MODULE-2
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Fuel
➢ Any material that can be burned to release thermal energy is called a fuel.
➢ Most familiar fuels consist primarily of hydrogen and carbon. They are called hydrocarbon
fuels and are denoted by the general formula CnHm.
➢ Hydrocarbon fuels exist in all phases, some examples being coal, gasoline, and natural gas.
➢ Commonly used fuels in boilers are
• Coal
• Fuel oil such as gasoline and diesel
• Natural and petroleum gas
• Industrial wastes
• Biomass etc
Coal
➢ The main constituent of coal is carbon.
➢ Coal also contains varying amounts of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, moisture, and ash.
➢ It is difficult to give an exact mass analysis for coal since its composition varies considerably
from one geographical area to the next and even within the same geographical location.
➢ Types of coal
After anthracite graphite is formed
1. Anthracite
2. Sub-anthracite
3. Bituminous
Increasing carbon
4. Sub-bituminous content
5. Lignite
6. Peat
Coal contd…
Anthracite
• 86% fixed carbon (FC) and less volatile matter (VM)
• Difficult to burn
Bituminous
• Largest group of coal
• Contains 46-86% FC and 20-40% VM
• It may be low volatile, medium volatile and high volatile
• Lower the volatility higher the heating value
Lignite
• Lowest grade of coal, Low carbon content (25–35%)
• Contains high moisture 30% and high VM
Peat
• Not regarded as coal as per ASTM (American Society of Testing and Material)
• Contains high moisture up to 90%
Coal Analysis
Proximate Analysis
➢ Indicates behavior of the coal when heated
FC + VM + M + A = 100% by mass
105°C
1 g of coal Loss in = Moisture
sample 1 hr weight content (M)
1 g of coal 950°C
Loss in = Moisture and
in covered
7min weight volatile matter
platinum
(VM+M)
crucible
1 g of coal in 720°C Left
uncovered over = Ash content (A)
platinum Complete material
crucible burning weight
FC = 100% by mass – (VM + M + A )
Some of the fixed carbon may include Sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen
Coal Analysis contd…
➢ Larger the VM in the coal more it will smoke
➢ High Rank Coal
• High heating value
• High FC
• Low VM and M
Coal Analysis contd…
Ultimate Analysis
➢ It gives the chemical element comprising the coal together with ash and moisture content
(Chemical Element) + M + A = 100% by mass
(C + H + O + N + S)+ M + A = 100% by mass
Coal Properties
➢ There are certain properties of the coal which is important from the perspective of the
power plant
• Swelling index
• Grindability
• Weatherability
• Sulphur content
• Ash softening temperature
• Heating value
Coal Properties
Swelling index
• It is indicative of the caking behavior of the coal
• Some types of coal during heating releases the volatile matter and become soft and
pasty to form agglomerates, know as caking coal.
• Coal that does not cake is called free burning of coal.
• Free burning coals have high swelling index
• In fixed bed type of burning the coal must not cake
• When pulverized coal burners are used the swelling property of coal is of less
importance
Grindability
• It is indicative of the ease with which coal can be grind
• It is measured by the grindability index
• It is inversely proportional to the power required to grind the coal to a specified particle
size for burning
• Grindability index of standard coal is defined as 100
Coal Properties contd…
Weatherability
• It is a measure of how well the coal can be stored or stockpiled for long period of time
without crumbling into pieces
• Modern power plant stockpile 60-90 days of coal near the power plant in a shape of
trapezoidal pile
• Excessive weathering or crumbling of coal due to climatic conditions can results in the
generation of small particles that can be blown or wash away by the wind or rain,
respectively
Sulphur Content
• Sulphur is combustible and some heat can be generated by its oxidation into SO2
• SO2 is a major source of atmospheric pollution, its emission is regulated by certain
norms
• The cost of SO2 removal from the flue gas also plays an important factor while
selecting coal
Coal Properties contd…
Ash Softening Temperature
• It is the temperature at which ash softens and become plastic
• Below melting point of ash
• If the furnace temperature is higher than the AST, then the ash would come out from
the furnace bottom as molten slag
• It may cause trouble in combustion for the stoker furnace
Heating Value
➢ It is the amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely in a steady-flow
process and the products are returned to the state of the reactants
Coal Properties contd…
Heating Value
➢ It is the amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely in a steady-flow
process and the products are returned to the state of the reactants
➢ The heating value of a fuel is equal to the absolute value of the enthalpy of combustion of
the fuel
➢ The heating value depends on the phase of the
H2O in the products
➢ When the H2O in the products is in the liquid
form, then it is called higher heating value
(HHV) and when the H2O in the products is in
the vapor form then it is called the lower
heating value (LHV)
Liquid Fuel
➢ Liquid fuels are excellent source of energy, they are easy to store, handle and burn
➢ Liquid fuels are mixture of numerous hydrocarbons and prepared through crude oil
distillation
➢ Example of liquid hydrocarbon fuel oils are gasoline, diesel, kerosene, aviation fuel and
other fuel oil
➢ Gasoline is most volatile whereas diesel, kerosene and other fuel oil are less volatile
➢ Despite being mixtures of many different hydrocarbons, liquid hydrocarbon fuels are
usually considered to be a single hydrocarbon for convenience. For example, gasoline is
treated as octane, C8H18, and the diesel fuel as dodecane, C12H26.
➢ Methanol CH3OH, and ethanol C2H5OH is also a liquid hydrocarbon fuel and is used in
some gasoline as blends to reduce gasoline consumption and to reduce air pollution
➢ Ethanol is obtained from corn, grains, and organic waste, whereas, Methonal is produced
mostly from natural gas, but it can also be obtained from coal and biomass.
Natural and Petroleum Gas
➢ Natural gas is the cleanest of all fossil fuels
➢ It burns without producing ash and mixes well with air to undergo complete combustion
producing very little smoke
➢ It has high hydrogen content and produces significant amount of water vapor during
combustion
➢ Natural gas is composed mainly of methane, but it also contains small amounts of ethane,
propane, hydrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfate, and water vapor
➢ On vehicles, it is stored either in the gas phase at pressures of 150 to 250 atm as CNG
(compressed natural gas), or in the liquid phase at -162°C as LNG (liquefied natural gas).
➢ Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a byproduct of natural gas processing or the crude oil
refining.
➢ LPG consists mainly of propane, however, it also contains varying amounts of butane,
propylene, and butylenes.
➢ Alternative fuels such as natural gas, alcohols (ethanol and methanol), liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), and hydrogen are friendlier to the environment
➢ The energy contents of alternative fuels per unit volume are lower than that of gasoline or
diesel fuel
Biomass
➢ Biomass is organic matter produced by plants both in land and water. It is an alternate fuel
➢ It consists of
• Land crops - o Sugarcane crops
o Herbaceous crops, noon woody plants, e.g., rice husk, maize waste etc
o Forest crops, e.g., eucalyptus, sycamore, various kind of woods
• Aquatic crops – Grown in fresh and brackish water
o Sea weeds
o Marine algae etc
• Animal manure – It is indirect land crops
o Methane and ethylene can be produced while retaining fertilizer value
of manure
Synthetic Fuels
➢ These are the gaseous and liquid fuels produced from the coal
➢ Also known as Synfuels
➢ Can be used in power plants, industrial, domestic and transport applications
• Town Gas o When coal is heated in the absence of air, the volatile matter comes off
(without undergoing combustion, since there's no oxygen), releasing a
useful gas for lighting as well as leaving a residue known as coke.
o This coke is generally used (once created) to fuel the furnaces that burn
the coal.
• Producer Gas and Water Gas
2C + (O2 + 3.76N2) → 2CO + 3.76N2
Coke bed Air less than Producer gas
stoichiometric quantity
When the bed temperature become high
C + H2O → CO + H2
Coke bed Steam Water gas
o Alternate flow of air and steam is continued thus producing producer gas and water gas
alternately till all the coke is consumed
Synthetic Fuels contd…
Producer gas • Synthesis gas
+ • Low heating value gas
Water gas
LHV ~ 5.5 MJ/m3
Pipeline gas • High heating value gas
• Substitute to natural gas
Reacts in presence of Ni catalyst
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
Product of Water @ 1100°C and 6.8bar
Pipeline gas
Gas reaction
HHV ~ 38 MJ/m3
Synthetic Fuels contd…
Coal liquefaction
➢ Liquid hydrocarbons such as petroleum has hydrogen to carbon atom ratio of 1.75:1 where
as for coal the ratio is 0.8:1
➢ Coal liquefaction requires addition of hydrogen to coal in order to form liquid hydrocarbons
Liquefaction Processes
Hydrogenation Slurry of coal and catalyst reacts with hydrogen at high
pressure and moderate temperature to form liquid
hydrocarbons
Catalytic conversion H and C atom in the synthesis gas reacts in the presence of
catalyst to form liquid hydrocarbons
Hydropyrolysis Coal is heated beyond 450°C as a result fraction of coal
volatize is larger than volatile matter. Hydrogen is added in the
pulverized coal and it is quickly heated to very high reaction
temperature (flash pyrolysis). Up to 50% coal can be liquefied
Industrial Wastes and Byproducts
➢ Receiving great attention as boiler fuel
➢ Serves dual benefits, reduce the oil consumption and helps in disposal of waste
• Refinery Gas o This is non-condensable gas obtained during distillation of crude
oil or treatment of oil products (e.g. cracking) in refineries
o High heating values and often mixed with low heating value gas by
products
• Coke-oven Gas o It is formed by heating coal to 1100 °C without access of air.
o Coke oven gas are separated from volatile matter by cooling and
extraction
o Heating value ~ 14.2 - 21.3 MJ/m3
o Composition:
H2 + CH4 + CO + C2H4 C6H6 + NH3 + H2S etc
51% 34% 10% 5% Small amount
Industrial Wastes and Byproducts contd…
• Regenerator o Produced in refinery during catalytic-cracking process
Gas o 10% CO and high inert gas
• Blast furnace o Produced in blast furnace during reduction of iron oxide to iron
Gas o 30% CO and high dust loading
o Requires prior cleaning otherwise it will cause clogging of the
burner and fouling of the heat transfer surfaces
• Liquid waste o Waste oil, oil-water emulsion, polymers, resins, phenols etc
• Solid waste o Wood waste from saw mills, paper industry, furniture and plywood
industries
o Sugarcane waste also called baggase
o Garbage from cities are also used as boiler fuel in incinerator
o Tyres (HHV of 32 MJ/m3) are also used to complement the main
fuel, however, in some power plant in USA it is also used as sole
fuel for boiler
Ignition Temperature
➢ The minimum ignition temperatures of various substances in atmospheric air are
approximately
260°C for gasoline,
400°C for carbon,
580°C for hydrogen,
610°C for carbon monoxide,
630°C for methane.
Combustion
➢ A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is
released is called combustion
Dry Air
O2 21% O2, CO2, He,
78% N2, Ne, H2 etc
1% Ar,
Combustion
with pure O2 Welding, rocket propulsion etc
➢ In the analysis of combustion processes, the argon in the air is treated as nitrogen, and
the gases that exist in trace amounts are disregarded.
Dry Air
Dry Air
21% O2
21% O2, CO2, He,
79% N2
78% N2, Ne, H2 etc
1% Ar, Neglected
• Behaves as an inert gas and does
not react with other element
1 mole O2 + 3.76 mole N2 = 4.76 mole Air • May form a very small amount of
nitric oxides
Combustion contd…
➢ The presence of nitrogen greatly affects the outcome of a combustion process since
nitrogen usually enters a combustion chamber in large quantities at low temperatures and
exits at considerably higher temperatures, absorbing a large proportion of the chemical
energy released during combustion.
➢ Air that enters a combustion chamber normally contains some water vapor as moisture and the
H2O that forms during combustion can also be treated as an inert gas, like nitrogen
➢ At very high temperatures, (e.g. in IC engines), a N2, O2 and H2O dissociates leading to
the formation of forming hazardous gases such as nitric oxide (NOX).
Combustion contd…
Complete Combustion
C CO2
H H2O
S (if any) CO2
Complete combustion of methane in air
Air
Incomplete Combustion
Product of Unburned fuel or components such as
combustion C, CO, H2, or OH
Reason for incomplete Insufficient oxygen, Over presence of oxygen, poor
combustion: mixing, dissociation etc
Combustion contd…
➢ The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called the
stoichiometric or theoretical air or chemically correct amount of air or 100 percent
theoretical air
➢ The amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount is called excess air.
50 percent excess air ≡ 150 percent theoretical air
200 percent excess air ≡ 300 percent theoretical air
0 percent excess air ≡ 100 percent theoretical air
stoichiometric air
Combustion of methane with 50% excess air
➢ Amounts of air less than the stoichiometric amount are called deficiency of air and are often
expressed as percent deficiency of air
10 percent deficiency in air ≡ 90 percent theoretical air
Problem
One kmol of octane (C8H18) is burned with air that contains 20 kmol of O2, as shown in Fig. Assuming the
products contain only CO2, H2O, O2, and N2, determine the mole number of each gas in the products and the
air–fuel ratio for this combustion process.
Enthalpy or Heat of Formation
• The enthalpy of formation ℎ𝑓0 is the energy released (or absorbed), when 1 mol of a chemical
compound is formed from its constituent atoms or elements at 25°C and 1 atm pressure.
• Enthalpy of formation is a property characterizing the chemical structure of the substance.
• It can be viewed as the enthalpy of a substance at a specified state due to its chemical
composition
Formation of CO2 during a steady-flow
combustion process at 25°C and 1 atm.
C + O2 CO2
25°C & 1 atm 25°C & 1 atm
0
ℎ𝑓,𝐶𝑂 2
= −393520 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ≈ −8943.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (l) H2 (g) + O2 (g) H2O (g)
25°C & 1 atm 25°C & 1 atm 25°C & 1 atm 25°C & 1 atm
0 0
ℎ𝑓,𝐻 2𝑂(𝑙)
= −15875.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑓,𝐻 2𝑂(𝑔)
= −13430.8 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Enthalpy or Heat of Formation contd…
Standard Reference State
➢ In thermodynamics we are interested in the changes in the energy of a system during a
process, and not the energy values at the particular states.
➢ When a process involves no changes in chemical composition, the reference state chosen
has no effect on the results and, we can choose any state as the reference state and assign a
value of zero to the internal energy or enthalpy of a substance at that state.
➢ When the process involves chemical reactions, however, the composition of the system at the
end of a process is no longer the same as that at the beginning of the process. In this case it
becomes necessary to have a common reference state for all substances.
o A common reference state for all substances is taken as 25°C and 1 atm, which is known
as the standard reference state indicated by a superscript (°) (such as h° and u°).
Enthalpy or Heat of Reaction
➢ Enthalpy of reaction hR, is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of the
products at a specified state (standard reference state) and the enthalpy of the reactants
at the same state for a complete reaction
➢ For combustion processes, the enthalpy of reaction is usually referred to as the enthalpy
of combustion hC,
nAA + nBB nCC + nDD
ℎ𝑅 = ℎ𝐶 = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
ℎ𝑅 = ℎ𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶 ℎ𝑓,𝐶 + 𝑛𝐷 ℎ𝑓,𝐷 − (𝑛𝐴 ℎ𝑓,𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 ℎ𝑓,𝐵 )
➢ The values of heats of formation of CO2, CO and O2 as –394, –110 and 0 kJ/mole
respectively, heat of combustion can be determined as
at 25ºC and 1 atms. pressure
Problem
Determine the enthalpy of combustion of liquid octane (C8H18) at 25°C and 1 atm, using enthalpy-
of-formation data from given table. Assume the water in the products is in the liquid form.
Orsat Analyzer (Flue Gas Analysis)
➢ Various method for flue gas analysis are: Orsat analyzer, Haldane apparatus, IR analyzer,
gas chromatograph. Among those Orsat analyzer is the simplest one and frequently used.
➢ It is used to measure the volume or mole fraction of CO2, CO and O2 in the dry flue gas
1. KOH solution CO2
2. Pyrogallol solution O2
3. CuCl2 mixture CO
Orsat Analyzer contd…
[Link]
Initial image when flue gas is After absorption of CO2
inducted into the apparatus from the flue gas
before absorption
Orsat Analyzer contd…
➢ Any water vapor in the flue gas will condensed into water since the gas sample is collected
over water
➢ Any amount of SO2, if present, will react with water in the container
➢ The flue gas analysis thus measured is on dry basis:
CO2 + O2 + CO + N2 = 100% by volume
Molecular weight
𝑀𝑑𝑓𝑔 = 44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
of dry flue gas
𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐶𝑂, 𝑂2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2 are the volume or mole fraction in dry flue gas (dfg)
44𝐶𝑂2
% 𝐶𝑂2 by mass = × 100
44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
32𝑂2
% 𝑂2 by mass = × 100
44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
28𝑁2
% 𝑁2 by mass = × 100
44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
28𝐶𝑂
% 𝐶𝑂by mass = × 100
44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
Orsat Analyzer contd…
Mass of C 12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂)
=
per kg of dfg 44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
Mass of dfg per kg 44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
=
of C burnt 12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂)
Let Cab is the mass fraction of carbon C in the fuel which has been oxidized into CO2 or CO,
Them mass fraction of the unburnt carbon in the fuel would be C-Cab
Mass of dfg per kg 𝐶𝑎𝑏 (44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2 )
=
of fuel 12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂)
Mass of N2 in dfg 𝐶𝑎𝑏 (44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2 ) 28𝑁2
= ×
per kg of fuel 12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂) 44𝐶𝑂2 + 28𝐶𝑂 + 32𝑂2 + 28𝑁2
𝐶𝑎𝑏 × 28𝑁2
=
12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂)
Mass fraction of carbon burned
Mass of air supplied 𝐶𝑎𝑏 × 28𝑁2 1
𝑊𝐴 = × 𝑊𝐴 × 12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂) × 0.768
per kg of fuel 12(𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂) 0.768 𝐶𝑎𝑏 =
28𝑁2
Dew Point Temperature (dpt)
➢ It is the saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapor
➢ The thermal energy of the flue gases are utilized in the economizer and the air preheater,
consequently, the flue gasses are cooled.
➢ If the temperature of the flue gas falls below the dew point temperature, water vapor will
condense and droplets. Water droplets react with SO2 or SO3 to form acid which can corrode
the metal surface.
𝐻2 𝑂
=
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑁2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑇𝑑𝑝𝑡 = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡@𝑝𝐻2𝑂
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
➢ The temperature of a combustion chamber becomes maximum when combustion is
complete and no heat is lost to the surroundings, this maximum temperature is called
adiabatic flame temperature or adiabatic combustion temperature
𝑄 = 0
➢ In combustion chamber, the highest temperature to which a
material can be exposed is limited by metallurgical
considerations. It is an important consideration in the design
of combustion chambers, gas turbines, and nozzles.
➢ The maximum temperature in a combustion chamber can
be controlled by adjusting the amount of excess air, which
serves as a coolant
➢ Its value depends on (1) the state of the reactants, (2) the degree of completion of the
reaction, and (3) the amount of air used.
➢ The adiabatic flame temperature attains its maximum value when complete combustion
occurs with the theoretical amount of air
Problem
The coal supplied to a boiler furnace has the following composition: carbon 85.5, hydrogen 5,
oxygen 5.5 and incombustibles 4. During a test it was found that the ashes discharged from the
furnace contained 0.015 kg of unburnt carbon per kg of coal supplied to the furnace. The
analysis of the dry flue gas showed CO2 14.5%, CO1.3% by volume. Calculate (a) the mass of
air supplied (b) the complete volumetric composition of the flue gas, (c) the mass of the water
vapor formed per kg of coal and (d) dew point temperature of the flue gas
Stoichiometric Air Calculation from Ultimate Analysis
Complete combustion of methane with stoichiometric air
Air 𝑊𝑡ℎ,𝑎𝑖𝑟
Combustion of methane with 50% excess air
Excess Air 𝑊𝐴,𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑊𝐴,𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑡ℎ,𝑎𝑖𝑟
% 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 100
𝑊𝑡ℎ,𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐴/𝐹𝐴 − 𝐴/𝐹𝑆
% 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 100
𝐴/𝐹𝑆
Stoichiometric Air Calculation from Ultimate Analysis
Ultimate analysis of a fuel is given as
(C + H + O + N + S)+ M + A = 100% by mass Oxygen required for complete
combustion of 1kg of fuel
C + O2 CO2
𝑊𝑂2 = 2.67𝐶 + 8𝐻 + 𝑆 − 𝑂
12 kg 32 kg 44 kg
1 kg 2.67 kg 3.67 kg
Theoretical or stoichiometric air required
C kg 2.67C kg 3.67C kg for complete combustion of 1kg of fuel
𝑊𝑂2 𝑂
H2 + 0.5 O2 H2O 𝑊𝑡ℎ,𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 11.5 𝐶 + 34.5 𝐻 − + 4.3 𝑆
0.232 8
2 kg 16 kg 18 kg
C, H, O, S are the mass fraction of carbon,
H kg 8H kg 9H kg
hydrogen, oxygen and Sulphur in the fuel
estimated using ultimate analysis
S + O2 SO2
𝑂
32 kg 32 kg 64 kg 𝐻𝐻𝑉 = 33.83 𝐶 + 144.45 𝐻 − + 9.38 𝑆
8
S kg S kg 2S kg Dulong and Petit formulae
Problem
A fuel gas consists of 85% methane and 15 % ethane by volume. What should be the CO2 meter
reading if the above fuel is burnt with 10% excess air?
Problem
A bituminous coal has the following composition: carbon 71.6, hydrogen 4.8, oxygen 4.3,
nitrogen 1.3, sulphur 3.4, moisture 3.5 and ash 9.1. Calculate for complete combustion per kg of
coal (a) theoretical air per kg of coal supplied (b) actual weight of air required with 60% excess
air (c) actual volume of air at 1.013 bar and 25 °C, and (d) HHV of coal. Write the complete
combustion equation and estimate the LHV of the coal and the dew point temperature.
Problem
A fuel-rich mixture of kerosene and oxygen at a mixture ratio of 2.5 is burnt in a combustion
chamber. If the molecular formula for kerosene is given by C12H24, determine:
(a) Temperature of the combustion products
(b) Molecular mass of combustion products.
The boiling temperature of water is 100ºC and the latent heat of vaporization is 40 kJ/mole at
100ºC.
Kerosene CO2 CO H2O (l) H2O (g)
∆𝐻𝑓0 (kJ/mole) -159 -390 -112 -286 -
Cp (J/moleK) - 63 37 90 58