What do Waste-to-Energy Projects do?

Waste-to-energy projects use non-recyclable dry waste to generate electricity and ease the Solid
Waste Management (SWM) burden.
Solid waste in India is 55-60% biodegradable organic waste, which can be converted into
organic compost or biogas; 25-30% non-biodegradable dry waste; and around 15% silt, stones,
and drain waste.
Of the non-biodegradable dry waste, only 2-3% – including hard plastics, metals, and e-waste –
is recyclable.
The remainder consists of low-grade plastic, rags, and cloth that can’t be recycled.
This fraction of the non-recyclable dry waste is the most challenging portion of the present SWM
system; the presence of these materials also reduces the efficiency of recycling other dry and wet
waste.
Waste-to-energy plants use this portion to generate power. The waste is combusted to generate
heat, which is converted into electricity.

What is Waste-to-Energy Technologies?

Biological Treatment Technologies (BTT):
BTT are designed and engineered for natural biological processes working with the organic rich
fraction of Municipal Solid waste. These treatments are divided into two different processes: The
aerobic process or composting (in the presence of oxygen) and the anaerobic process (in the
absence of oxygen).
Thermal Treatment Technologies:
The thermal treatment of hazardous waste involves pyrolysis, gasification, and incineration
techniques, depending upon the nature of the waste and the end-product application.
Pyrolysis is the heating of an organic material, such as biomass, in the absence of oxygen.
Biomass pyrolysis is usually conducted at or above 500 °C, providing enough heat to deconstruct
the strong biopolymers.
Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil-based carbonaceous materials at high
temperatures (>700°C), without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam
into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.
Incineration is a rapid oxidation process, which is used to convert VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds) and other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants to carbon dioxide and water.
Torrefaction converts biomass in the absence of oxygen at a temperature of 200–300°C to
produce torrefied materials, bio-oils, biochar, etc.
Key challenges faced by waste-to-energy projects
Low calorific value: Solid wastes in India have low calorific value mainly due to improper
[Link] value refers to the amount of heat energy released during the complete
combustion of a unit mass of [Link] calorific value of coal is around 8,000 kcal/kg. However,
the calorific value of mixed waste in India is around 1,500 kcal/kg and is not feasible for power
generation. Mixed wastes consist of biodegradable waste that has high moisture content and
hence cannot be used for power generation.
High costs of energy production: The cost of producing power from waste is about ₹7-8/unit,
whereas the cost at which the electricity boards of the States buy power from coal, hydroelectric,
and solar power plants is around ₹3-4/unit.
Other issues: Other key challenges faced by waste-to-energy plants in India include high
expectations, improper assessment and characterisation studies, and neglect of on-ground
realities while establishing such plants.

Biomass Gasification Process:

Gasification is very complex thermo-chemical process, in which the biomass undergoes drying
pyrolysis, oxydation/compustion in a reactor in presence of a gasifying agent such as oxygen, air
or steam etc. Gasifiction, in fact, ia not an isolated phenomenon in a thermo-chemicl conversion
of biomass, because it is accompanied by pyrolysis and combustion. in practice these reactions
occur in a packed bed a controlled environment called a reactor. Fresh biomass is dried and
subsequently heated to an elevated temperature to undergo pyrolysis in a reactor, where air is
supplied in limited quantity
Pyrolysis:

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass occurring in the absence of oxygen. It is the
fundamental chemical reaction that is the precursor of both the combustion and gasification
processes and occurs naturally in the first two seconds. The products of biomass pyrolysis
include biochar, bio-oil and gases including methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide. Depending on the thermal environment and the final temperature, pyrolysis will yield
mainly biochar at low temperatures, less than 450oC, when the heating rate is quite slow, and
mainly gases at high temperatures, greater than 800 oC, with rapid heating rates. At an
intermediate temperature and under relatively high heating rates, the main product is bio-oil.
Pyrolysis can be performed at relatively small scale and at remote locations which enhance
energy density of the biomass resource and reduce transport and handling costs. Heat transfer is
a critical area in pyrolysis as the pyrolysis process is endothermic and sufficient heat transfer
surface has to be provided to meet process heat needs. Pyrolysis offers a flexible and attractive
way of converting solid biomass into an easily stored and transported liquid, which can be
successfully used for the production of heat, power and chemicals.

Biomass Pyrolysis Process

Feedstock for Pyrolysis
A wide range of biomass feedstocks can be used in pyrolysis processes. The pyrolysis process is
very dependent on the moisture content of the feedstock, which should be around 10%. At higher
moisture contents, high levels of water are produced and at lower levels there is a risk that the
process only produces dust instead of oil. High-moisture waste streams, such as sludge and meat
processing wastes, require drying before subjecting to pyrolysis.
The efficiency and nature of the pyrolysis process is dependent on the particle size of feedstocks.
Most of the pyrolysis technologies can only process small particles to a maximum of 2 mm
keeping in view the need for rapid heat transfer through the particle. The demand for small
particle size means that the feedstock has to be size-reduced before being used for pyrolysis.

Types of Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis processes can be categorized as slow pyrolysis or fast pyrolysis. Fast pyrolysis is
currently the most widely used pyrolysis system. Slow pyrolysis takes several hours to complete
and results in biochar as the main product. On the other hand, fast pyrolysis yields 60% bio-oil
and takes seconds for complete pyrolysis. In addition, it gives 20% biochar and 20% syngas.
Fast pyrolysis processes include open-core fixed bed pyrolysis, ablative fast pyrolysis, cyclonic
fast pyrolysis, and rotating core fast pyrolysis systems. The essential features of a fast pyrolysis
process are:
Very high heating and heat transfer rates, which require a finely ground feed.
Carefully controlled reaction temperature of around 500 oC in the vapour phase
Residence time of pyrolysis vapours in the reactor less than 1 sec
Quenching (rapid cooling) of the pyrolysis vapours to give the bio-oil product.
Fast Pyrolysis:
Term fast pyrolysis refers to the gradual rapid heating of biomass for a temperature range of
800–1300 °C. Rate of heating ranges between 10–200°C for a short life span between 1-10 sec.
Fast Pyrolysis is done for liquid products as it yields more liquid. The product distribution range
is 60–75% biofuel liquid products, 15–20% solid biochars, and 10–20% noncondensable gaseous
products.
Reactors For Fast Pyrolysis:
Different reactors are used on the basis of desired products, conditions, and biomass. Some of the
most popular reactors for fast Pyrolysis are:
Entrained flow reactor,
Wire mesh reactor,
Vacuum furnace reactor,
Vortex reactor,
Rotating reactor,
Circulating fluidized bed reactor, etc.
Slow Pyrolysis
It is a conventional type of pyrolysis. It involves a long residing time and a slow heating rate. In
slow pyrolysis, biomass is pyrolyzed for about 400–500 °C temperature, with a heating rate of
0.1–1 °C/s. The approximate time for slow pyrolysis ranges between 5-30 mins.
Slow pyrolysis leads to the production of solid carbonaceous char. Liquid and gaseous products
are formed but in low quantities.
Reactors For Slow Pyrolysis
Terms and conditions are applied depending on the various factors in order to use suitable
reactors. Some widely known reactors for slow pyrolysis are:
Screw/auger,
Drum,
Rotary kilns,
Heinz retort,
Tubular reactor
Fixed bed reactor
Difference Between Fast and Slow Pyrolysis

Qualities Fast pyrolysis Slow pyrolysis

Long upto few

Residence time Short upto few seconds to a minute
minutes to hours

Heating rate High Low

Decomposition rate Rapid decomposition Slow decomposition

Particle size Small particles Relative big particles

Temperature Higher Lower

Product Liquid Solid

Typical reactors Rotary kiln, fluidized Fixed bed reactors

The Charcoal Making Process

 Charcoal is made in many different ways depending on the type of reactor employed.
 However, the basic steps by which wood is transformed to charcoal are the same.
 Three distinct phases can be distinguished: drying, pyrolysis, and cooling.
 In practice, and particularly when the charcoal is made in large kilns, there is often a
considerable overlap between these.
 Thus, pyrolysis may be well advanced in one area of the kilns before drying is complete
in another.
The Drying Phase
Before wood can be carbonized,the water is containes must be driven off. This happens in
two distinct stages:
 The first is when the water in the proes of the wood, sometimes called the free water,
is expelled. while this is happening, the temperature of the charge of wood remains at
about 110oC. The wetter the wood, the longer the process takes and the greater is the
amount of energy consumed during it
 When all the water in the pores has been driven off, the temperature rises. When it
reaches about 150oC, water which is more tightly bound or absorbed into the cellular
 structure of the wood (bond water) begins to be released. this continues as the
temperature rises to around 200oC.
 When the charcoal is made in a kiln, the water is released to the air in the form of
water vapour. this is the principal constituent of the white smoke characteristic of the
early stage of carbonization.

The Pyrolysis Phase

 With the continued application of heat, the temperature of the wood rises further.
 Around 280oC, the pyrolysis reaction begins to occur. The breakdown of biomass results
in the evolution of a complex series of chemical substance referred to as the pyrolysis
products
 Because most of these are driven off in the form of gas or vapour, they are often
described as the voltiles.
 Thepresence of the volatiles causes the colour of the smoke comming from a charcol kiln
to darken thus indicating that pyrolysis is under way.
 It also gives rise to the characteristics heavy smell of wood-tar normally associated with
charcol making