Chemistry:

Oxidation and reduction:

Oxidation:
Magnesium burns in the air with a dazzling white flame. A white ash is formed. The reaction is:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s)
The magnesium has gained oxygen . We say it has been oxidized.
A gain of oxygen is called oxidation. The substance has been oxidized.

Reduction:
When hydrogen is passed over heated copper(II) oxide in the apparatus below, the black compound
turns pink.
Copper(II) oxide(s) + Hydrogen(g) —> Cu(s) + H20(l)
So the copper(II) oxide is losing oxygen. It is being reduced.
A loss of oxygen is called reduction. It is being reduced.

Oxidation and Reduction take place together:

1)​ In the reaction between copper(II) oxide and hydrogen, Copper(II) oxide loses oxygen while
hydrogen gains oxygen.

CuO(s) + H2(g) —> Cu(s) + H20(l)

So the copper(II) oxide is reduced and the hydrogen is getting oxidized.

2)​ The reaction between oxygen and calcium. Calcium burns in the air with a red flame to form the
white compound calcium oxide. It is easy to see that calcium has been oxidized. But oxidation
and reduction always take place together which means oxygen has been reduced.

2Ca(s) + O2(g) —> 2CaO(s)

So the copper(II) oxide is reduced and the hydrogen is getting oxidized.

3)​ The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen reacts explosively with oxygen to form
water. Hydrogen is oxidized while oxygen is reduced

2H2(g) + O2(g) —> 2H2O(l)

Oxidation and reduction always take place together. So the reaction is called a
redox reaction.
Redox and Electron transfer:
Another definition for oxidation and reduction:
When magnesium burns in oxygen, magnesium oxide is formed:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s)
The magnesium has clearly been oxidized, Oxidation and reduction always take place together.
Lets see what is happening to the electrons:

During the reaction, each magnesium atom loses 2 electrons and each oxygen atom gains 2
electrons. Thus, we can deduce a new definition for oxidation and reduction.

If a substance loses electrons during a reaction, it has been oxidized.

If it gains electrons, it has been reduced
The reaction is a redox reaction

Writing half-equations to show the electron transfer

You can use a half equation to show the electron transfer in a reaction. One half equation shows
electron loss, and the other shows electron gain.

Step 1) Write down each reactant, with the electrons it gains or loses:
Magnesium: Mg—> (Mg2+) + (2e-)
Oxygen: O + 2e —> O2-

Step 2) Check that each substance is in the correct form(ion, atom or molecule) on each side of the
arrow. If it is not, correct it.
Oxygen is not in its correct form on the left above. It exists as molecules, so you must
Change O to O2. That means you also double the number of electrons and oxide ions:
Oxygen: O2 - 4e- —> 2O^2-

Step 3) The number of electrons must be the same in both equations. If it is not, multiply one, or
both equations by a number, to balance them.
Redox without oxygen:
Our Definition of redox reactions is now much broader: Any reaction in which electron transfer
takes place is a redox reaction. So the reaction does not have to include oxygen.

1)​ The reaction between sodium and chlorine:

The equation is: 2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) —> 2NaCl(s)

The sodium atoms give electrons to the chlorine atoms, forming ions as shown on the right.
So sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced.

So the reaction is a redox reaction. Look at the half equations:

Sodium: 2Na —> (2Na+) + (2e-) (oxidation)
Chlorine: Cl2 + 2e- —> 2Cl- ( Reduction)

2)​ The reaction between chlorine and potassium bromide:

When chlorine gas is bubbled through a colorless solution of potassium bromide, the
solution goes orange due to this reaction: Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) —> 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
The bromine is orange in color and the 2KBr is colorless.

Bromine has been pushed out or displaced from the compound. Chlorine has taken its place.

The half equations for the reaction are:

Chlorine: Cl2 + 2e- —> 2Cl- (Reduction)
Bromide Ion: 2Br- —> Br2 + 2e- (Oxidation)

From half equations to the ionic equation:

Adding the balanced half equations gives the ionic equation for the reaction. An ionic equation
shows the ions that take part in the reaction.

Redox summary:
Oxidation is a gain of oxygen, or a loss of electrons.
Reduction is a loss of oxygen, or a gain of electrons.
Oxidation and reduction always take place together, in a redox reaction.
Redox and oxidation numbers:
What does oxidation number mean?
Oxidation number tells you how many electrons each atom of an element has lost, gained or shared
in forming a compound.

1)​ The rules for oxidation number: The oxidation number of any uncombined element is
zero: The oxidation number of an element is zero because it has neither gained or lost an
electron. The oxidation number simply represents the change in the number of electron or
electrons

2)​ The oxidation number of an uncombined iron is the same as its charge: For example an
uncombined ion such as an Na+ will have an oxidation number of +1. Another example, an
uncombined ion of O2- (Oxide ion) will have an oxidation number of -2.

3)​ The sum of all the oxidation numbers in a molecule is zero: For example in a carbon
dioxide molecule, the sum of oxidation numbers of carbon and the oxygen would be zero. In
the case of a complicated ion such as no3- (nitrate ion), the sum of the oxidation number
would be equal to the charge of the complicated ion, in this case -1.

4)​ Fluorine always has an oxidation number of -1: This statement means that whenever
fluorine undergoes a reaction, it will always end up with an oxidation number of -1.

5)​ Hydrogen always has an oxidation number of +1, except in metal hydrides (in those
cases the oxidation number is -1)

6)​ When oxygen forms a compound it always ends up with an oxidation number of -2:
Some exceptions are when oxygen is in peroxide such as h2o2 (Hydrogen peroxide, in this
case, the oxidation number of oxygen is -1), also when oxygen combines with fluorine it
ends up with a positive oxidation number.

7)​ Chlorine always ends up with an oxidation number of -1 when it is a compound: One
exception is when chlorine forms a compound with fluorine. In that case, chlorine ends with
a positive oxidation number. This is because fluorine is more electronegative than chlorine.

8)​ Group 1 elements always ends up with an oxidation number of +1 when they form
compounds, group 2 always ends up with plus two and group three ends up with plus
3: For example, Na in group 1 becomes Na+ which has an oxidation number of +1, Ca in
group 2 becomes Ca+2 which has an oxidation number of +2, and Al in group 3 becomes a
Al+3, which has an oxidation number of + 3.
Oxidation numbers change during redox reactions:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) —> 2NaCl(s)
0 0 +1-1

Each sodium atom loses an electron during the reaction, to form an Na+ ion. So sodium is oxidized
and its oxidation number rises from 0 to + 1. Each chlorine atom gains an electron to form Cl- ion.
So chlorine is reduced, and its oxidation number falls from 0 to -1.

A rise in oxidation number means oxidation has occurred.

A fall in oxidation number means reduction has occurred.

Using Oxidation numbers to identify redox reactions:

Oxidation and reducing agents:
What are oxidising and reducing agents?
Every redox reaction has an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. The oxidising agent oxidises the
reducing agent and is itself reduced. The reducing agent reduces the oxidising agent, and is itself
oxidised.
A + B —> Products
A is the oxidising agent and is reduced
B is the reducing agent and is oxidised

Oxidising and reducing agents in the lab:

1)​ Potassium manganate(VII): an Oxidising agent

Potassium manganate(VII) (KMnO₄) is a purple compound that contains manganese.

What Makes It Special? Manganese in KMnO₄ has an oxidation number of +VII, but it is
more stable at +II. Because of this, it really wants to reduce its oxidation number to +II, which it
does by taking electrons from other substances. This makes KMnO₄ a powerful oxidizing agent.

What Happens in This Reaction?

In an acidic solution, KMnO₄ is reduced:​

MnO₄⁻ (aq) → Mn²⁺ (aq)

●​ Before the reaction: MnO₄⁻ ions are purple.

●​ After the reaction: Mn²⁺ ions are colorless.

How Is This Useful? If you want to test if a liquid contains a reducing agent, you can add
acidified potassium manganate(VII). If a reducing agent is present, the purple color will fade
because the KMnO₄ gets reduced.

If a reducing agent is present, the strong purple color of potassium manganate(VII) will fade, as
seen in the test-tube on the right
 2)​ Potassium Iodide: A Reducing Agent

When you add potassium iodide (KI) solution to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the presence of
sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), a chemical reaction happens. Here's the reaction:

Reaction: H₂O₂ (aq) + 2KI (aq) + H₂SO₄ (aq) → I₂ (aq) + K₂SO₄ (aq) + 2H₂O (l)

What Happens in This Reaction?

●​ Hydrogen peroxide loses oxygen, so it is reduced (gains electrons).

●​ Potassium iodide acts as a reducing agent, meaning it donates electrons and gets oxidized
into iodine (I₂).

How Can You See This Reaction?

A color change happens:​

2I⁻ (aq) → I₂ (aq)

●​ Before the reaction: I⁻ ions are colorless.

●​ After the reaction: I₂ forms, which is red-brown in color.

Why Is This Useful? Potassium iodide is used to check if an oxidizing agent is present. In
this case, hydrogen peroxide acts as the oxidizing agent.

The test-tube shows the red-brown color you get when potassium iodide is oxidised by an
oxidising agent.​

Reversible reactions:

The blue crystals above are The reaction is easy to reverse. The anhydrous compound can
Hydrated copper (II) sulphate. All you need to do is add water. Be used to test for water. If it
On heating, they turn to a white The anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns blue when the liquid is
Powder. This is anhydrous gets hot and turns into the blue added, the liquid must contain
copper (II) sulphate hydrated compound. Water.
In a reversible reaction, you can change the direction of the reaction by changing the reaction
conditions. We use the symbol ⇌ instead of a single arrow to show the reaction is reversible.
The equation for the above reaction is: CuSO4 x 5H2O(s) ⇌ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
The reaction from left to right is called the forward reaction and the reaction from right to left is
called the reverse reaction.

Reversible reaction and equilibrium:

Dynamic equilibrium means there is no overall change. The amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen and
ammonia remain steady. But dynamic means there is continual change at the particle level:
Ammonia molecules break down while new ones form. The forward and reverse reactions are both
taking place, but at the same rate. The term dynamic equilibrium is usually shortened to
equilibrium.

A reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when:

-​ The forward reaction and reverse reactions take place at the same time
-​ The concentration of reactants and products are no longer changing
Shifting the equilibrium:
Le chatebiers principle:
At equilibrium, if any one of the reaction parameters such as temperature, pressure, concentration
is changed, then the equilibrium shifts in that direction where the change in the reaction parameter
is neutralized.

1)​ Change in temperature:

Effect of increase in temperature: When the temperature of the reaction at equilibrium is
increased, the reaction favors that direction where heat is absorbed, so that the increase in
temperature is neutralized or opposed. This means that an increase in temperature shifts the
equilibrium in the endothermic direction.

Effect of decrease in temperature: When the temperature of the reaction at equilibrium is

decreased, the reaction favours that direction where heat is liberated, so that the decrease in
temperature is neutralized. This means that a decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium
in the exothermic direction.

2)​ Change the pressure: Only works if number of moles on either side is different
Effect of increase in pressure: Shifts the equilibrium in a direction where pressure is
lower, the pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles. Therefore, the increase
in pressure at equilibrium compels the reaction to favour the direction when the number of
moles is less.

Effect of decrease in pressure: Shifts the equilibrium in a direction where pressure is

increased. That is lowering of pressure at equilibrium compels the reaction to favor that
direction where the number of moles is large.

3)​ Change the concentration:

Effect of adding a substance: When any one of the reactant/ product is added to the
reaction mixture at equilibrium, the reaction favours that direction when the added
substance is consumed. In this way, a new equilibrium is established.

Effect of removing a substance: When anyone of the reactant / product is removed to the
reaction mixture, the reaction favours that direction where the removed substance is
produced, and a new equilibrium is established
 4)​ Use a Catalyst
A catalyst speeds up the forward and reverse reactions equally. But a catalyst does shift the
position of the equilibrium.

Shifting the equilibrium summary:

1)​ Change in temperature:

Forward reaction exothermic: Temperature increases → Yield decreases (equilibrium
shifts to the reactants). Temperature decreases → Yield increases (equilibrium shifts to the
products).
Forward reaction endothermic: Temperature increases → Yield increases (equilibrium
shifts to the products). Temperature decreases → Yield decreases (equilibrium shifts to the
reactants).

2)​ Change in pressure: For reactions involving gases

Fewer molecules on the right of the equation: Pressure increases → Yield increases
(equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer gas molecules).
More molecules on the right of the equation: Pressure increases → Yield decreases
(equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer gas molecules, i.e., the reactants).
Equal number of gas molecules on both sides: Changing pressure has no effect on yield,
because the number of molecules is balanced.

3)​ Change in concentration

Adding more reactants: Equilibrium shifts to the right (toward the products), which
increases the yield of products.

Removing products: Equilibrium also shifts to the right (toward the products), which
increases the yield of products.

Adding more products: Equilibrium shifts to the left (toward the reactants), which
decreases the yield of products.

Removing reactants: Equilibrium shifts to the left (toward the reactants), which decreases
the yield of products.
Haber process:
1)​ The nitrogen for the Haber Process is obtained from
air and the hydrogen by reacting Natural Gas
(Methane) with steam, or by cracking hydrocarbons.
The two gases are mixed and scrubbed to remove
impurities.
2)​ The mixture is compressed. More gas is pumped in
until the pressure reaches 200 atmospheres.
3)​ The compressed gas flows into the converter; a
round tank with beds of iron at 450°C where the key
reaction occurs. Iron is the catalyst: N2(g) + 3H2(g)
⇌ 2NH3(g) But less than 30% of the mixture
leaving the container is ammonia.
4)​ The mixture is cooled until the ammonia condenses
to a liquid. The nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled
to the converter for another chance to react. Steps 3
and 4 are continuously repeated.
5)​ The ammonia is run into tanks, and stored as a
liquid under pressure

Improving the yield of ammonia:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
-​ Forward reaction is exothermic and reverse reaction is endothermic
-​ Use high pressure, and remove ammonia, to improve the yield
-​ Use a moderate temperature, and a catalyst, to get a decent rate

The chosen conditions:

●​ The temperature is best at 350°C and 400 atmospheres

●​ At 350°C the reaction is too slow. In the industry, time costs money and customers are
waiting, so 450°C gives a faster rate. High temperature favours the reverse reaction as it is
endothermic: So, a higher yield of reactants will be made. Low temperature favours the
forward reaction as it is exothermic: So, a higher yield of products will be made. However,
at low temperatures the rate of reaction is very slow. So, 450 ºC is a compromise
temperature between having a lower yield of products but being made more quickly

●​ Maintaining a pressure of 400 atmospheres needs powerful pimps, very strong and sturdy
pipes and tanks, and a lot of electricity. Low pressure favours the reverse reaction as there
 are more moles of gaseous reactant: So, a higher yield of reactants will be made. High
pressure favours the forward reaction as there are fewer moles of gaseous product: So, a
higher yield of products will be made. So, 200 atmospheres is a compromise pressure
between a lower yield of products being made safely and economically. The lower the cost,
the higher the profit.

●​ The chosen conditions give a very low yield in the converter. But the Haber Process is
designed to cope with this. The convertor is not a closed system. The gases flow through it
continually, reacting on the catalyst if iron(speeds up the reaction but does not change the
yield.) A catalyst is used as it helps the reaction reach equilibrium quicker. It allows for an
acceptable yield to be achieved at a lower temperature by lowering the activation energy
required. Without it the process would have to be carried out at an even higher temperature,
increasing costs and decreasing yield as the higher temperature decomposes more of the
NH3 molecules. The ammonia is removed and recycled for another chance to react, so the
final yield is almost 100%

Contact process:
The raw materials:
The raw materials are sulphur or sulphur dioxide, plus air and water. Sulphur is mined. Sulphur dioxide
is produced when metal sulphide ores like lead sulfide are roasted in air, to obtain the metal

The Process:
●​ To keep the temperature down to 450ºC in
step 3, heat is removed from the beds of
the catalyst. Pipes of cold water are coiled
around them to carry the heat away.

●​ The sulphur trioxide from step 3 reacts

with water to produce sulphuric acid. But
this is a violent reaction, giving a thick
deadly mist of acid. So for safety, its
carried out in two stages: step 4 and 5

●​ In step 4, the sulphur trioxide is dissolved

in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving a
thich fuming liquid called oleum. In step
5, this is then mixed with water

●​ The unreacted sulphur dioxide from step

3 is recycled- passed over the beds of
catalyst again, for another chance to react
●​ High temperature favours the reverse reaction as it is endothermic. So, a higher yield of
reactants will be made. Low temperature favours the forward reaction as it is exothermic.
So, a higher yield of products will be made. However, at low temperatures the rate of
reaction is very slow. So, 450 ºC is a compromise temperature between having a lower yield
of products but being made more quickly

●​ Low pressure favours the reverse reaction as there are more moles of gaseous reactant. So, a
higher yield of reactants will be made. High pressure favours the forward reaction as there
are fewer moles of gaseous product. So, a higher yield of products will be made. However,
the position of equilibrium lies far to the right. The equilibrium mixture contains about 96%
sulfur trioxide. So, the reaction is carried out at just above atmospheric pressure because:
High pressures can be dangerous and very expensive equipment is needed. A higher
pressure causes the sulfur dioxide to liquify

●​ The catalyst of vanadium(V) oxide. A catalyst of platinized asbestos was used. But it
turned out to be poisonous because it had properties of arsenic. Thus the catalyst
Vanadium(V) oxide was used.