NP compound tion belt were tested for flow and dry weight every 8 days. The weighing
fertilizers on the emitter clogging of drip irrigation system using method was used to test the emitter discharge, which was collected
brackish water were studied. The purpose of this study is: (1) Clarify the during 3 min. Before each flow test, the pressure was adjusted at the
effects of different types of NP compound fertilizers on BWDS emitter head of the drip irrigation system to ensure that the system pressure was
clogging; (2) Clarify the mechanism of influence of different types of NP stabilized at 0.1 MPa when testing the flow rate, and finally, the
compound fertilizer on emitter clogging; (3) Weighing the relationship discharge of each emitter was calculated using a high-precision elec­
between the amount of fertilizer applied to the emitter clogging and the tronic balance (with an accuracy of 10− 3 g).
cost, propose a fertilizer selection method for BWDS. After calibrating the measured flow rate using the method proposed
by Pei et al. (2013), the average discharge variation rate (Dra) was used
to determine the degree of emitter clogging, and the Christiansen of
Uniformity (CU) to evaluate the irrigation uniformity of the emitter

2
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

Fig. 1. Experimental drip irrigation system. 1-fertilizer tank, 2- brackish water tank, 3-water inlet, 4-water pump, 5-emitters, 6- precise adjusting valve, 7-exhaust
device, 8-screen filter.

Table 1
Main parameters of the drip irrigation emitter.
Emitter Rated discharge (L/h) Flow length (mm) Flow width (mm) Flow depth (mm) Discharge coefficient Flow index Emitter flow channel structure sketch

E1 1.00 34.41 0.85 0.72 3.61 0.53

E2 1.60 27.48 1.07 1.14 5.40 0.52

E3 2.00 25.29 0.87 1.04 6.50 0.61

Note: the flow channels’ dimensions were obtained by an electron microscope after peeling the emitters, and the rated discharge, discharge coefficient, flow index was
tested according to China standard (GB/T17188-1997).

(Christiansen, 1942). 2.4. Safety operating life assessment of emitter

∑n qit
Dra =
i=1 qi0
× 100% (1) Under the condition of CU=80%, below which the drip irrigation
n system is considered clogged, the corresponding running time (RT) was
calculated (Table S3), Once RT was determined, the area corresponding
where qi0 is the initial discharge for emitter i, L h− 1; qit is the discharge at
to S1 and S2 for Dra was computed (Fig. 2). According to Eqs. (4) and (5),
t hour for emitter i, L h− 1; and n is total number of emitters installed
the irrigation water amount (IWA) in m3/ha was calculated (Table S4).
along the lateral.
The corrected emitters’ discharge (qti ) was used to calculate the S1
k= (4)
Christiansen of Uniformity (CU) of the lateral, as shown in (3). S1 + S2
∑n t
q
qt = i=1 i (2) IWA = k × Q × RT ×
L
(5)
n d
( ∑n ⃒⃒ t ⃒
t⃒ )
i=1 qi − q Where S1 is the effective cross-section area between Dra and runtime for
CU = 100 1 − (3)
nqt CU=80%, and S1 +S2 is the rated overwater area between Dra and
runtime for CU=80% conditions. Q is the flow rate of the emitter, m3/h;
Where qt is the average flow rate of each emitter on the dripline after RT is the corresponding running time, h; L is the length of drip irrigation
measuring it at time t, L/h; and qti is the discharge at t hour; The meaning belt for one hectare of land (considering a distance between emitters of
of other parameters is the same as that of (1). 0.3 m, and a distance between drip irrigation belt of 1.1 m), where 9000

3
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

100 narrow spectrum.

The samples were taken at 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, and 64 days of
system operation, respectively, and analyzed following the sampling
80 procedure and methods of Wang et al. (2022c). Firstly, the emitter
mixed samples were put into self-sealing bags, added deionized water,
placed in ultrasonic cleaning for dismemberment treatment for 20 min,
60
CU (%)

and made into suspension. Then, 50 mL of suspension was poured into

centrifuge tubes for centrifugation, and then the centrifuge tube samples
40 were dried, and weighed using a high-precision balance, and finally got
the dry weight (DW) of clogged material. The dried clogged material was
fully ground, and the polycrystalline diffraction image was determined
20 using an X-ray diffractometer (Bruker Corp, Germany; model:
D8-Advance). It was analyzed by Topas software (Bruker Corp) to obtain
polycrystalline diffraction patterns and phase compositions. At the same
0 time, the apparent morphology of the clogged material at the end of the
RT experiment (i.e., after 64 days) was obtained with a scanning electron
100 microscopy (SEM) Tescan, Czech Republic, model: Vega Compact) at an
S2 operating voltage of 25 kV and a magnification scale between 400 and
15,000.
80
2.6. Statistical analysis
Dra (%)

60
The significant differences (p < 0.05) in water quality parameters
between treatments were determined by analysis of variance (ANOVA).
40 S1 Data on water quality parameters, mineral fractions, and clogging per­
formance were standardized using SPSS (ver. 24.0, IBM Analytics, USA),
Spearman’s correlation analysis was performed, and structural equation
20 modeling analysis (SEMA) was used with amosv22.0 (IBM, USA). The
hypothesis testing was performed to evaluate the correlation between
clogging substances and clogging performance.
0
RT 3. Results

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram for calculating the safe operating life of the drip
3.1. Different NP compound fertilizers on water quality parameters of
irrigation systems.
brackish water

is taken in the formula and the unit is m; d is the spacing of the emitter As shown in Fig. 3a-h, application of different NP compound fertil­
runners, where 0.3 m is taken in the formula. dL is the total number of izers significantly affected the brackish water quality. Compared with
emitters per hectare. CK treatment, the application of chemical fertilizer significantly reduced
Then the useful years of the drip irrigation system operation Y were the pH of brackish water except for I_DAP treatment. Applying agri­
calculated as: cultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers increased the total hardness
IWA by 40.9–73.2 mg/L and 99.9–132.2 mg/L, respectively, regarding in­
Y= (6) dustrial grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers. Compared with industrial
AIW
grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers, the application of new UP and APP
Where AIW is the annual irrigation water of a crop, with reference to the fertilizers reduced the total hardness by 31.7–64.0 mg/L and
annual irrigation amount of cotton (Wang et al., 2022b), tomato (Wei 22.7–55.0 mg/L, respectively. However, A_MAP was not different from
et al., 2021), rice (Ma et al., 2019) and winter wheat (Zhang et al., 2016) control and A_DAP had significantly greater total hardness. The results
in Xinjiang, China, In this study, the annual irrigation water per hectare of zeta potential change showed that, compared with industrial grade
was 3000–9000 m3. I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers, applying agricultural grade A_MAP and
A_DAP fertilizers reduced zeta potential by 6.5–6.9 mV and 7.1–7.4 mV,
respectively. Conversely, the zeta potential was increased by
2.5. Analysis of fertilizer and emitter clogging substance fractions 3.5–3.8 mV and 1.9–2.2 mV by applying new UP and APP fertilizers,
respectively, regarding I_MAP and I_DAP. Meanwhile, compared with
Fertilizer was tested for insoluble matter using high-performance industrial grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers, the application of agri­
liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Agilent Technologies, USA, model cultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers significantly (p < 0.05)
ICPMS7500, plasma RF power: 1200 W; plasma gas flow rate: 15.0 L/ increased the content of Ca2+ and Mg2+ by 35.6–98.8 mg/L and
min; auxiliary gas flow rate: 1.0 L/min; carrier gas flow rate: 1.0 L/min, 9.9–26.9 mg/L, respectively. Compared with industrial grade I_MAP and
acquisition mode: mass spectrometry, repeated 3 times). The insoluble I_DAP fertilizers, the application of new UP and APP fertilizers signifi­
sample in the clogging substance was stuck on the conductive adhesive cantly (p < 0.05) decreased the Ca2+ and Mg2+ content by
for XPS (X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy) test (Thermo Scientific, 29.0–59.9 mg/L and 2.1–8.0 mg/L, respectively. At the same time, the
USA, model Escalab250X), using AI Ka target (hv=1486.6 eV), power Ca content of A_DAP was significantly higher than CK. The application of
150 W, sensitivity 350 keps, vacuum of the analyzing chamber 10− 8 agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers significantly (p < 0.05)
mbar. The angle between the detector and the sample surface was 90◦ , increased SO2- 3-
4 and PO4 by 49.9–202.9 mg/L and 16.2–37.8 mg/L
and the analyzing area was 700 * 300 µm. The fluence energy was set to compared to industrial grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers. Compared to
160 eV for the broad spectrum and 40 eV for the narrow spectrum, and the industrial grade I_DAP fertilizers, the application of new UP and APP
the scanning step was 1 eV for the broad spectrum and 0.1 eV for the fertilizers resulted in a PO3- 4 significantly (p < 0.05) decreased by

4
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

a 10.0 b 420 c 5

a a a
a 360 a

Total hardness (mg/L)

7.5 b 0

Zeta potential (mV)

c c
b
d 300
b b
pH

5.0 c −5 b
CK b
I_MAP 240 d
c
A_MAP e c
e e
2.5 I_DAP −10
A_DAP 180
UP
APP
0.0 120 −15
d 280 e 120
f 55
a
a
245 a
110 44
210 b
Ca2+（mg/L）

bc

HCO3- (mg/L)
Mg2+ (mg/L)

175 c 100 33
b
d b b
140 c
90 22 c
e e c
c d d
105 d d
d
80 e 11
70

35 70 0
P

P
K

AP

AP

AP

P
AP

AP

AP
AP

AP

P
K

AP

AP

AP

P
AP
C

AP

AP

AP
D

D
D

D
M

D
M

D
M
A_

A_
I_

I_

A_
I_

A_

I_

A_

I_
I_

A_
g 60 a h 1100
a

1050
45 b
1000
PO43- (mg/L)

SO42- (mg/L)

950
30 c b
900
d c c
cd cd
d d
15 850
e
800
f
0 750
P
K

AP

AP

AP

P
AP

P
K

AP

AP

AP

P
AP
C

AP

AP
D
M

D
M

D
M

D
M
A_
I_
I_

A_

A_
I_
I_

A_

Fig. 3. Variation of water quality parameters for different treatments. The small boxes in the graphs represent the values of different water quality parameters
in the interval of 25%− 75%, and the different letters above the boxes show if there were significant differences (p < 0.05) between treatments for each water
quality parameter.

9.8–17.7 mg/L, while HCO-3 significantly (p < 0.05) increased by grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers resulted in an average reduction of
4.1–35.9 mg/L, respectively. 29.4%− 40.8%, 19.2%− 47.9% and 14.8%− 34.9% in CU of emitters E1,
E2 and E3, respectively, as compared to industrial grade I_MAP and
I_DAP fertilizers. In contrast, compared to industrial grade I_MAP and
3.2. Effect of different NP compound fertilizers on emitter clogging I_DAP fertilizers, the application of the new UP fertilizer resulted in an
average increase of 48.2%− 51.0%, 21.5%− 26.9% and 20.8%− 29.8% in
The application of different types of NP compound fertilizers Dra and an average increase of 54.6%− 59.9%, 29.1%− 39.7%, and
significantly affected the CU and Dra of the BWDS (Fig. 4a-h). Both CU 14.7%− 26.1% in CU for the drip irrigation system for E1, E2, and E3,
and Dra of the drip irrigation system showed a trend of rapid decrease respectively. Also, with the APP fertilizer, Dra and CU for E1, E2, and E3
from 0 to 40 days, followed by a slow decrease from 40 to 64 days. With emitters increased between 1.8%− 24.1% and 1.8%− 59.9%, respec­
the system in operation, the application of A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers tively, at the end of the system operation, compared to the industrial
significantly exacerbated clogging of the drip irrigation system grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers.
compared to the CK treatment, resulting in a decrease in Dra and CU by Moreover, the application of different NP compound fertilizers also
2.1%− 22.6% and 8.9%− 36.9%, respectively, whereas application of significantly affected the DW of the drip irrigation system compared to
I_MAP, I_DAP, UP, and APP fertilizers significantly slowed down clog­ the CK treatment (Fig. 4i-l). The application of agricultural grade A_MAP
ging of the drip irrigation system, resulting in an increase in Dra and CU and A_DAP fertilizers increased in DW of emitters E1, E2 and E3 by
by 3.4%− 56.3% and 3.2%− 65.0%, respectively. The application of 23.1%− 132.8%, 11.5%− 40.6% and 17.9%− 31.3%, respectively,
agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers reduced the Dra of compared to industrial grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers, whereas the
emitters E1, E2, and E3 by an average of 12.2%− 20.5%, 24.5%− 28.4%, application of the UP and APP fertilizers decreased DW by 13.9%−
and 20.8%− 27.5%, respectively, compared to the industrial grade 59.7%, 7.4%− 26.7%, and 6.2%− 9.7%, respectively. The SEM images
I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers. Meanwhile, the application of agricultural

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Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

a 100 b 100
E1 E2
80 80

60 60

CU (%)
CU (%)
40 CK 40
I_MAP
A_MAP
I_DAP
20 A_DAP
20
UP
APP
0 0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
Operating time days Operating time days
c 100 d 0 CK y=x,R2=1
I_MAP (y=0.84x+16,R2=0.91)
E3 A_MAP (y=1.30x-30,R2=0.91)
I_DAP (y=0.92x+8,R2=0.92)
80 20 A_DAP (y=1.35x-35,R2=0.94)
UP (y=0.51x+49,R2=0.85)
APP (y=0.80x+20,R2=0.92)
60 40
CU (%)

CU (%)
40 60

20 80

0 100
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 100 80 60 40 20 0
Operating time days CU-CK(%)
e 100 f 100
E1
80 80 E2

60 60
Dra (%)

Dra (%)
CK
40 I_MAP 40
A_MAP
I_DAP
20 A_DAP 20
UP
APP
0 0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
g 100 Operating time days Operating time days
h 0 CK y=x,R2=1
I_MAP (y=0.80x+20,R2=0.94)
E3 A_MAP (y=1.12x-12,R2=0.91)
80 20 I_DAP (y=0.88x+12,R2=0.92)
A_DAP (y=1.16x-16,R2=0.92)
UP (y=0.46x+54,R2=0.81)
APP (y=0.70x+30,R2=0.89)
60 40
Dra (%)

Dra (%)

40 60

20 80

0 100
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 100 80 60 40 20 0
Operating time days Dra-CK(%)
i 500 j 500
CK
I_MAP E1 E2
A_MAP
400 I_DAP 400
A_DAP
UP
DW (mg)

DW (mg)

300 APP 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
Operating time days Operating time days
k 500 l 400
CK(y=x,R2=1)
E3 I_MAP (y=0.77x,R2=0.97)
A_MAP (y=1.04x,R2=0.98)
400 I_DAP (y=0.88x,R2=0.98)
300 A_DAP (y=1.23x,R2=0.97)
UP (y=0.63x,R2=0.92)
APP (y=0.73x,R2=0.97)
DW (mg)

300
DW (mg)

200
200
100
100

0 0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 0 100 200 300 400
Operating time days DW-CK(mg)

Fig. 4. Effect of NP compound fertilizers on the clogging performance in BWDS. Fig. 4a, b and c show the dynamic changes of CU in BWDS with different types
of emitters, Fig. 4d depicts the correlation of CU with different NP compound fertilizer treatments. Fig. 4e, f and g show the dynamics of Dra with different types of
fertilizer in BWDS, and Fig. 4h shows the correlation between Dra and different NP compound fertilizer treatments. Fig. 4i, j, and k shows the dynamic changes of DW
in BWDS with the different emitter types, and Fig. 4l is the correlation of DW with different NP compound fertilizer treatments.

6
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

Fig. 5. Scanning electron microcopy (SEM) variations of different NP compound fertilizers.

(Fig. 5) showed some differences in the clogging material between the respectively.
different NP compound fertilizers. Compared with I_MAP and I_DAP, With the increase in the operating time of the BWDS, the total
A_MAP and A_DAP showed large and thick fouling particles and tightly amount of fouling material showed a gradual increase. For carbonate
bonded together, and the surface of fouling was not only rough, but also fouling (Fig. 7a), the application of different NP compound fertilizers
covered the whole surface of the flow emitter channel. In contrast, the significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the carbonate fouling content regarding
fouling particle structure of UP and APP is smaller and relatively loose, the control, with the application of agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP
the roughness between fouling is reduced, and the fragmentation dis­ fertilizers decreasing the calcite content by 1.3 mg/cm2 and increasing it
tribution in the flow channel is easier to flow. by 6.1 mg/cm2, respectively. The application of APP significantly
(p < 0.05) increased it by 16.2 mg/cm2, when compared with the in­
3.3. Mineral fraction changes of different NP compound fertilizers on dustrial grade I_MAP fertilizer. The calcite content decreased by
emitter fouling 12.3 mg/cm2 and 4.9 mg/cm2 for agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP
fertilizers, respectively, and decreased by 15.3 mg/cm2 and increased by
Fig. 6a shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of the mineral compo­ 5.2 mg/cm2 with UP and APP fertilizers, respectively, compared to in­
nents of emitter fouling by the different NP compound fertilizers, and dustrial grade I_DAP fertilizer.
Fig. 6b shows the percentage of mineral component fouling with the As for silicate fouling (Fig. 7b, c, d, e, and Fig. S1), compared with
different fertilizers tested. The results show that the mineral component industrial grade I_MAP fertilizer, the silicate content of agricultural
fouling mainly includes quartz [SiO2], calcite [CaCO3], chlorite [(Mg, grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizer increased by 36.2 mg/cm2 and
Fe)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8], muscovite [(K,Na)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si3.1Al0.9) 44.4 mg/cm2, respectively, and the silicate content of new UP and APP
O10(OH)2], augelite [Al2(PO4)(OH)3], brushite [CaPO3(OH)2H2O], fertilizer increased by 71.2 mg/cm2 and 62.6 mg/cm2, respectively. The
cyanite [Al2SiO5] and hydroxyapatite [Ca5(PO4)3OH]. According to silicate content increased by 11.9 mg/cm2 and 20.1 mg/cm2 for appli­
their chemical composition, they were classified as carbonate fouling cation of agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers, respectively,
(calcite), silicate fouling (quartz, chlorite, muscovite, and cyanite), and and by 38.4 mg/cm2 and 46.9 mg/cm2 for application of new UP and
phosphate fouling (augelite, brushite, and hydroxyapatite), with per­ APP fertilizers, respectively, as compared to industrial grade I_DAP
centages ranging from 1.4%− 38.3%, 24.2–86.2% and 0.0%− 63.6%, fertilizer. Regarding the phosphate fouling (Fig. 7f, g, h, and Fig. S1), the

a b Quartz Calcite Chlorite Muscovite Augelite Brushite Cyanite Hydroxyapatite

100%
APP
90%
UP 80%
Mineral components

70%
Intensity count

A_DAP
60%
50%
I_DAP
40%
30%
A_MAP
20%
I_MAP 10%
CK 0%
A_MAP

A_MAP
I_MAP

I_MAP

APP
CK

APP
A_DAP

UP
I_DAP

UP

CK

A_DAP
I_DAP

5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85

2θ/degree 16 days 64 days

Fig. 6. Mineral fractions of different NP compound fertilizers. Fig. 6a shows the XRD spectrum, while Fig. 6b shows the percentage plot of the min­
eral components.

7
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

50
a CK b 120
a a
I_MAP ab
100
40
Carbonate mg/cm2

A_MAP
I_DAP abc abc

Quartz mg/cm2
A_DAP 80 bcd
30 a
UP a
b 60 cd
APP
c ab d
20
bc abc
b d 40
bc bc
bcd
10 cde e bc c
e 20
de e
e
0 0
16 days 64 days 1616d
days 6464d
days
20 20
c d
a
15 15 ab

Muscovite mg/cm2
a
Chlorite mg/cm2

ab

bc
10 bc bc 10
bcd cd
cd cd cd
a d a d
5 ab 5 ab ab ab
ab ab ab ab ab ab
b
b

0 0
16d
16 days 6464d
days 1616d
days 6464d
days
e 40 f 60

50 a
a
30 a
Augelite mg/cm2
Cyanite mg/cm2

ab 40
bc
20 cd 30
d
20
a
10 ab ab e
bcd bc e a
10 b b b
cd
d b b b b b
b b b
0 0
g 60
1616d
days 64 64d
days
h 120
16d
16 days 6464d
days
a
a
50 100 a
Hydroxyapatite mg/cm2
Brushite mg/cm2

40 80 b
b b
30 60

20 40 a c
a bc
a b
10 20 d
c
b bc bc c
c bc c c c c c c d d
0 0
1616d
days 6464d
days 16d
16 days 6464d
days

Fig. 7. Variation in mineral fraction content of different NP compound fertilizers. Fig. 7a shows calcite fouling; Fig. 7b, c, d, and e show quartz, chlorite,
muscovite, and cyanite, respectively; and Figs. f, g, and h depict augelite, brushite, and hydroxyapatite, respectively.

8
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

phosphate content increased by 14.0 mg/cm2 and 32.4 mg/cm2 for the new UP and APP fertilizers, respectively.
application of agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers, respec­
tively, and decreased by 64.3 mg/cm2 and 50.4 mg/cm2 for the appli­
cation of the new UP and APP fertilizers, respectively, compared to the 3.4. Analysis of impact pathways
industrial grade I_MAP fertilizers. Compared with the industrial grade
I_DAP fertilizers, the phosphate content increased by 12.9 mg/cm2 and As shown in Fig. 8a, the application of different NP compound fer­
31.3 mg/cm2 with agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers, tilizers, as well as pH, Ca2+, HCO-3, SO2- 3-
4 , PO4 , zeta potential and
respectively, and decreased by 65.3 mg/cm2 and 51.4 mg/cm2 with the insoluble substance amount significantly affected calcite fouling
(p < 0.01); pH, Ca2+, HCO-3, PO3- 4 and total hardness showed a

Dra CU DW
a
1
Calcite * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * **
Quartz ** * ** ** * ** * **
Chlorite ** * *
Muscovite * * * * * *
0
Cyanite ** ** * ** ** *

Augelite ** ** ** ** **
Brushite

Hydroxyapatite ** ** * ** ** ** ** ** ** *
-1

Total Zeta Insoluble

pH Ca2+ Mg2+ HCO3- SO42- PO43-
hardness potential substance
b

Fig. 8. Impact path analysis of different NP compound fertilizers on BWDS， ，a is the Pearson correlation of water quality parameters, clogging characteristics,
and fouling components, and b is the structural equation model analysis (SEMA). Numbers near the path arrows indicate standardized path coefficients (β), and the
width of the arrow is proportional to the degree of the path coefficient. Black and red arrows indicate positive and negative relationships, respectively; significance is
indicated with * for p < 0.05 and ** for p < 0.01.

9
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

significant effect (p < 0.01) on quartz; PO3-4 and insoluble substance had on Ca2+, Mg2+, total hardness, zeta potential, and insoluble substance
a significant effect (p < 0.01) on chlorite; Mg2+ and insoluble substance were all greater than 0.84, whereas the path coefficients of the effects on
on muscovite (p < 0.05); pH, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO-3, total hardness and pH, HCO-3, SO2- 3-
4 , and PO4 ranged from 0.45 to 0.79. In addition to
insoluble substance on cyanite (p < 0.01), SO2- 4 and insoluble substance affecting the water quality, the carbonate fouling, silicate fouling and
on augelite fouling (p < 0.01); Ca2+, Mg2+, SO2- 3-
4 , PO4 , total hardness, phosphate fouling content were also affected, with path coefficients of
zeta potential and insoluble substance on hydroxyapatite (p < 0.01). − 0.44 for carbonate fouling, 0.60 for silicate fouling, and 0.54 for
Meanwhile, calcite in carbonate fouling significantly (p < 0.01) affected phosphate fouling, respectively. Dra had influence path coefficients of
Dra, CU and DW. Quartz and muscovite in silicate fouling had significant 0.45, − 0.41 and − 0.85 for carbonate fouling, silicate fouling and
(p < 0.01) effects on Dra, CU and DW. On the other hand, augelite and phosphate fouling, respectively.
hydroxyapatite in phosphate fouling had significant (p < 0.01) effects
on Dra, CU and DW.
Moreover, the structural equation modeling analysis (Fig. 8b)
showed that the application of different NP compound fertilizers firstly
affected brackish water quality, where the path coefficients of the effects

a Insoluble substance Soluble substances b

100 Atomic %
Mg, 2.0 Al, 1.5 Mg, 0.2
Si, 1.1 Ca, 0.3 Al, 1.1
Ca, 1.0
Na, 0.9 P, 1.4 Si, 0.7
80 P, 12.1
C, 7.6 O, 4.5 Na, 0.3
Substance content (%)

N, 2.0

60 77.4
73.0
Ca
Mg
98.8 99.4 98.8 99.4
N, 15.6
Al
40 Si
Na
22.6
C
C, 89.5
20 O, 58.3 N
1.2
1.2 0.6 27.0 0.6
O
P
0
I_MAP A_MAP I_DAP A_DAP UP APP A_MAP A_DAP

A_MAP
c 18000 5400
1200000 5500 16000
Mg1s scan C1s scan A_MAP
A_MAP Ca2p scan
A_MAP
Na1s scan
A_MAP A_MAP C1s
XPS survey Mg1s
1000000 Ca2p
Na1s 4800
5000 16000
15000

800000
4200

Counts/s
Counts/s

Counts/s
Counts/s

4500
Counts/s

14000
600000 14000

3600
4000
400000 12000

13000
3000
200000 c 3500
10000

0 12000 2400
3000
1078 1076 1074 1072 1070 1068 1066 1064 1062 1310 1308 1306 1304 1302 1300 1298 1296 295.2 292.8 290.4 288.0 285.6 283.2 280.8
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 355.2 350.4 345.6 340.8
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
Binding Energy (eV)
Binding Energy (eV) 100000
1400 24000 16000
Si2p scan
A_MAP Al2p scan
A_MAP
N1s scan
A_MAP
O1s scan
O1s
A_MAP P2p scan A_MAP
1400 21600
N1s P2p
Al2p
Si2p 80000
19200
12000

1200 16800
1200
60000
Counts/s

Counts/s
Counts/s
Counts/s
Counts/s

14400
8000
12000
40000
1000
1000 9600

7200 4000
20000

800 4800

2400 0
800
114 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 407.4 405.3 403.2 401.1 399.0 396.9 394.8 542.4 537.6 532.8 528.0 140.6 136.8 133.0 129.2 125.4
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)

A_DAP
d600000
5000 4000
4200
A_DAP Ca2p scan
A_DAP Na1s scan 70000
XPS survey A_DAP Mg1s scan
A_DAP C1s scan
A_DAP
C1s
500000
4100 Mg1s
3800
56000
Ca2p
400000
4000
Counts/s

Na1s
Counts/s

3600
Counts/s

Counts/s

Counts/s

42000
300000 4500
3900

3400
200000 28000
3800

100000 3200
14000
3700

0 4000 3000
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 3600 0
360 355 350 345 1078 1076 1074 1072 1070 1068 1066 1064
1310 1308 1306 1304 1302 1300 1298 296 294 292 290 288 286 284 282 280
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
450 1400
8000
Si2p scan P2p scan
A_DAP 480 Al2p scan
A_DAP
4940
N1s scan O1s scan A_DAP A_DAP
Si2p
A_DAP
P2p
400 4750 N1s 1200
440 7000 O1s

Al2p 4560
400 1000
350
4370
Counts/s

Counts/s
Counts/s

6000
Counts/s

Counts/s

360 800
4180
300
320 3990 5000
600
250 3800
280

3610 4000 400

240
200
3420
200 200
3000
114 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 144 140 136 132 128
84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 410 408 406 404 402 400 398 396 394 544 542 540 538 536 534 532 530 528 526
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)

Fig. 9. Variation of insoluble substances in fertilizers. Fig. 9a shows the content of soluble and insoluble substance of different nitrogen and phosphorus fer­
tilizers. Fig. 9b shows the impurity composition and content of insoluble substance. c and d are XPS spectra of insoluble substance.

10
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

4. Discussion phosphate with Ca2+ and others in the irrigation water to form phos­
phate compounds (Yang et al., 2020), which in turn leads to more
4.1. Effect mechanism of agricultural grade NP compound fertilizers on emitter clogging.
emitter clogging In addition to this, industrial grade MAP and DAP fertilizers are
formulated differently from agricultural grade MAP and DAP fertilizers
This study found that application of A_MAP fertilizer, compared to in that industrial grade fertilizers are usually formulated according to
industrial grade NP compound fertilizers, considerably exacerbated the specific process needs, whereas agricultural grade fertilizers are
emitter clogging when using brackish water, and significantly increased formulated mainly depending on the soil and the nutrients required by
silicate fouling compared to I_MAP fertilizer, as well as increased the crop (Patil et al., 2021). Meanwhile, industrial grade fertilizers
phosphate fouling. We found that A_MAP fertilizer had 2.6% insoluble usually facilitate large-scale chemical reactions and production to create
matter and 97.4% soluble matter (Fig. 9a). The specific impurity productivity and economic benefits, whereas agricultural grade fertil­
composition contained inside the 2.6% insoluble matter was determined izers are mainly used for crop production and yield enhancement (Jbari
by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis (Fig. 9b, c), which et al., 2020).
showed that the impurities contained elements such as Ca, Mg, Al, S, Na,
C, N, O and P, mainly Ca, Mg, Al, Si, C, N, O and P. These water-insoluble 4.2. Effect mechanism of new NP compound fertilizers on emitters
impurities exist in the brackish water mainly in the form of silicates, clogging
phosphates, and oxides of nitrogen and phosphorus, which may be
adsorbed on the fouling surface, displacing and adsorbing out cations The application of UP fertilizer significantly reduced emitter clog­
such as Ca2+ and Mg2+. This fact, coupled with the negative charged in ging. This is mainly due to the fact that UP fertilizer contains 44% P2O5
the surface of the insoluble fouling, allows the electrostatic adsorption of and 17% NH+ 4 -N, and urea phosphate is a chemical adduct between urea
the positively charged ions contained in the brackish water, generating a and phosphoric acid molecules. Each kilogram of UP produces
potential difference and ultimately coagulation in the form of fouling, 6.3 mol H+ when dissolved, which significantly reduces the pH of
which leads to an increase in silicate fouling. Meanwhile, since A_MAP brackish water, promoting the transformation of H+ and CO2- 3 to HCO3,
-

fertilizer contains 49% P2O5 and 11% NH+ 4 -N, and I_MAP fertilizer and reducing the ability of the brackish water to form CaCO3 by the
contains 61% P2O5 and 12% NH+ 4 -N, the pH of the acidic solution can be reaction of Ca2+ and CO2- 3 , thus inhibiting the formation of calcite
maintained in the drip irrigation system. Compared to the industrial fouling. At the same time, UP is able to react with CaCO3, which in turn
grade MAP fertilizers, the agricultural grade MAP fertilizers contain allows reducing the formation of calcium carbonate fouling. This finding
lower levels of P2O5 and NH+ 4 -N. At the same time, A_MAP fertilizers is consistent with Ma et al. (2020) conclusion that UP fertilizers are less
- 2+
ionize NH+ 4 and H2PO4, which together with Ca and Mg2+ produce Ca likely to react with calcium and magnesium ions in water and are often
(H2PO4)2 or Mg (H2PO4)2, forming Ca-P and Mg-P precipitates. On the used as fouling inhibitors. It also increased the amount of chlorite and
one hand, due to the negative charge contained on the surface of Ca-Mg muscovite in silicate fouling and decreased the amount of cyanite. This
fouling, a certain amount of Al3+ is adsorbed and eventually forms a may be due to the fact that the decrease in pH promotes the condensa­
coagulation effect of Ca-Mg fouling and phosphate fouling (Iler, 1975). tion of silicate fouling, thereby increasing chlorite and muscovite
This leads to the formation of a large amount of augelite fouling. At the deposition. Coupled with the fact that the fouling particles in the water
same time, due to the porous medium of phosphate, the augelite fouling source are negatively charged and the addition of fertilizers brings in a
has an extremely strong adsorption function, which leads to the large amount of positive charge, the bilayer is compressed under elec­
adsorption of a large amount of the Ca-P and Mg-P precipitated and the trostatic attraction, which in turn increases the intensity of flocculation
formation of a large amount of Al-P fouling, which in turn increases the and sedimentation of chlorite and muscovite fouling (Liu et al., 2017).
content of augelite. Meanwhile, the adsorption capacity of Ca2+ and Mg2+ with chlorite and
The application of A_DAP fertilizer likewise noticeably exacerbated muscovite fouling was reduced due to the reduction of the pH of
the clogging of the drip irrigation system, mainly by significantly brackish water caused by UP, which reduced the permeability and sur­
increasing the content of augelite compared to I_DAP fertilizer. A_DAP face porosity of chlorite and muscovite fouling (Shafiq et al., 2018), and
fertilizer contained 46% P2O5 and 18% NH+ 4 -N, while I_DAP fertilizer exacerbated their aggregation. At the same time, the adsorption capacity
contained 53% P2O5 and 21% NH+ 4 -N. At the same time, we found that between Ca2+ and Mg2+ and Al3+ was increased, leading to a decrease in
the insoluble matter of A_DAP fertilizer was 27.0% and the soluble the adsorption between Al3+ and chlorite and muscovite fouling, which
matter was 73.0% (Fig. 9a). The specific impurity components contained in turn reduced the content of cyanite fouling.
inside the 26.9% insoluble matter were mainly Al, C, N, O and P (Fig. 9b, APP fertilizer also caused less emitter clogging. The APP fertilizer
c). These insoluble impurities are mainly present in the drip irrigation contains 60% P2O5 and 18% NH+ 4 -N. Under acidic conditions, the pol­
system in the form of phosphates and carbon and nitrogen oxides. On the yphosphate is able to release H+ during the absorption of NH+ 4 -N, and
one hand, since A_DAP fertilizer is weakly alkaline, it may result in the production of H+ promotes the decomposition of the polyphosphate,
exacerbating emitter clogging. On the other hand, A_DAP fertilizer is converting it into H2PO-4 that can be absorbed and utilized by the crop.
2-
able to ionize abundant NH+ 4 and HPO4 , which can easily form CaHPO4 The H2PO-4 reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ to produce water soluble Ca
or MgHPO4 precipitation dirt with Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in brackish (H2PO4)2 or Mg (H2PO4)2, which reduces the chance of Ca2+ reacting
water, increasing therefore emitter clogging. At the same time, brackish with CO2-3 to form CaCO3, which in turn diminishes the amount of calcite
water and A_DAP contain a large amount of Ca2+ and Mg2+, a part of in the drip irrigation system. Moreover, APP fertilizer is a long-chain
which forms carbonate fouling by transforming with HCO-3. A portion of mixture that has the effect of chelating and shielding some specific
Ca2+, Mg2+, and PO3- 4 produced by electrolysis of A_DAP react to form metal cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the solution (Haohan et al.,
phosphates.PO3- 4 and Ca
2+
react in water to form CaHPO4, dicalcium 2019). The shielding effect of APP fertilizer reduces the probability of
phosphate. Dicalcium phosphate then hydrolyzes to CaHPO4 and is Ca2+ and Mg2+, among other cations, to react to form carbonate fouling
rapidly converted to Ca4H(PO4)3, which is further converted to in the emitter. The reduction of carbonate fouling was accompanied by a
Ca5(PO4)3OH (Tung and Skrtic, 2001), which in turn increases the reduction in the content of cyanite in silicate fouling, which on the one
amount of phosphate fouling in the drip irrigation system. This is hand may be from the precipitation and flocculation of solid particles in
consistent with the result that the weak alkalinity of DAP may exacer­ brackish water (Zhou et al., 2018). On the other hand, it may be that
bate emitters clogging (Wang et al., 2020), which may correspond to the numerous cations in APP attracts solid particles such as negatively
A_DAP fertilizer in this study. It is also consistent with a study that shows charged sediments common in brackish water (Zhou et al., 2019), and
that A_DAP fertilizer significantly accelerates the combination of under the polymerization of APP, Ca2+ and Mg2+ occupy the binding

11
Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

sites of Al3+, which promotes the formation of calcium and magnesium environmental impact, UP fertilizer is more suitable for alkaline soil
precipitates, resulting in the change of the crystalline structure and (Cherrat et al., 2020), and APP fertilizer, with good water solubility and
morphology of cyanite fouling (Chew and Mat, 2015), thus reducing the chelating effect, is also more suitable for alkaline soil compared with
amount of cyanite fouling. acidic soil (Wang et al., 2022a). As a kind of highly efficient and envi­
ronmentally friendly composite fertilizer, MAP is widely used in agri­
4.3. NP compound fertilizers selection culture (Pizzeghello et al., 2019). However, DAP fertilizer is prone to the
risk of eutrophication of water bodies, which affects environmental
This study found that the application of UP and APP fertilizers safety (Gonzalez-Cencerrado et al., 2020). Meanwhile, under the con­
significantly mitigated emitter clogging when using brackish water dition of safe operation of drip irrigation system (CU>80%), the service
compared to industrial grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers, whereas the years of drip irrigation belt was calculated for different types of fertil­
application of agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers exacer­ izers (Table 2). The results showed that the agricultural grade fertilizers
bated emitter clogging. However, in practical field applications, the are suitable for drip irrigation of 1 year-cycle crops since the safe
combined effects of cost, soil texture, and environmental factors should operation of the system is about 1.2 years (Table 2, Y≥1 year in agri­
need to be considered in addition to clogging (Goyal and Mansour, 2015; cultural grade fertilizers). The industrial grade and new NP compound
Ma et al., 2020). In terms of price (Table S2), the average price of in­ fertilizers can be applied to perennial crop drip irrigation since the
dustrial grade MAP and DAP fertilizers were 735$/t and 644$/t, average safe operating life of the system is about 1.6–3.4 times that of
respectively, while the average price of agricultural grade MAP and DAP agricultural grade fertilizers. It should be pointed out that, in the system
were 438$/t and 441$/t, respectively. Although the cost of agricultural layout shown in the manuscript (0.3 m between emitters, 1.1 m between
grade MAP fertilizers was reduced by 40.5% as compared to that of laterals), only the cost of drip irrigation belt and fertilizer amount for
industrial grade MAP fertilizers, this led to a significant increase in 1 ha is considered, and, therefore, the costs of filters, fertilizer tanks,
emitter clogging. In terms of soil environment, although some re­ pumps and other installation costs were not included (Table S5). The
searchers have suggested that the application of phosphate fertilizers at price of E1, E2 and E3 drip irrigation belt alone without fertilizer is 5.4
higher concentrations increases the risk of soil metal toxicity (Cheraghi $/year, 5.4 $/year and 2.5 $/year, respectively, under the safe operation
et al., 2013), Salah et al. (2021) concluded that MAP fertilizers have a of the system for one year. Since the cost of dripline and agricultural
positive effect on increasing crop yields and decreasing the levels of grade fertilizer is similar, it is recommended to choose agricultural grade
toxic heavy metals in the soil environment. On the other hand, DAP A_MAP fertilizer under the same conditions. If the drip irrigation belt
fertilizers have the potential to reduce the solubility of heavy metals in must last 2 years, then is better to apply I_DAP, and if the lifespan should
the soil environment (Abou Zied, 2007), which can effectively reduce be extended to 3 years, the best option is to apply I_MAP and APP. Using
the adverse effects of heavy metals on the soil. In addition to effects of UP fertilizer, the safe service life of drip irrigation belt can reach 4 years.
cost, soil texture, and environmental factors, effects on crops such as In this regard, A_MAP fertilizer can be applied to fertigate annual crops
demand, tolerance, toxicity must also be considered. Since the effective using brackish water, while for perennial crops, industrial grade NP
phosphorus content of different NP fertilizers is different, the require­ compound fertilizer and new NP compound fertilizer should be
ment for different crops is also different, in general, the effective content reasonably selected according to the service life of the drip irrigation
of industrial grade NP fertilizers is significantly higher than that of belt.
agricultural grade NP fertilizers (Table S1), making the requirement of
agricultural grade NP fertilizers relatively higher than that of industrial 5. Conclusions
grade NP fertilizers for the same crop. And different seeds or crops
respond significantly differently to fertilizer toxicity, which is deter­ From this study, the following main points were concluded:
mined by crop genetics (Makaza and Khiari, 2023). MAP and DAP fer­
tilizers have lower salt toxicity indices compared to other fertilizers (1) Compared with industrial grade I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers, the
(Dockerill et al., 2019), but high exposure to seeds reduces the rate of application of agricultural grade A_MAP and A_DAP fertilizers
germination and increases seedling mortality(Nedjimi et al., 2020). And aggravated emitter clogging when using brackish water, reducing
salt tolerance varies among crop varieties and its tolerance is related to and the end of system operation the average relative flow by
the ease of potassium uptake by the crop (Hussain et al., 2014) in order 18.5%− 22.8% and 21.4%− 25.6%, respectively. The application
to avoid the accumulation of high sodium content. of UP and APP fertilizer alleviated emitter clogging and increased
Meanwhile, the market price of applying UP and APP fertilizers is the average relative flow by 29.9%− 37.1% and 10.2%− 16.4%,
1351$/t and 1153$/t respectively, which is 62.1%− 67.6% and 61.8%− respectively.
67.4% higher than that of I_MAP and I_DAP fertilizers respectively. In (2) The higher emitter clogging observed with A_MAP and A_DAP
this regard, UP and APP fertilizers, which have slightly higher fertilizer fertilizers were mainly caused by the increase in the content of
prices and obvious anti-clogging effects, can be used for low- augelite in silicates and phosphates, which increased by 13.3%−
concentration fertilization. However, from the point of view of 67.8% and 14.9%− 37.6% in silicates and phosphates,

Table 2
Safe years of operation based on different annual irrigation water (AIW) ranges (CU ≥ 80%).
AIW (m3/ha) Emitter CK (years) A_MAP (years) A_DAP (years) I_MAP (years) I_DAP (years) UP (years) APP (years)

3000-4500 E1 1.1 0.7 0.5 1.4 1.3 2.7 1.6

E2 1.4 0.8 0.7 2.4 2.1 4.0 2.6
E3 2.1 2.1 1.0 2.9 2.4 3.6 3.3
4500-6000 E1 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.9 1.9 1.1
E2 1.0 0.6 0.5 1.6 1.4 2.8 1.8
E3 1.5 1.4 0.7 2.0 1.7 2.6 2.3
6000-7500 E1 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.7 1.4 0.8
E2 0.8 0.4 0.4 1.3 1.1 2.1 1.4
E3 1.1 1.1 0.5 1.6 1.3 2.0 1.8
7500-9000 E1 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.6 1.2 0.7
E2 0.6 0.4 0.3 1.0 0.9 1.7 1.1
E3 1.0 1.0 0.4 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.5

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Y. Wang et al. Agricultural Water Management 291 (2024) 108644

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Declaration of Competing Interest
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate. J. Cryst. Growth 576, 126378.
Liu, C., Cui, B., Zeleke, K., Hu, C., Wu, H., Cui, E., Huang, P., Gao, F., 2021. Risk of
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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence reclaimed Water. Agronomy 11, 2039.
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Acknowledgements Makaza, W., Khiari, L., 2023. Too salty or toxic for use: a tale of starter fertilizers in
agronomic cropping systems. Agronomy 13, 2690.
The study was supported by the Key R&D Plan of Shandong Province Mtaki, K., Kyewalyanga, M., Mtolera, M., 2021. Supplementing wastewater with NPK
fertilizer as a cheap source of nutrients in cultivating live food (Chlorella vulgaris).
(2021CXGC010801), National Natural Science Foundation of China Ann. Microbiol. 71, 1–13.
(52339004 and 52209074), the China Post-doctoral Science Foundation Muhammad, T., Zhou, B., Liu, Z., Chen, X., Li, Y., 2021. Effects of phosphorus-fertigation
(BX2021363 and 2022M713394), the Xinjiang Kashgar River Special on emitter clogging in drip irrigation system with saline water. Agric. Water Manag.
243, 106392.
Research Project (XJKGKY001), and the earmarked fund for CARS-03. Nedjimi, B., Souissi, Z., Guit, B., Daoud, Y., 2020. Differential effects of soluble salts on
We also thank Li Mingfa and Li Xiaogang from the Water Conservancy seed germination of Marrubium vulgare L. J. Appl. Res. Med. Aromat. Plants 17,
and Irrigation Experiment Station of the First Division of the Xinjiang 100250.
Patil, M., Dalal, P., Shreedhar, S., Dave, T., Iyer, K., 2021. Biostabilization techniques and
Production and Construction Corps for their help during the field work. applications in Civil Engineering: State-of-the-Art. Constr. Build. Mater. 309,
125098.
Pei, Y., Li, Y., Liu, Y., Zhou, B., Shi, Z., Jiang, Y., 2013. Eight emitters clogging
Appendix A. Supporting information
characteristics and its suitability under on-site reclaimed water drip irrigation. Irrig.
Sci. 32, 141–157.
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online version at doi:10.1016/[Link].2023.108644. Nardi, S., 2019. Short-term application of polymer-coated mono-ammonium
phosphate in a calcareous soil affects the pools of available phosphorus and the
growth of Hypericum×moserianum (L.). Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 3, 4.
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