JEREMIAH NYAGA TECHNICAL TRAINING piped water in the farm, buying fencing materials,

INSTITUTE fertilizers etc.

CROP PRODUCTION 1 Mostly farmers obtain capital or loans. Source of these
loans include Commercial bank or AFC which is a
Agriculture means cultivation of the land for the purpose of government credit agent.
producing crops and management of livestock. Security is required for one to get a loan and mast farmers
-It also involves the storage, processing and marketing of don’t have security hence the level of investment in their
agricultural products. farms is low.
- There are some disciplines that are directly or indirectly 4. Psyccological and sociological factors: poor
allied (related) to agriculture. Attitude towards Agriculture as an occupation has seen
many people migrate in urban areas in search of white color
- Entomology (insects pests) jobs leaving behind the old and the less educated to attend
- Pathology (diseases) to the land.
- Agriculture engineering 5. Poor tools – In most rural areas the farmers still
- Agriculture economics use the traditional hand tools e.g. fork, pangas etc which
- Soil science etc are rather inefficient consequently critical operation such as
ROLES OF AGRICULTURE seedbed operation and planting are often completed late
a) Provision of food – A well fed nation is a and the quality of the same is poor. This leads to low
healthy one. Agriculture therefore provides virtually all the yields and poor income to the farmer.
food required to feed the population except in prolonged 6. Pest and disease: The tropical climate in Cental
drought. Africa encourages a wide range of pests and disease.
b) Provision of employment. Agriculture provides - The pests and diseases multiply much more
employment directly e.g. workers in ranches, coffee, tea, rapidly here than in the cooler temperature countries hence
sisal estates, and on small farms. farming is a constant battle between the farmer and the pest
In Kenya Agriculture and Agriculture related sectors and diseases.
employ large number of people e.g. food processing 7. Fluctuations of commodity prices: Due to the
industries e.g. Kenya canners, textile manufacturing change in supply and demand prices of most Agricultural
industries, mean canning, grains, milk et.c. products keep on changing from time to time with the
We also have field extension workers, scientist, unsettling effects on farming.
Transporters, traders e.t.c. 8. Aridity: - Large trucks of land receive very little
c) Foreign exchange earning. The greatest rainfall per annum and are therefore either marginal for
percentage of exports from East Africa consists of economical farming or are semi-deserts.
Agricultural commodities. The foreign exchange earning is 9. Land tenure: This is the state of ownership of
important for the purchasing of other goods e.g. machines land and conditions governing that [Link] land
like tractors, fertilizers, oil from foreign countries. tenure problem facing East Africa is that most of the land is
d) Revenue generation for the countryAgriculture owned either by a community or by a clan and therefore an
earns the government much of its revenue from taxes individual has no real incentive to look after such land.
imposed on the sale and exports of Agricultural products. 10. Poor storage: - This is a common problem
- This revenue can be used by the government to amongst small scale farmers. Much spoilage is experienced
provide such services as medical services, schools, roads via pest damage which results to considerable waste.
etc. for the public SOLUTION TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE
e) Provide raw materials for industries Most 1. Adoption of irrigated agriculture: Rather than
Agriculture products needs some processing before they are depending on rain this will help overcome the problem of
eventually utilized e.g. cotton, sisal coffee, tea hides etc aridity hence boast agriculture even in marginal areas.
2. Diseases and pest control measures: If pests
PROBLEMS FACING AGRICULTURE and diseases are keenly controlled the yields lost through
1. Poor crop animal husbandry – Due to law level attack by pest and diseases can be recovered and overall
of education the conservative farmers do not practice the output increased.
recommended husbandly practices. They thus plant late, 3. Implementation of new technology: Moving
fail to control pests, plant poor seeds and as a result yields from the old ways of farming practices to modern
obtained are very low compared to the yield obtained in technology can highly boast the yields e.g. green house
developed countries. farming.
2. Poor marketing facilities- Some times the 4. Crop rotation: This is an important crop
transport system is inefficient or unavailable thereby husbandry practice since it can minimize build up of
leading to spoilage of produce due to delay in delivery to disease and pest of a given farm. Nutrients are also
the market. Some times the middlemen involved in optimally utilized without extremely depleting the soil of
marketing of the farmers produce take too large profit. As a particular nutrients.
result the farmer receives too low prices for his produce 5. Investment in Agricultural Research: -
hence he has no incentive to produce more. Research can be done to come up with crop varieties that
3. Lack of capital Every farmer requires capital to are resistant to particular pests and diseases.
invest in the development of his farming e.g. installment of

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6. Farmers trainings/Agriculture education and Nomadic pastralism is therefore a term used to describe
extension to farmers: – farmers can be trained on matters livestock keeping communities who move from place to
of importance place looking for pastures and water for their cattle, sheep,
7. Good land policies/land tenure system: – goats etc.
Systems that can motivate or encourage land construction - These people occupy the drier parts of the country
measures as well as soil and water conservation are and depend mainly on the products of their livestock for
important e.g. individual owner operation system. food, clothing and shelter.
8. Establishment of marketing agencies: – Which - Nomadic pastoralists are subsistence farmers in that
are to research for good market and commodity prices. although they may have large herds the level of production
9. Timeliness of activities: - Avoid late planting, is very low. This is due to poor pastures, drought, poor
late weeding and late harvesting as these can adversely breeding poor parasite control, and land deterioration due
affect crop output. to over stocking.
FARMING SYSTEM: - Refers to the decision and - Where water sources, schools hospitals, administration
function that farmers make to utilize land in raising crops centers and other necessities have been installed this
and livestock to produce food and other necessities not only farmers may form co-operative ranches and become settled
for themselves but for the country as a whole. farmers.
- This has been encouraged by the government in recent
DECISION FARMER MUST MAKE IN ADOPTING years. In this way the advisory services can reach the
A FARMING SYSTEM farmer more easily and livestock improvement is possible.
ARABLE FARMING AND PLANTATION
1. What to produce among the many alternatives (a) Arable farming: - is the growing of crops where
available e.g. grow crops, keep livestock or grow both farmers may practice Monocropping (monoculture) in
crops and keep livestock. which they specialized in production of only one crop or
2. What method to be used e.g. settled, shifting/nomadic mixedcropping where more than one crop is produced.
mechanized, intensive or extensive. A pastoralist may be - Mixedcropping involves diversifying production and
settled or nomadic while the Arable farming may be is preferred by some formers to specialization as a way of
mechanized or use traditional tools. reducing risks where some crops may be more susceptible
3. What will be the scale of operation e.g. may be small to severe ecological factors than others.
or large scale. (b) Plantation - involve large scale farmers growing cash
crops e.g. tea, coffee etc.
Shifting Cultivation The plantation may have processing factories for the crop
– This is a method of raising crops by pioneer farmers on the same farm e.g. tea estates or low fibre processing.
in large scarcely populated area. Here the
farmer can occupy any piece of land without MIXED FARMING
causing any undue land shortage to his neighbours -Involves growing crops and keeping livestock on the same
- The farmers rarely need to manure his farm because farm. This farming system is common in high potential
land which has been formerly under forest is usually fertile. areas.
- When there is a sign of soil exhaustion indicated by a NB: If a farmer grows fodder e.g. Napier grass, Lucerne or
drop in yields the farmers shifts to another area to develop maize for livestock feed he is a livestock farmer and not a
a new farm. mixed farmer.
- The previous land is left fallow for sometime and Advantages
returns to bush that may be cleared several years later. a) Mutual benefit between crops and animals i.e. crops
- As the population increases the farmers finds no supply feed to animals while animals supply manure to
option of new land to cultivate. crops.
- In such case the farmer claims all the plots he uses b) Insurance against total lose by the farmer since if one
though not simultaneously. enterprise fails the farmer will benefit from the other.
- The land which is resting is said to be fallow and c) Proper utilization of labour throughout the year.
remains so only for a few seasons. d) Better soil conservation
Advantages of shifting cultivation e) Permits all round the year harvesting
a) The farmer does not incur cost of maintaining land Disadvantages
fertility. (a) High initial capital investment
b) Cropping is always done on a fertile ground. (b) Lack of specialization
c) Land deterioration is rare. (c) Requires high level of management skill for both
Disadvantages of shifting cultivation enterprises
a) The farmer has no permanent settlement (d) Cannot be practicable where land is limited
b) Production is normally on a very small scale. (e) Only practiced in areas with high production potential.
c) Only practicable where the population is very low LIVESTOCK FARMING
PASTRALISM AND NOMADISM Livestock farming in East Africa is carried out in either of
Pastoralism- Involves raring of livestock by the pastoral two system; substances system and commercial farming.
community without growing of crops. Substance system
Nomadism Is the leading of unsettled way of life. -Under this method livestock keeping is a way of live and
animals are kept to meet the basicneeds of food and shelter.

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-Management practices re aimed at the survival of the -Production can be on subsistence or commercial scale
animals. -Surplus can be sold for cash benefit
Commercial farming -No heavy capital investment
-The aim of this farming system is to produce animal CROP ROTATION
products in sufficient quantities for sale locally and -This is the growing of different crops on the same field in
overseas market. an ordered sequence.
-Under commercial farming animals are kept in small or -In this practice the field is demarcated into a number of
large well managed farm. In these farms there is units, the main objective being to make maximum use of
considerable capital investment. the soil by growing a variety of crops with different growth
-As a result, yields are considerably high. habits and nutrient requirement.
-The products are marketed through organization such as Guidelines to crop rotation
K.C.C., K.M.C. and the Upland Bacon Factory. 1. Crops with high nutrients requirement should come
-There is also ranching and dairy farming. first in a newly cultivated land.
-Ranching involves improved pastoral-nomadic system 2. Deep rooted crops should alternate with shallow
because movement is restricted. rooted crops.
3. A grass break should be incorporated in the rotation in
ORGANIC FARMING order to rebuild soil structure.
-This involves farming without use of Agro Chemicals i.e. 4. Crops which are easy to weed should alternate with
crops grown in a natural environment. crops which are not so easy to weed.
-This method of farming is environment friendly and 5. Crops having similar pests and diseases should not
products do not have any inorganic residue. succeed one another during rotation.
-Naturally occurring materials e.g. medicinal plants are Advantages
used instead of chemicals. -There is maximum use of soil resources by growing plant
-Organic manure is used to replenish soil nutrients. with different growth habits.
-Soil structure is improved and soil water infiltration as -There is efficient control of pests by breaking the life cycle
well as aeration is enhanced. of the pests.
-These farming also provide food for soil microbes which -Efficient disease control i.e. life cycle of disease organism
help is releasing minerals for crop nutrition. is interrupted.
-Mulching can also be done using organic material. -Parasitic weeds such as striga species which are specific to
-Crop rotation is also used to enhance organic farming. cereals can be controlled by planting non cereal crops for a
Advantages period of time.
a) It is cheap and cost effective -Nitrogen content of the soil may be enhanced by including
b) Makes use of locally available materials a legume in the rotation
c) Helps soil structure. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION
d) No environmental pollution ECOLOGY- This is the study of how both plants and
e) Enhances H20 retention by the soil animals live and interact with each other and the
Disadvantages environment. This interaction benefits each entity in the
a) Low overall output. relationship. Plant ecology involves the interaction of
b) Control of pests and disease is not easy. Since there is plants/ crops with the environment. Environmental factors
no use of Agrochemical. such as water, nutrients, warmth, and light determine the
c) It is laborious growth and yielding of the plant.
EXTENSIVE FARMING SYSTEM FACTORS INFLUENCING CROP PRODUCTION /
-Is a system that requires large tructs of land, low capital AGRICULTURE
investment and low labour per unit area [Link]–ECONOMIC FACTOR/HUMAN FACTORS:
-It is characterized by low yield per unit area. 1. Market force – Supply and demand forces affect
INTENSIVE SYSTEM Agriculture in a free market economy. prices for good are
-It is a system that requires high capital and high labour influenced by supply and demand forces.
investment per unit area - When supply is high, prices are low and demand
-It is characterized by high yield per unit area subsequently increases.
-It is both extensive and intensive and can be large scale or 2. Cultural practices, taboos, religious beliefs
small scale. This affects what people produce and consume, some
Large Scale pastoral communities rely on meat and milk while other
- Involves use of large tructs of land communities rely on crop.
-Requires heavy capital investment 3. Transport and communication
-Skilled labour - These allow agricultural products to move from
-High level management production point to consumption point.
-Mostly carried out for commercial purposes - All weather roads are necessary to avoid rotting of
-Operation costs per unit of production are low because it produce in farms since these affects their income.
makes use economy of scale. - Road, railways and airways are important.
Small Scale - Use of computers for communication has developed
- Practiced in a small piece of land and these media helps access wider market.
-Productivity depends on land potentiality

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 4. Level of education and technology Pests increase the cost of producing crops in terms of
- High level of education helps in hastening money used in their control.
development in all farming activities e.g. use of improved
methods, knowing why when or what should be done under (ii) Parasites
certain conditions, accuracy of applying inputs and - Parasites leaving on plants are plant parasites. Those
Assessing results. Generally decisions are made properly. living inside animals are endoparasites e.g. round worms,
5. Health HIV/AIDs tape warms etc. they absorb food substances from the
- Some qualities such as Vigor, Strength, vision and digestive track of the animal
determination are required for successful farming and can - Those leaving on the animal are called ectoparasites.
only be found in healthy people. They suck blood from the animal cause irritation by biting
- increases in cases of HIV/AIDS have negative effects on their skin.
on Agriculture production
- As a result much government and NGO resources are
channeled towards caring for the sick.
Effect of HIV/AIDS in healthy Agriculture (iii) Decomposers
1. Shortage of farm labour - Are very important and they include large and small
2. Increasing the cost of living of patients and their (micro) organisms which decompose organic remains from
relatives. animals and plants hence producing nutrients.
3. Low food production and poverty in general has (iv) Pathogens
increased criminal activities Are micro organisms that transmit diseases. These can
4. Low living standards lead to despondency, cause death. They also reduce both quality and quantity of
helplessness and lack of motivation to invest in agriculture agricultural products. They include Bacteria, viruses and
5. The government and NGO’s use a lot of time and fungi.
resource in controlling the pandemic. This resource could (v) Predators An animal that kills and feed on the
be used in development of Agriculture. animals. Those that feed on pest are beneficial to farmers
6. GOVERNMENT POLICY as they reduce pest population.
These are enactment of laws which govern production (vi) Pollinaters – Can be insects or birds. They transfer
marketing and distribution. pollen grain from the stamen to the pistil of the flower
The government regulates the amount of imported good causing cross pollination e.g. bee.
by - Cross pollination helps in production of new and
(i) Heavy taxation of imports in order to protect local improved varieties of crops for the future generation.
industries (vii) Nitrogen fixing bacteria
(ii) Subsidizing the price of locally produced - Useful in leguminous plants. They are found in nodules
commodities of the roots. They covert nitrogen from the air into nitrates.
(iii) Quality control When these bacteria die they releases nitrates to the soil
(iv) Conservation of natural resources which helps other plants in the next season
(v) Stepping up the control of diseases of parasites that (viii) Weeds
affect crop. Such regulations as quarantine, licensing of They compete with the crop plants for moisture, nutrients
quality products and vaccination of animal against space, sunlight etc. They can also act as alternate host of
infectious and contagious diseases are followed wisely. disease causing micro organism, vectors and also pests.
7. ECONOMY C. CLIMATIC FACTORS
- Collapse of co-operative movement and factories have Weather is the atmospheric condition of a place over a
affected the sale of farm produce such as milk, sugar and given short period of time
cotton Climate is weather condition observed and recorded for a
- Rehabilitation of Kenyan and world trade has led to long period e.g. 30 – 40 years.
dumping of cheaply produced and cheaply imported goods Rainfall:
that have flooded local market. - Is the main source of water required by all life
- This has forced prices of agricultural goods to drop processes.
resulting in low income for farmers. - It must be adequate to sustain both animal and plant
life.
B. BIOTIC FACTORS Aspects of rainfall important in Agriculture
- These are living organisms that affect Agricultural 1. Rainfall reliability
production - Depending on meteorological timing of the onset of
(i) Pests – Effects of pests. Pests feed on the whole or rainfall. I.e. long rains begin around March- April of every
part of the plant. year and continue for around 3 months.
These pests feed on leaves and reduce photosynthetic - Short rains begin in October to November.
surface which further lowers quantity and quality of - Reliability determines the time for land preparation
produce. and planting.
They transmit crop disease - When rains fail to follow this expected patterns
Some pest injure the plant parts which they feed on and massive crop failure occur and sometimes domestic
expose the plant to secondary infection animals die due to lack of food and water.

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ii. Rainfall quatity -Is the strength with which the light is harnessed by
- This is the amount of rain that falls in a given area chloroplasts for the purpose of photosynthesis.
within a given year measured in mm -The amount of light harnessed can be increased by
- It determines the type of crop to be grown and the type pruning, thinning, weeding or wider spacing.
of livestock to be reared in an area.
iii Rainfall distribution 2. Light duration
- Is the number of wet months in a year. - is the period during which light is available to plants per
- It influences the choice of crop varieties growing in a day.
given area. - Plant varieties can be classified as long, short, or day
iv. Rainfall intensity neutral depending on the hours of light required for proper
- this is the amount of rain that falls in an area with a growth.
period of one hour and is measured in mm/hour Short day plants – Require less than 12 hours of day light
- High rainfall intensity damage crops and causes soil e.g. tobacco, rice, soya beans e.t.c.
erosion. It may also lead to destruction of soil structures.
2. Temperature Long day plants – Require more than 12 hours of day light
- This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place e.g wheat varieties.
measured in (C0) Day neutral plans - Require 12 hours of day light e.g.
Cardinal temperature coffee, maize beans e.t.c.
-Is the temperature in which plants grow and thrive well.
Optimum Temperature 2. Light Wave length
Is temperature which has a narrow range within the - Chlorophyll absorbs certain wave lengths of light which
cardinal range which allows the plant to thrive best and are not present in artificial light unless in case of U.v. of or
produce well. intra- red.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON CROP - This makes natural light more suitable for plant growth
PRODUCTION than artificial light.
Low Temperature
1. Slow growth rate of crop as the process of
photosynthesis is slowed. D. EDAPHIC FACTORS OR SOIL FACTORS
2. Increases incidences of disease infection to crop e.g.
C.B.D. in coffee. Soil formation
3. Quality of crops such as tea and pyrethrum improves Soil profile
with lowering of temperatures. Soil structure
EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURES Soil texture
-Increases evaporation leading to wilting of corps Soil constituent
Increases the rate of growth and hastens the maturity of
crop
Improves the quality of crops such as Pineapples and ECOLOGICAL ZONES
oranges (1) TROPICAL ALPHINE
Increases incidences of plant pests and diseases e.g. (c) Found at the pick of high mountains e.g. Mt Kenya my
Aphids, Leaf rust. Elgon etc.
(d) Found at an altitude of 3000m above sea level.
Effects of Strong Wind on Agriculture (e) Temperatures are low or below 10oc
(i) Increases evaporation leading to wilting of corps (f) Has moorland vegetation i.e. short grass and no trees
(ii) Causing lodging of crops and damage to plants. (g) Have two sub-zones.
(iii) Acting as an agent of soil erosion Tropical Alpine (I) TA1 and TA2
(iv) Blowing away or bring rain bearing clouds. Tropical alpine (1) (TA1)
(v) Increasing the rate of evatranspiration -Natural pasture utilized by cattle is found.
(vi) Destroying farm structures -The area is alienated with game parks.
(vii) Areas with high humidity tend to be hotter but when -Soil erosion in experienced e.g. Areas near Mount Kenya.
wind takes away atmospheric water a cooling effect occurs.
4. Relative Humidity Tropical alpine (2) TA2
- Is the amount of water vapor held by air at a given -Annual rainfall is lower than in TA1 and drier than TA1.
temperature compared to what it would hold when - soil erosion is experienced
saturated. -Good for wood production
- It affects the rate of evaporation and transpiration. -Livestock pasture found here
- At high relative humidity the rate of evertranspiration is -Good for crop production
low.
5. Light (2) UPPER HIGH LAND ZONES (UH)
- It provides the energy required for photosynthesis. - Altitude falls at 2200 – 3000m above sea level.
Aspects of light important to crop growth -Temperature range is between 10 – 170C
1. Light intensity -Frost is experience
-Subdivided into four major sub-zones

5
UH1 Upper mid-land 4(UM4)
Good for keeping sheep, goat and dairy farming. Pastures -Sunflower zone
are available there is negligible dry season. e.g. upper parts -Rainfall is insufficient thus drought resistant crops are
of Nyndarua and Nyahururu. grown.
Upper mid-land 5 (UM5)
UH2 -Millet is grown
-Pyrethrum and wheat zone -Livestock and sorghum zones
-No enough rainfall e.g. upper parts of Timau Lower –mid lands (LM)
-Temperatures are not optimum. -Altitude 800-1300m above sea level
UH3 -Average temp 240C e.g. Western Kenya
- Wheat, berry zone -Has six sub-zones.
-Low production of pyrethrum Lower mid-land (LM 1)
UH4 -Sugar cane zone
-Ranching zone -High and reliable rainfall. E.g. South Nyanza
-Rain can’t support dairy farming e.g. Laikipia -Maize can also do well
Lower mid-land (LM 2)
-Marginal sugar cane zone
Lower Highland -Maize and tomatoes do well e.g. Miwani in Mohoroni
-Relatively wide area compared to UH Lower mid-land (LM 3)
-Altitude of 1500 – 1800m above sea level -Cotton zone
-Has five (5) Sub-zones -Maize planted depending on the type of soil.
(1) Lower highland one (LH1) Lower mid-land (LM 4)
-Good pastures for livestock -Marginal cotton zone
-Suitable for mixed enterprises -Maize growing is also practiced.
-Cool and humid areas -The place is warm and very transitional e.g. lake Victoria
-Dominated by tea production e.g. Kericho Mbita.
Lower high land (LH2) Lower mid-land (LM 5)
-Wheat, maize, pyrethrum zone -Livestock/Millet zone
-Small scale maize production -Sorghum sisal pigeon peas and cow peas are also grown.
-Climate is cool e.g. Bomet -Low stocking rates e.g Lusinga island in Lake Victoria.
Lower highland (LH3) Lower mid-land (LM 6)
-Wheat zone – maize is not very suitable. -Ranching zone warm and semi-arid
-Sometimes we have crop failure due to drought e.g. -Unreliable rainfall
Mweiga/Timau -Lower parts of Tigania
Lower highland (LH4) Low lands (LL)
-Cattle and berry zone -Found in costal areas
-Drought escaping plants are grown -Altitude 0 – 1800m above sea level.
Lower Highland (LH5) -Has seven sub-zones.
-Low Rainfall Low land 1(LL 1)
-Not suitable for crop production -Does not exist in Kenya
-Low grazing intensity Low land 2(LL 2)
-E.g. Samburu -Sugar cane zone cassava, maize, coconuts and citrus fruits
Upper Mid-land (UM) are grown.
-1300 – 1900m Above sea level. Hot humid area e.g. Mombasa town and Kilifi
- Temp 13 – 210C Low land 3(LL 3)
-Supports coffee livestock keeping -Coconut and cassava zone e.g. Kilifi and Kaloleni
-Have 5 sub-zones. Low land 4(LL 4)
Upper mid-land 1(UM1) Cashew Nut, cassava zone. Cotton also grown but not well
-Tea, Coffee zone spread.
-Mixed farming can be practiced -Composite varieties of Maize “Katumani”
-Thin and transitional e.g. Kiambu and Nyeri Low land 5 (LL 5)
Upper mid-land 2 (UM2) -Livestock, millet zone
-Coffee zone Cow peas, green grams and sisal e.g. Magarini Central
-Dairy and zero grazing is practiced scheme in Lamu
-Food crops grown e.g. maize, cabbages and tomatoes
Upper mid-land 3(UM3) Low land 6(LL 6)
- Marginal coffee zone -Ranching zone, hot and semi arid, no crop exists. rainfall
-Established pastures for livestock unpredictable.
-Coffee grown under irrigation. Drought escaping crop can Low land 7 (LL 7)
be grown e.g. Makuyu, Mbeere and Tigania -Nomadism zone e.g. Eastern Kenya except Marsabit
-Irrigation is necessary for this region. -60% meat comes from the area
-Hot and arid areas

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 b) Type of tilth required
LAND PREPARATION c) Depth of cultivation
Seedbed: A piece of land varying in size from a few d) Size of seeds.
square meters to hundreds of acres that has been prepared SECONDARY CULTIVATION/HARROWING- Seed
in such a way that is ready to receive the planting material bed refinement practices that follow primary tillage before
whereplanting materials are planted and remain there until planting process. Reasons for secondary tillage/ cultivation
the crop is ready for harvesting include:
Nursery bed: Small plot or bed where planting materials of i. Removing weeds that have germinate after primary
low viability that need special attention are planted and cultivation
allowed to grow until ready for transplanting. ii. Helps also in breaking soil clods to smaller pieces for
Reasons for seedbed preparation easy planting.
1. To kill weeds either by burying them or desiccation by iii. To level land to achieve uniform depth for planting
exposure to the sun. iv. Incorporating organic matter into the soil.
2. Help in breaking hard soil surface thus allowing
infiltration to rain H20. The number of hallowing depend on
3. Helps in improving soil aeration. a) Size of planting material
4. Encourages penetration of roots into the soil b) Slope of the land
5. To incorporate or distribute manure and other organic c) Moisture content of the soil
matter into the soil. d) Condition of land after primary cultivation.
6. To make subsequent operations possible e.g. planting, TERTIALLY CULTIVATION
fertilize application etc. These are operations carried out to suit production of a
7. Destroy different stages of crop pest such as egg, certain crop. They include:
larvae, pupae and adult by either burying them in the soil or Ridging- Process of digging soil in a continuous size and
exposing them to sun’s heat. heaping it on one side to form a ridge and furrow suitable
Stages of land preparation for root crops e.g. Irish potatoes. Ridges are used for:-
A. Land clearing a) Allowing for the expansion of tubers
-This involves removal of vegetative cover from the surface b) Allowing easy harvest
before land is tilled. c) Conservation of soil moisture
-It is necessary when opening a virgin land or land that has
been left fallow for a long period of time or when one Rolling - Carried out in small seeded, crops e.g. wheat to
wants to remove stalks of previous crops. prevent seed from being carried away by wind and
-It may include tree felling, use of chemical, slashing or increases seed – soil contact.
burning. Leveling- Soil surface made flat and uniform to promote
Burning is discouraged because a lot of organic matter is easy germination of small seeded crops and facilities
lost and soil micro organisms as well as plant nutrients are uniform germination.
killed. Sub- soiling- Breaking sub-soil that might be as a result of
use of heavy machinery
B. Primary Cultivation -Helps in breaking up hard pans formed after land
-This is the initial opening of the land after clearing the preparation.
bush -Helps in soil aeration
-Its done to remove weeds and incorporate organic matter. MINIMUM TILLAGE
Expose pests and disease causing micro organism to the - These is practice aimed at a reduction in the disturbance
sun of the soil structure e.g. use of mulch on soil surface and
-Improve soil aeration. application of herbicides to control weeds, timely
-Allow easy planting cultivation, use of cover crops, uprooting and slashing of
It includes hand digging where simple tools are used e.g. perennial weeds etc.
Jembes, hoes etc. Reasons for carrying out minimum Tillage
It may also include mechanical cultivation where mould 1. Reduce cost of cultivation by reducing plough
board ploughs and ox-ploughs are used. operations
Cultivation should be done before the onset of rain inorder 2. To maintain soil structure
to:- 3. To maintain soil moisture
1. Give weeds and other vegetative plants enough time to 4. To prevent soil erosion
dry and decompose into Organic Manure. 5. To prevent disturbance of crop roots and other
2. Allow carbon dioxide and other gases to defuse out of underground structure like tubers.
the soil and be replaced by oxygen necessary for 6. Prevent exposure of Humus and soil micro organism
germination and microbial activities. to sun’s heat.
3. Allow enough time for subsequent operation before
planting. PLANTING MATERIALS
The choice for the primary cultivation implements depends Planting is the placement of planting material in the soil
on:- for the purpose of regeneration to produce more of the plant
species.
a) Condition of land Types of planting materials

7
1. Seed 13. Slips - Pineapples
2. Vegetation parts PLANTING METHODS
Seeds Direct seeding – Seeds are planted directly into the main
Advantages of using seeds field (seed bed) without use of nursery bed establishment.
1. Seeds are less bulky compared to vegetative material Transplanting – Seeds are established in nursery bed first
thus easy to store to grow into seedlings before being transferred into the
2. Use of machines can easily be practiced e.g. seed main field.
drillers and planters Common method of planting include
3. Seeds are easy to treat against soil borne pest and 1. Broadcasting Seed are scattered all over the field in a
diseases. random manner by hand or spreaders. It is common in light
4. Easy to handle during planting making operation and tiny seeded crops like grasses. The scattering or
easier spreading is followed by harrowing to cover the seeds. For
5. Possible to apply manure and fertilizers together best outcome or result for broadcasting the seedbed should
during seed planting. be weed free.
6. Possible to develop new varieties due to cross Advantages
pollination. -quicker than row planting
Disadvantages -Cheaper and easier compared to row planting
1. Some seed have long dormancy hence may need -Cops planed by broadcasting have a good soil cover
special treatment in order to germinate. preventing soil erosion
2. Some seed may lose viability if stored for long -No special skills required
3. Cross pollination may produce undesirable Disadvantages
characteristics -Plant population cannot be established easily since spacing
4. Some soil borne pest may damage seed if left in the is not known
soil for some time before onset of the rain. -More seeds are used
2. VEGATATIVE MATERIALs -Not easily mechanized
These are plant parts which have ability to produce roots -Uneven germination of seeds due to uneven depth of
then grow to develop into new plants. planting
Advaantages of vegatative material: -Because seeds are scattered randomly there is
a) Fast crop maturity compared to seeds overcrowding
b) Crops show uniformity in various characteristics like
disease resistance. Seed colour and composition 2. Row Planting –It is the planting of crops using rows
c) It Possible to produce similar varieties from the same where spacing between rows and within rows is known.
stock Sees are placed in holes or drills and the distance between
d) Resulting plant has desirable characteristics like shape one hole to another is uniform. This is common in planting
and size making field practices like spraying and various field crops and root crops. This can be done
harvesting easier. manually or mechanically
e) Use of vegetative material is found easier and faster Advantages
especially when seeds show prolonged seed dormancy. 1. Easy to use machines in farm operation
f) They facilitate propagation of crops which are 2. Cultural practices like weeding, spraying and
seedless. harvesting are easily carried out
Disadvantages 3. Lower seed rate is used compared to broadcasting
1. Does not result to new crop varieties 4. Easy to establish correct plant population.
2. Keeping materials free from diseases is found to be 5. Proper utilization of nutrients and light moisture
difficult. because crops are in the correct spacing.
3. Materials cannot be stored for long Disadvantage
Vegetative material include a. More expensive, in term of labour and time
1. Suckers – e.g. Bananas b. Requires skilled labor to measure distance
2. Bulbs – e.g. Onion c. It does not provide ample soil cover. This is prone to
soil erosion
3. Cuttings - cassava
4. Setts - Sugar cane 3. Ridge and furrow planting
5. Vines - Sweet potatoes
-Seed are planted either on the ridges or furrows
6. Bulbils - sisal -Suitable for root crops like Irish potatoes
7. Tubers - Irish Potatoes -These helps in soil conservation.
8. Crowns - Pineapples 4. Undersowing
This is the establishment of pasture under a cover crop e.g.
9. Splits - Grass/pyrethrum maize is planted as recommended and weeded two to three
10. Runners - Straw berry weeks after onset of [Link] seed are then
11. Stollons - Star grass broadcasted with a half the recommended basal fertilizer
No further weeding is done and maize is harvested early to
12. Rhizomes - Couch grass expose the young pasture to sunlight.

8
It facilitates more intensive land utilization and encourages Nitrogen flush bunch effect. For this reason it’s advisable
early establishment of pasture. to plant crops like maize before the onset of rains.
Oversowing SEED RATE
Introduction of a pasture legume like desmodium in an This is determined by germination rate. That is if the
existing pasture. germination rate (%) is low the number of seeds planted per
DEPTH OF PLANTING hole is increased.
Depth of planting is determined by; Germination rate of 70% will only require 2 seeds per
planting hole and seedlings are well established. Extra
Seed type (size) – The larger the seed the greater the depth plants are removed to remain with desired number a
and therefore large seeds are planted deep since they can process referred to as Thinning.
easily emerge from the soil and can accommodate large Seed rate depends on
quantities of material.  Seed quality
They therefore produce vigorous seedlings with enough  Type/method of sowing
stock.  Moisture content of the soil
2. Type of germination  Soil fertility
Influence the ability of seedling to emerge from great depth  Growth habit of the plant/crop
e.g. Epigeal germinating seeds are able to push the Plant population
cotyledon to the surface therefore have the ability to -It is the number of plants per unit area
emerge from deep depth. -The decision on the appropriate number of plants in a
3. Moisture status of the soil given area is based on experimental evidence and the kind
As wet soil dries out after rains or irrigation, upper surfaces of crop e.g. for large sized crops like tree crops - one (1)
are the first to dry while deeper layers maintain moisture crop per stand.
for long. Under dry condition seeds need to be sown deeper -Medium sized crops 2 plants per stand.
in order to place them into contact with moist soil. -The spaces between the stand will be determined by the
4. Soil Type roots and shoot system of the crop.
Other factors being constant, seed can emerge from great PLANT POPULATION =
soil depth in sand soil than in clay soil therefore the Area (units2)
planting depth can be adjusted according to the soil texture.
5. Time of sowing Spacing (units2)
Each crop has an optimum sowing time. The actual time of
sowing is determined by moisture condition of the soil. Example
Excessive moisture and water logging conditions at sowing (a) Calculate the number of beans seeds required to plant
can lead to; in one hectare where a spacing of 40cmx40cm is used.
1. Swelling and bursting of seeds during germination Plant population = Since Area (M2)
2. anaerobic condition in the soil. Spacing (M2)
3. Favouring of bacterial and fungal pathogen
development 1 ha X 1000m2
A farmer may be forced to saw a crop even when the 1m=100cm Thus 40cm
moisture in the soil is less ideal. =0.4m
This practice can lead to risk whereby the present moisture Plant pop = 1000 M2 =
10,000 M2 =
will initiate but not complete the process of germination. 62500
Rooting of seeds will not occur unless there is rainfall 0.4mx0.4m 0.16 M2
within a few days of planting. (b) Assuming a hundred (100) seed weigh 50 grams,
Sowing in the tropics is also determined by the temperature establish the amount of beans seeds required per ha
where certain crops will require certain minimum soil
temperature before germination occurs. 62500 625 X 50gm =
Sowing in cold areas increases the likelihood of 31250gms = = 31.25kgs
deterioration of seed germination. 100 100
A soil temperature of 180C is required for satisfactory
germination of crops like maize. Delayed sowing may later
lead to water deficiency during Anthesis period (flowering 1. Calculate the number of seeds required to plant maize
period and post flowering period). in 100 M2 of land at a spacing of 20 by 10cm
[Link] EFFECT
-During the rain most of nitrogen is leached below root Plant population = 100 M2 = 100 M2
zone. During the dry period a lot of nitrogen moves up with 20 X 10 = 200cm2
capillary water and concentrates on the root zone.
-Micro organisms tend to disappear during dry seasons. 200/10000M2 0.02
-At the beginning of rains the seed spores absorb some
water and micro organisms multiply by fusion. = 500 seeds
-Soon the population of micro organisms increases. More
organic matter is broken down at a high rate. --The yield in
plant nutrients like nitrogen increases. This is referred to a

9
2. Mugendi has 10ha of land on which he plans to plant
bean. Calculate the number of seeds he requires if he uses
a spacing of 50cm by 40cm.
PLANT PROPAGATION
(h) Assuming 100 seeds weigh 50 grams establish the Propagation Involves the formation and development of
amount of seed required per 1 ha of beans. new individuals which are established as new plant.

3. Christine practices pomology. She has a 1 ha piece of IMPORTANCE OF PLANT PROPAGATION

land on which she wishes to grow citrus trees. Calculate 1. Perpetuate plant as independent units
the number of seeds required by her to plant on the 1 ha 2. Through propagation and selection of cultivated plant
piece of land if she uses a spacing of 4m by 5m. with desirable characteristics as well as plants of great
economic importance from naturally existing species with
disease characteristics. Through propagation and selection
Area = 10ha X 10,000 = 100,000 M2. plants with desired characteristics and great economic
50 X 40 = 2000 cm2 importance from natural existing species are developed.
10,000 = 0.2 M2. Methods of propagation
1. Propagation by seed (sexual) propagation
100,000 M2. 2. Vegetative propagation (Asexual propagation)
0.2 M2. Sexual propagation
500,000 (i) Seed formation is presented by the union of female
seeds (ovule) and male (pollen grains) gametes during the process
of fertilization.
500,00 = 50,000 p.a ha (j) The production by seeds is expected to show
100 variability in regards to various characteristics like plant
height, vigour and yields expected.
50,000 = 500 X 50 = 25000 grams (k) Except for the highly homozygous plants which are
100 self pollinated there characteristics remains similar.
Advantages of sexual propagation
25000 1. Cheap compared to asexual
1000 2. Easy to treat seeds against soil born diseases
25kgs 3. Easy to handle planting materials (seeds) during
planting.
1 ha X 10,000 = 10,000 M2. 4. Easy to use machines like planters
5. Easy storage of planting materials (seed)
4x5= 20 M2. 10,000 6. Fertilizer and manure application can be mechanized.
M.2 Disadvantages
20 M2. 1. Seeds can easily be damaged by soil born diseases. If
left in the soil for a long time without germination.
= 500 seeds 2. Cross pollination may introduce undesirable
characteristics.
3. Some seeds may lose viability if stored for long.
Example 2 4. Some seeds have long dormancy thus need special
treatment inorder to germinate.
(a) Mugendi has 10ha of land on which to plant he plans A sexual propagation
to plant beans. Calculate the number of seeds he requires if  This includes all methods of propagation other than
he use a spacing of 50cmx40cm the seed propagation which do not depend on seed
(b) Assuming 100seeds weigh 50 gms establish then formation.
amount of seeds required per hectare of beans  This method depends on vegetative structures like
Example3 stems, leaves, tubers, root, etc to perpetuate the parent
Christine practices pomology and has a 1ha piece of land plant. Vegetative parts develop buds which give rise to
on which she wishes to grow Citrus tree trees. Culculate the new individuals e.g. in sweet potatoes and Irish potatoes.
number of seeds she requires if the spacing is 4mx5m Advantages
1. It results in plants which are identical copy of the
Ans parent crop.
Plant population = Since Area (M2) 2. From one plant a few plants with desirable
Spacing (M2) characteristics can be produced.
3. Crops mature faster than those propagated by seeds.
1 ha X 1000m2 4. Easier and faster especially where seed shows
prolonged dormancy.
5. Facilitates propagation of seeds less crops or those that
Plant pop = 10000 M2 =
10,000 M2 = produce unviable seeds or with long dormancy.
500 seeds Disadvantages
4m x5m 20 M2

10
 Does not result into formation of new crop varieties. - Are also used to propagate pineapples and are borne at
 Storage of materials is difficult. the base of pineapple fruits
 Materials are bulky for transport - They are cut and established in nursery before being
transplanted
Materials used for vegetative propagation - Their Growth rate is faster than crowns and gives an
1. Bulbils average uniformity
 Tiny sisal crops produced in the inflorescence of the - They take 22 month to mature from planting time.
sisal plant almost at the end of sisal plant. 5. Suckers
 They resemble mother plant except they are smaller in Are small plants that grow at the base of mother plants and
size and produced by pole of the sisal when it is mature. have adventitious roots that grow quickly when planted.
 They produce rudimentary roots.  Common in bananas and pineapples.
 Mature bulbils fall on the ground then collected and  Give ununiform growth leading to ununiform
are raised in a nursery before getting transplanted to the maturity.
main field.
 One plant produces about 3,000 bulbils and they make
good planting materials for sisal compared to
suckers because they are easy to collect and mature faster Crown
and uni
infloresence

Pole
(leafy show grow produced
from

Stem leaf axil

bole
Suckers
6. Tubers
(l) Under ground structures used for food storage.
They sprout and produce root for growth.
They can be:-
 Root tubers-This develop from thickening of
advantageous roots. Not commonly used for propagation as
Rhizome
they produce weak stem e.g. sweet potatoes
 Stem Tubers-Have an auxiliary bud which
sprout to produce scale leaves e.g. in Irish Potatoes.
2. Splits
Are plants sections existing from mother plant used to
propagate grass pastures and pyrethrum. Pyrethrum splits
are firs raised in nursery bed before getting transported to
the main field.
Stem tuber
3. Crowns
-Propagate pineapples. They are borne from the top of
pineapple fruits and broken off and prepared for planting
they are preferred than suckers because they have uniform
Auxi
growth and mature in 2 years
4. Slips

11
Root tubers(sweet potatoes)  Light intensity -soft cuttings need high light
intensity to increase rate of photosynthesis for more root to
be produced. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark
conditions as they have stored enough to carbohydrates.
Adventious roots  Oxygen moisture supply- rooting media require
7. VINES sufficient supply of oxygen and moisture so as to improve
 These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots root forming process.
easily to give rise to new plants.  Leaf area - soft wood requires a lot of leaf area
 They are cut from the mother plant and planted to increase surface area for photosynthesis. Hardwood
directly to the main field. cutting require less leafs since they have enough stored
 Soft green upper part is preferred for rapidly carbohydrates.
growing shoot  Chemical treatment -chemical that quickens the
 When preparing cutting some leaves are included rooting if applied at the base of the stem. These are also
for photosynthesis. referred to as rooting hormones e.g. I.A.A (Indole acetic
 Nodes are included from where root emerge. acid), I.B.A, NAA

Nodes LAYERING
This is where plant parts are induced to produce roots while
they are still attached in the mother plant. Once roots are
produced the plants parts are cut off from mother plant and
planted to the main field.
Sweet potato vines Types of layering
Marcotting/Aerial layering
-Commonly used in hard woods plant where stems cannot
8. Cutting and settings be bent easily to reach the ground.
- Portions of mother plant cut for -Some rooting medium is heaped around the section of the
propagation which may be root or stem branch whose bark and cambium layer have been removed.
- Stem cuttings must have a bud which Auxins accumulate there after inducing the development of
develop into a shoot roots
- Root cuttings must have an eye -The rooting medium quickens rate of root development
auxiliary bud.
- Cutting must also produce leaves as
soon as possible to ensure that they are able to make
their food.
- They may be induced to produce Rooting medium
roots by use of rooting hormones.
- In some crops they need to be
established in nursery beds before getting transplanted to Devt. Of roots
the main field e.g. in Tea.
- Stem cutting used in sugar canes are
referred to as setts.

Tip layering
Shoots bearing buds are bent to the ground and covered
Stem cutting in tea
with a layer of moist soil. The shoots are held in position
using pegs.
- The covered part of the shoot is
induced to produce roots after which it is cut from mother
plant and transplanted.

peg

Sugar cane sett

Factors affecting cuttings
 Temperature - warm temperatures are required hea of Moist soil
in rooting zone while low temperatures are needed in aerial
buds.
 Relative humidity – high relative humidity leads
to lower rate of transpiration and increase and maintain leaf Trench layering
turgidity

12
- Stem is bent and laid down in a - The scion is inserted into one side of
trench and is held in position by use of pegs. the stock.
- Buds develop shoots that grow - A 2 ½ cm deep cut is made at an
upwards while roots are produced at the base of every angle of 200 to 300and a scion with 2-3 buds is inserted in
shoot. such a way that there is cambium contact between the
- The shoots are then cut off from cambia of stock and scion.
mother plant.

Pegs \

Scion

Moist soil heap

Grafting
- Uniting of 2 separate woody stems
where one of the 2 parts provide the base and has a rooting Root stock
[Link] part is known as Rootstock.
- The other part is obtained from
Cleft Grafting
different plant (e.g. diff variety) and is grafted onto the root
- Is a method adapted to top work
[Link] is referred to as Scion.
Stalk/ branches 2.5 – 10cm in diameter.
- The scion has buds which develop
- It is best carried out when the plant is
into the future plants.
dormant.
- The ability of scion and root stock to
Steps
form a successful union is referred to as Compatibility.
The stem/limb to be grafted or top worked is cut off with a
- Only plant structures from related
sharp pruning saw. The branch is then split in the middle
plants varieties (botanically closely related plants) are
longitudinally using chisel, large knife or a special tool that
found to be compatible e.g. lemon and orange or lemons
is combination blade/wedge designed specifically for cleft
and tangerines
grafting.
METHODS OF GRAFTING
The limb is split for a distance of 2 – 4 inches with care
Tongue/ whip grafting
taken to make the split in middle of the limb.
-Used for materials in which the scion and root stock have
For species that do not split evenly the initial cut may need
the same diameter
to be made with a saw to prevent uneven splitting
Scion should have 2 – 3 buds. A slanting cut is made with
( Saw kerf clefting)
sterilized sharp knife on the scion and root stock.
2 separate parts are fitted together and wrapped with a tape,
grafting wax, polythene strip, e.t.c
Limb

After the spit is made (cleft) it is opened and held open

with the wedged end of he grafting tool

SIDE GRAFTING

- Done when the root stock has larger -A 3 – 4 bud scion stick between 4 – 6 inches is prepared
diameter than the scion. for grafting into the cleft.

13
-The bud stick should be obtained from small limp or water This will encourage a more rapid healing of the grafted
sprouts that grew vigorously during the past season of union.
growth. The lower end of the bud stick is trimmed with 5. The union should be complete in 4 weeks. This
gradually sloping cuts made on opposite sides of the stick. graft is more successful during growth season.
-The slop of the cut on the bud stick should match the angle 6. After the parts are well united the remainder of
of cleft as closely as possible. the adapted variety can be cut off immediately above the
The cuts should be even in slop to allow a maximum grafted union and the bottom or root system of the non-
contact between the bud stick and the root stock. If the bud adapted plant can be cut off immediately below the graft
stick is too blunt the amount of contact will be too small to union.
promote good healing of the union. 7. The graft union is now completed and the
problem of chlorosis and indigenous soil pathogens has
been solved if the proper root stock has been used.

Notch |Grafting
Used for top working when branches are larger than 7.5 –
10cm in diameter.
It is similar to side grafting but doesn’t require to make a
deep split.
When the bud stick is inserted into the cleft the cambia of You need to make a notch at the bark of the stock and cut
the 2 pieces must be matched exactly to promote the the scion that will fit into the notch and insert it into the
healing. notch then cover with a tape or grafting wax to prevent
The cambium is recognized as the faint line that separate drying.
the bark from the wood. Bud grafting/budding
The ability to align the cambia of the 2 partners to be A special from of graft that consist of a union of vegetative
grafted and maximizing the contact between the 2 pieces to bud (scion) to a seedling of another plant or a mature tree.
promote rapid healing are the 2 principles determinant of  The scion consists of only one bud and some bark
success in cleft grafting. with or without wood.
 After the bud starts to grow the parts of the stock
above the bud are cut off.
 Any subsequent buds growing from the root
stock must be removed regularly.
Methods of budding
Grafting wax 1. T-budding
 A common method of budding where by a T-
shaped incision is made on the stem of the stock with a
- After insertion and alignment the wedge holding sharp knife.
the cleft open is carefully removed.  A well developed vegetative bud from a desirable
- Painting with grafting wax is done to prevent plant is inserted into the T- cut first by raising the bark and
dedication. fixing it tightly to the cut with a tape.
4. APPROACH GRAFTING
- The distinguishing feature of approach grafting is
that 2 independently growing self sustaining plants are
grafted together.
- After the grafting union heals the stock is cut
above the graft union while the scion is cut below the graft
union.
Procedure followed in Approached grafting
1. Plant an adapted growing plant as close to the
base of the non-adapted variety as possible without
extensively damaging the root system.
2. From the both plants closely position shoots
which are at least 3/8 inch in diameter and preferably close
to the same size. At the point where the union is to occur a
slice of bark 1 – 2 inches long is peeled off from both
Open cut
stems. The peeled area should be the same size on each.
3. The peeled surfaces are then bound tightly
Root stock
together with a budding tape, wrap completely to
completely cover the region where the 2 peeled areas are in
contact..
Top Budding
4. Remove some of the top portion of the foliage
- Involves budding of small young trees where buds are
from the adapted variety 6 – 8 inches above the graft union.
inserted at the desired locations. It allows production of

14
 different varieties of fruits on the same root stock as long as Avoid contamination by using disinfectant e.g. alcohol,
they are from the same species. calcium or sodium hypochloride, mercury and antibiotics.
Importance of budding and grafting Ingredient of culture medium at this stage includes
i. Plants with desirable root inorganic minerals carbon and energy source, vitamins,
characteristics such as disease resistance, vigorous root organic supplement and growth regulators.
system, resistance to nematodes attack but with an Stage 2
undesirable products may be utilized to produce desirable At this stage there is need to multiply the propagules
product e.g. lemon and orange grafts. through somatic development of embryo to produce
ii. They facilitate the changing of the auxiliary buds and advantageous roots.
top of the tree from being undesirable to being desirable. The culture medium at this stage should be enriched with
iii. They help to shorten the maturity substances that enhance development of plant organs.
period. Stage 3
iv. They make is possible to grow more Involves preparation of the propagules for establishment in
than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. the soil.
v. They help propagate crops that It includes
cannot be propagated in any other way  Rooting of the regenerated plantlets.
vi. Grafting helps to repair damaged  Hardening the plantlets by imparting
trees. some tolerance to moisture stress.
Factors affecting graft union  Converting the plantlets from
-Workmanship/ skills - the person performing grafting heterotrophic mode of nutrition to autotrophic mode.
should be well informed and knowledgeable about what is
expected to be done for the union to succeed. Rooting of plantlets is promoted by.
-Compatibility - use botanically closely related plant -Leaving out the growth hormone in the medium
/varieties. -Supplementing the medium with auxins – aids in
-Growth state of scion and root stock -The root stock secondary & primary growth.
should be fully established plants so as to be in a position to -Hardening occurs due to change in the physical
support the scion and continue growth as one. Scion should environment e.g. high temperature and light intensity
be obtained from a vigorously growing plant. beyond those in the second stage and gradually exposing
LAYERING IS USUALLY USED UNDER THE the plantlets to conditions similar to those in the field.
FOLLOWING CONDITIONS IMPORTANCE OF TISSUE CULTUE IN CROP
1. When cuttings do not root easily PROPAGATION
2. When a larger amount of planting 1. Used in mass production of
parts are required. propagules
TISSUE CULTURE (BIOTECHNOLOGY) 2. Used to recover and establish
 This is a method used extensively to pathogen free plants especially in the control of viral
propagate vegetative propagated plants. It is based on the diseases.
ability of plant tissue (cell to regenerate the other parts of 3. It is fast and requires less space than
the plant. the cultural method of using cuttings which require larger
 Tissues which are also called space.
propagules or explants are derived from shoot tips where Challenges in tissue culturing
cells are undergoing rapid cell division and are not -These method requires highly skilled manpower.
differentiated. -Special structure are required in order to control
 The cells are then provided with the temperature and relative humidity in the preparation of
right conditions which enable them to multiply and develop propagules and culture medium.
roots and shoots. Propagation Medium
 These conditions include culture General properties
medium which contains the correct nutrients and growth 1. Should be firm with ability to hold
regulators. seed/cuttings
 They are also subjected to the correct 2. Have a high water holding capacity
light intensity, temperature and relatively humidity. 3. Be porous and freely drained
4. Be free from weed seeds and plant
pathogens
5. Have adequate nutrients supply
6. Should not have high salinity levels
7. Should be capable of being sterilized
and pasteurized without harmful effects.
Types of propagation medium
Stages of tissue culturing  Soil - Acts as a natural habitat for
Stage 1 plants and provide anchorage
Establish the asceptic culture and develop the propagule by  Sand – Consist of small rock grains
enhancing cell division and enlargement. ranging from 0.25mm – 0.50mm in diameter formed as a
All tools used must be sterilized to establish a clean culture result of weathering

15
1. Peat WEEDS ABD WEEDS CONTROL
 A vegetation preserved under water - A weed is any plant growing where it is not wanted.
in partially decomposed place. Any plant whose economic advantages outweigh its
 Peat is normally found in marshes economic advantages.
where vegetation is sub-merged in water e.g. peat moss and Types of weeds (Weed classification)
peat humus. These are based on :-
2. Vermiculite (a) Lifecycle
 Consists of mica minerals which (i) Annual weeds – Complete their life cycle in one
expand when heated and have high cation exchange season/year.
capacity. (ii) Biennial - Compete their lifecycle in 2 seasons
 Has a high water holding capacity (iii) Perennial: - Take more than 2 seasons to
and is used for seed germination complete their lifecycle.
3. Pumice (b) Morphology
 Mixture of silica dioxide and - Leaf formation e.g. size, shape venation
aluminum oxide. It has small amounts of iron, aluminum,  broad leaved weeds e.g. black jack
magnesium, calcium and sodium oxides.  Narrow leafed weed e.g. cough grass.
 It has a good aeration and drainage (c) Habitat
Some are terrestrial while others are aquatic
4. Perlite Weed identification
 Has silica materials with high water - Weeds are identified by their common/ individual
holding capacity and a P.H, 6 – 8 local names and by their botanical /scientific names.
 It has no plant nutrients
5. Saw dust Some common weeds include:
Made from wood shaving and cuttings.
1. Propagation structures
1. Green houses
 They re used for protection in
cultivation of tender plants that grows out of season.
 They are designed to have a balance
of temperature moisture and light to suit the growth of a
particular crop.
TYPES OF GREEN HOUSES
Small domestic green house COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
 These are lean structures that are Black jack Bidens pilosa
built against existing walls. Pig weed Amaranthus aspera
 They consist of glass panes sloping Maxican marigold Tagetes minuta
roof and free supporting glass panel sides. Oxalis/sorrel Oxalis spp
 Large conventional green houses Double thorn Oxygonum sinuatum
 They have A-shaped roofs over 2 Thorn apple Datura stramonium
side walls and 2 end walls. Couch grass Digitaria scalarum
 Natural light in tropical regions is Wondering dew Cimmelina bangahlensis
found to be sufficient to meet light requirement of plants.
Nut grass Cyperus rotundus
 Some times natural light can be
Saw thistle Sonchus oleraceus
supplemented with artificially light.
2. Lath houses Devil horse whip Achyranthes aspera
 Is an outdoor shaped mainly used to Macdonald eye/Gallet solder Galisoga parviflora
protect the container grown plants also known as pot Black night shade (managu) Solanum nigrum
plants. Chinese lantern Nicandra plysalode
 They protect the plants from high Blacken fern Pteridium aqullium
temperature, high light intensity and moisture stress Love grass/ Bristly foxtail Setallia verticillata
3. Mist chambers Cleavers Gallium purium
 Used to propagate cuttings Stinging nettle Urtica massaica
 They are used to hold moisture with Fat hen goose feet Chenopodium spp
high humidity released electronically from the chambers in Rape weed Brassica napus
form of mist. Wild oat Avena Fatua
 Sprayed at intervals to control Lantana/Tick Berry Cantana camara
temperature and raise humidity. Water hyacinth Eichonia crassipes
4. Boxes Striga/witch weed Striga hermonthaea
- Are normally used for propagation of vegetables and Creeping indigo Indigotera specata
agro-forestry nursery trees Lions ear Leonites nepetifolia
Sodom apple Solanum incanum
Manyatta Grass Eleusin jaegeri

16
 Star grass Cynodon dactylon - This involves use of living organism to control weeds
Kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum e.g.
Flea bane conyza spp - Use of livestock to graze
- Use of weed eating fish to control aquatic weed.
- Use of moths to control weeds.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEED IN CROP
PRODUCTION (c) Chemical method
- This is the use of chemical known as herbicides to
1. Compete with crops for nutrients, space light and soil control weeds.
moisture. Classification of herbicides
2. Some weds are parasitic to cultivated crop e.g. Stiga - Clssification is based on:
weed. (i) Forrmulation - The physical form of herbicides e.g.
3. some weeds lower the quality of Agricultural produce liquids, wettable powders (WP), emulsifiable
4. Some weeds are poisonous to human beings and concentrates( EC), dust.
livestock. (ii) Time of application
5. Some weeds are allelopathic (produce toxic - pre-emergence - applied before the crop
substances) germinate
6. Some weeds block irrigation channels. - post emergence applied after the crop plant
7. Some weeds are alternative host for insects pests and germinates
nematode. (iii) Selectivity It can either be selective or nonselective
8. Weeds lower the quality of pasture. ( e.g. round up)
9. Some weeds irritate workers thus lowering their (iv) Mode of action
efficiency - Contact:- kills only the parts it get into contact.
10. Weeds increase cost of production. - Translocated / systemic
11. Some are Source of food for man and livestock
12. Some weeds have medicinal value. Methods of herbicides Application
13. When weeds decompose they add organic matter to (i) Spraying
the soil Application of solutions
14. They provide soil cover thus reducing chances of soil (ii) Dusting
erosion Application of dust
(iii) Fumugation
Factors contributing to the competitive ability of weeds Application of fumigants.
Weeds produce many seeds Safety measure in use of chemical
Heir seeds remain viable for a long time 1. Read manufacture’s instructions and follow them.
They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms 2. Wear protective clothing, breathing mask, gloves,
Most of them are efficient in utilization of little moisture, boots
nutrients and sun light 3. Avoid inhaling herbicides
Some are gross feeders and aggressive 4. Wash thoroughly after handling chemicals
Some propagate by means of underground food storage 5. Do not blow or suck blocked nozzles
structures 6. Avoid chemical drift to livestock feed and water.
7. Avoid spilling chemicals to pastures and fodder crops.
METHODS OF WEED CONTROL 8. Dispose off the empty containers properly (burry them
(a) Cultural method it involves in the soil).
(i) MULCHING :- use of vegetable matter/or synthetic 9. Store chemical in safe place.
material to cover the soil surface. 10. Wash spraying equipment thoroughly.
(ii) Cover cropping - Establishment of correct plan 11. Sink left chemical into the soil after work.
density by adopting the recommended spacing to ensure
covering of the ground. Merits/Advantages of chemical weed control
(iii) Crop rotation- Some crops are difficult to weed and 1. It is less laborious
thus encourage weed multiplication 2. Effective in control of difficult weeds
(iv) Timely planting – These gives crops an early and 3. Does not disturb crop roots and other underground
healthy start which enable them to outcompete the weeds. structure
(v) Use of clean seed/ planting materials. 4. Make control of weed in certain crops easier.
(vi) Proper spacing. 5. Efficient in both dry and wet conditions.
(vii) Proper seedbed preparation 6. Does not destroy soil structure.
(viii) Flooding 7. Cheaper in large scale production.
(ix) Burning Disadvantages (Demerits)
(x) Control grazing 1. Requires skilled labour in mixing and application
2. It causes environmental pollution
3. Some chemical have long residual effect that may
(b) Biological method
interfere with feature crops
4. very expensive

17
MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL WEED CONTROL Maize stalk borer
It involve the following operation Grasshopper
- Tillage/ cultivation 2. Crop Attacked
This is the opening and loosening up of the soil. It can be Some crops pests attack specific crops e.g. stem borers
done using hand tools or tracter drawn implements. prefer cereal crops
3. Stage of growth of crop attacked
Advantages of tillage/cultivation - Some pests attacks young seedling e.g. cut worm
1. Cheap in small scale production. - Pest of fruit: - It attacks crop at fruiting age.
2. Increases water and air infiltration into the soil. - Pest of grains: - Attack crops when grains are formed e.g.
3. It incorporates crops residue into the soil. bird.
4. The earthing up done during tillage encourages root 4 Some classification based in field and storage pest.
growth. - Some pests attack crops in the field while some attacked
Disadvantages after crops have been harvested and stored e.g. weevils
1. Destroy soil structure when done repeatedly METHODS OF CONTROLING PESTS
2. Laborious and expensive in large scale production. a) Cultural
3. May not be effective controlling some weeds b) Biological
4. It may lead to soil erosion and loss of soil moisture c) Chemical
5. Damage crop roots. d) Physical/mechanical
2. Splashing/ Mowing - Mechanical removal of shoots e) Integrated pest management (IPM)
from weeds. Effective on annual weds. Cultural
3. Aprooting - Done when the crops are too close to - Farming practices that aim at reducing the pest
allow mechanical cultivation. population by destroying the life cycle of the pest either by
Intergrated methods of weed control exposing them to adverse conditions or denying them food.
- These involves deployment of different methods of They include
weeds prevention and control in right proportion and a) Timely planting
appropriate time against the target weed without damaging b) Timely harvesting
the environment in any way. c) Proper tillage
Legislative/quaratine d) Closed season – period where susceptible crop is not
- Involves law and regulations which prevents the grown in a given field in order to control a certain pest.
introduction of foreign weeds in a country or area. e) Trap cropping: - Trap crops are crops which attracts
PEST AND CONTROL pest diverting them from the main crop. Trap crops are
Crop pests: - This refers to living organisms that destroy grown together with the main crops.
crops/ trees either directly or indirectly by introducing f) Crop rotation
pathogen (disease causing organism) g) Planting resistance varieties: - these are plants with
Economic importance of pests natural protective mechanisms against pests.
1. Some transmit disease e.g. Aphid h) Alteration of environmental condition
2. Pests such as squirrels and rodents unearth planted i) Field hygiene include rogueing and removal of crop
seeds resulting in poor germination. residue which harbour pest from field,
3. Some pests like termites, mice nematode and moles j) Crop nutrition – application of fertilizers and manure
damage crop root causing wilting and death of the crop. to make the crop strong and able to escape pests attack.
4. They lower the quality and quantity of crop produce. k) Destruction of alternative host e.g. weeds like mallow
5. They increase the cost of production. which harbuors cotton stainers.
6. Chemical used to control pest cause pollution to the l) Use of clean planting materials: - this help to prevent
environment. introduction of crop pests.
7. They exterminate the crops by feeding on them e.g. m) Proper spacing: - if well spaced some pests find it
eating the embryo. difficult to move from one plant to another.
Classification of pests n) Use of organic manure.
Pests are Classified according to: CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PESTS
1. The type of mouth parts - Chemicals used to control pests are known as
(a) Pests with biting and chewing mouth parts They pesticides
cause physical damage and reduce the photosynthetic area - pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying
(b) Pest with piercing and sucking mouth parts. They or fumigation
suck out the nutritious plant sap and the process may factors that affect the efficiency of pesticides conclude:
introduce disease causing organisms. 1. concentration
Example of pests with biting and chewing mouth parts 2. Time of application - efficiency is high if the
application is done when the pest is most susceptible.
Cotton stainer Dysdercus superstitious 3. Weather condition at the time of application
Rhinocerus beetle Orycetes monoceros 4. Resistance to the pest
Black citrus Aphid Toxopera sordidus Advantages of chemical methods
Mearly bugs Planococus citrs 1. faster
Bean Weevil Archanthoscelides 2. immediate results are achieved
dotecteus 3. low labour required

18
Disadvantages 6. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant.
1. Expensive to buy Classification and identification of plant diseases
2. cause pollution - Plant diseases are classified according to their causal
3. require skilled labour agent.
4. some pesticides may kill beneficial organism and a) Fugal
predators b) Bacterial
5. Some target pest, may build up resistance. c) Viral
MECHANICAL PEST CONTROL FUNGAL DISEASES
It involves killing of pest using physical method or creating - Fungi are non-green plants. Some are parasitic others
physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact are saprophytic
with the crops. Parasitic fungi are divided into
- Obligate
1. Flooding/irrigation e.g. moles are suffocated through - Facultative
flooding Obligate parasites are organism that depend on other living
2. Use extreme temperature either too cold or too hot. organism for food.
3. suffocation commonly used in grain storage by being Facultative parasites are organism that are able to leave on
made air tight both living and dead tissue.
4. Trapping and killing e.g. rat Examples of fungal diseases
5. Creation of physical barrier a) Late blight ( Phytophthora infestans)
6. proper drying Attackes -members of solaneceae family e.g. potatoes and
7. Scaring devices e.g. scare craws tomatoes
BIOLOGICAL METHODS Symptoms
- Dry patches on the leaves and fruit (necrotic lesions)
Predators Target pests Control measure
Parasitic wasp -White flies in citrus - Crop rotation
-bollworm and stalk borer - Use of effective fungicide.
Birds Crickets, locusts, caterpillar - Use of treated seeds
Ladybird Aphids - Use of resistance variety.
beetles b) Rust
Track and flies Cotton stainers Crops attacked - Rice, wheat barley, oats, grasses,
Praying mantis Giant looper sorghum.
Cat Moles mice rat Symptoms of attack
Brachonid wasp Mearly bugs - Red and brown pustules on the leaves
- Shriveled grains
Majimomo ant Scales
Control measure
chicken Larvae, cotton Steiner, crickets
- Use of resistant varieties
Advantages of biological method
- Use recommended fungicides
1. Cheap
c) Smuts ( ustilago spp)
2. No environmental pollution
Crops attacked - Maize, wheat, sorghum
3. saves on labour
Symptoms
Disadvantage
Black powder mass on the spike/ears
1. Take too long to get the agent
Control measure
2. difficult to control the pest effectively
1) Use field hygiene to control
I.P.M. integrated pest management
2) Use of certified seeds
- Involves the combination of all the methods
3) Use of resistant varieties
mentioned above.
4) Crop rotation
- The aim is to have least hazards to the user and to the
d) Blast (Pricularia oryzae)
environment.
Attacked Rice
Legislative quarantine
Symptoms
- This measures of pest control are effected by KEPHIs
- Stained bluish spots on leaves with grayish centre
- Attacks inflorescence to cause empty heads
CROP DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL
Control
Disease A disease is any deviation from the normal
Seed dressing
performance or functioning of an organism
Use resistant varieties e.g. Sindano
- A PLANT DISEASE: - it is any harmful physiological
Destruction of attacked plants
disorder in a plant caused by a pathogenic agent such as
Use of fungicides
virus, bacterial and fungi.
Coffee berry disease (colletotrichum kahawae)
Economic importance of crop diseases
Crops attacked: coffee
1. lower crop yield
Symptoms
2. They reduce the quality of the produce
- Dark blue blotches on flowers
3. they reduce the market value of the crops
- Brown concentric rings on the leaves
4. They increase the cost of production
- Dark sunken wounds on the berries.
5. They cause food poisoning e.g. Ergot in wheat

19
Control measures 1. Uniform wilting of the whole plant even with adequate
- Use of resistance varieties such as Ruiru II supply of soil moisture
- Proper pruning Control measures
- Use of effective fungicides - use certified seeds
- Stripping - crop rotation
Other fungal diseases are
- Panama disease – banana Viral diseases
- Cigar end rot – banana - Viruses are small living organisms which can
- Die back – attacks the tips of shoots and roots only be seen under a very powerful electronic microscopic
- Mildew – Both powdery and downey mildew attacks - Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration,
several crops transpiration and nitrogen utilization.
- Amillaria root rot – (Armillaria mellea) attacks coffee, Symptoms of viral infections
tea 1. leaf chlorosis – yellowing of leaves
- -Damping off disease in seedling in nurseries 2. leaf curling
- Anthracniose – ( colletotricum spp) in coffee, beans, 3. mosaic – light green and yellow
tomatoes. patches
4. malformation/distortion of plant parts
BACTERIAL DISEASES 5. Rosetting (shortening of internodes)
- Bacteria are microscopic single cell organism Transmission
which reproduce by binary fission 1. Through the use of infected vegetative materials and
Transmission - Transmitted through irrigation water, insect vector like Aphids mealy bugs and leafhoppers.
seeds, fertilizers, manure, weed, raindrop splashes, insects, Examples
and through mechanical means. 1. Ratton stunting disease - crop attacked – sugar cane
General symptoms Symptoms
1. Wilting - Red discolorations on the vascular bundles
2. cankers (nectrotic tissues) (Xylem and phloem)
3. Gall formation in the infected tissue Control measures
Example - use clean planting material
1. Halo blight ( Pseudomonas phaseolicolae) - Treat seed canes.
Crops attacked include beans 2. Maize streak
Symptoms Crops attacked:- maize
1. irregular dark lesion on leaves and pods Symptoms of attack
2. Yellow bands around the lesion referred to as - Yellow strips alternating with green parallel to
halo the mid-rib
3. Water soaked lesions Control measure
Control - control leafhoppers
1. Use of resistant varieties (e.g. wairimu and rose - use of certified seeds
coco) - field sanitation
2. Use of effective bactericides 3. Greening diseases
3. crop rotation Crop attacked cirrus e.g. Orange symptoms
2. Fusarium wilt ( Fusarium oxysporum) - Yellow mottling in the leaves.
Attacks tomatoes - Die back.
Symptoms - Premature leaf fall
1. Stunted growth Control
2. Yellowing and shading of leaves. -Use of clean tools when budding.
3. Wilting of the plant -Control of insect vectors.
Control 4. Leaf mosaic
- Use of resistance varieties Crop attacked are sugar cane, cassava, sweet potatoes
3. Black arm (Xanthomonas oxysporum) Symptoms
Crop attaked include cotton  Yellow mottling
Symptoms  Necrosis of stem
- Small round spots on the cotyledons of young Control measure
seedlings 1. Control of aphids
- The spots elongate to form black lesion on the 2. use clean materials
stem. 3. seed treatment
Control measures 4. Tristeza
1. Field hygiene Crop attacked : citrus
2. Use of certified seeds fromKenya Seed company Symptoms of attack
Simlaw seeds etc - Die back
Bactarial wilt ( Pseudomonas solanacearum) - Dwarfing of the plants
Crops attacked include potatoes and tomatoes Control measure
Symptoms -Striping affected fruits

20
-Use of clean equipment for budding 7. Agropastoral – growing of crops and animal
keeping
Other causes of crop diseases IMPORTANCE OF AGROFORESTRY
(a) Flooding: - Leads to formation ammonia 1. Environmental protection
which is poisonous to the crops causing a burning effect on 2. Source of income
leaves. 3. A forestation and timber production
(b) Chemicals:- Some chemicals may be toxic e.g. 4. Maintenance of soil fertility
Afratoxins 5. Aesthetic value
(c) Poor weather: -Extemes of day and night 6. Labour saving in firewood collection
temperature. 7. Source of food and feed
(d) Stress:- such as irregular watering as in tomato 8. Source of fuel
blossom end lot. IMPORTANT TREES AND SHRUBS FOR
Control of diseases PARTICULAR PURPOSES
CULTURAL METHOD OF DISEASE CONTROL - The commonest trees and shrubs used for
This involves:- agroforestry include:-
 Use of healthy planting materials 1. Grevillea robusta (Mukima) (silk oak).
 Practicing field hygiene - It is important for timber, fuel wood fodder and
 Proper seedbed preparation bee forage. It can also be used in soil protection, wind
 Proper spacing breaker shade etc.
 Heat treatment of planting material e.g. sugar 2. AcaciaSpp
cane - Leaves and pods are eaten by animal
 Proper drying of cereals to 13% moisture content 3. Leucaenleucocephala –Wind breaker, fodder,
 Growing disease resistance varieties. Nitrogen fixation provide shade, bee forage.
 Crop rotaion 4. Calliandra- Fuel, wood, fodder, Nitrogen fixation
 Pruning provide shade, bee forage.
 Proper spacing 5. SesbaniaSesban
Legislative method - Can be used as fodder, for nitrogen fixation,
-Imposing quarantine -this involves the imposing of shade, fuel wood.
regulations and law especially in the case of disease 6. Makharmiaspp
outbreaks to prevent the introduction and spread of - Provide timber for construction, can also provide
diseases. shade soil protection and bee forage.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DISEASES Other trees
- It is used as a last resort 1. Persea Americana (Avocado)
- Chemical control measures include: - Fodder, fruit production, shade and fuel wood.
1. Seed dressing before planting 2. Mangifora Indica (mangoe tree)
2. Soil fumigation to control soil borne diseases - Used for fruit production, shade tree, Wind
3. Spraying e.g. application of fungicides, breaker, soil protection, fuel wood.
bacterialcides /or nematocides. 3. Cajanascanjan (pigeon pea)
- Proteinous feed for human, used as fodder, used
Integrated method of pest control as fire wood.
This involves combination of more than one of the other 4. Croton macrostature (mukinduri)
control methods - Can be used as fuel, timber, poles, and handles.
AGROFORESTRY
Flame tree
This is a practice of integrating a variety of land use that
- Making wood curving bee forage, and as a
combines tree growing pasture and/or crop production
medicinal tree.
practice on the same piece of land, to improve the output of
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGROFORESTRY TREES
the land.
1. Fast growth rate
2. Deep rooted
Forms of Agroforestry
3. Nitrogen fixation ability – able to fix nitrogen
There are many forms of agroforestry
e.g. legumes
1. Agrosilvi-culture:- this is the combination of
4. By product production ability
trees/shrubs and crops in agriculture
5. Be multipurpose in nature
2. Silvopastoral:- A combination of growing
6. Should not poses competitive ability with main
trees/shrubs and keeping livestock.
crops
3. Agrosilvopastoral – It is a combination of
7. Have cropping and looping ability
growing trees/shrubs and animals and also growing crops.
Cropping ability to show crop characteristics
4. Apisilvo culture – is a combination of keeping
Looping - ability to
bees and growing of trees.
5. Acquasilvocultural system – Combination of
8. Have appropriate canopy- Should not shade
tree growing and fish keeping
the main crop in the field
6. Serisilvoculture involvesgrowing trees and
9. Nutritious and paratable
keeping of silkworms

21
 - It is a forest nursery where a few species are
ROLE OF AGROFORESTRY IN SOIL AND THE raised in large numbers e.g. pine, Cyprus, Eucalyptus.
CONSERVATION 2. Extension nursery nursery established
1. Forest plays a major role in protecting the water depending on local demand for local community.
catchment and serving as wind break. - The species in this nursery include fodder,
- Also it acts as a shelter belt in arid and semi-arid timber ornamental trees.
areas. - Seedlings are raised in small numbers by various
2. Soil erosion has led to siltation and soil fertility groups such as women groups, youth groups NGO chiefs
decline but this has been minimized by growing of trees in office.
the farm. 3. Temporary/satellite/ flying nursery
3. Restoration of water bodies and reducing water. - These are short lived nursery
Due to reduced water lack of trees in the land had led to the - They are established 2-3 years to meet seedling
drying of water bodies and water pollution. demand of project
NB forestation program should be installed in highland and - Species raised depends on the demand of the
marginal areas. project e.g. for daily production- calliandra and leucaena,
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CROP GROWTH IN Fuel:- eucalyptus
AGROFORESTRY 4. Stock nursery
1. Soil nutrients – trees compete with crops for Nursery raised for months for holding seedlings purposed
nutrients in the soil for sales.
2. Soil moisture both trees and crops compete for Seedling requirements
moisture in the soil. 1. Should be of required species
3. Shade- different crops have different adaptations 2. Should be ready at the right time
for light e.g. some crops should be grown in pure stand e.g. 3. Should be of right size and sturdiness
maize. 4. Produced in sufficient number
4. Pest and diseases - this include nematodes, Nursery operations
which are associated with trees like sesbania sesban. 1. Planning
- They affect bananas, beans and potatoes 2. Recording
- Care should be taken during crop rotation. 3. Controlling: controlling of all stages from seed
Sesbania should be alternated with cereal. collection to confinement of seedling for planting.
- The disease armilaria melea is very common in Some of the stages include
trees and tea and hence they should not be alternated. (i) Seed collection
5. Animals and birds birds like quelea quelea (ii) Storage
which are more serious in crop production can lead to (iii) Pre-treatment
decline in yield. (iv) Sowing
Negative Effect of Trees (v) Soil mixing
1. Habouring diseases and pests (vi) Pricking out
2. Hobouring birds (vii) Standing out
3. They may act as weeds (viii) Cultural practices (weeding, watering, root
4. Competition with crops for water and nutrients pruning
5. Allelopathic (ix) Protection from pests, animals etc
Trees and Shrubs to avoid at certain site (x) Grading
1. Eucalyptus spp (xi) Packaging
- Should not be planted near water sources (xii) Dispatching
because it will absorb the water Factors to consider when choosing nursery site
- It should not be planted on arable land as the root There are 2 types of factor
have allelopathetic effects on crops 1. Management factors
2. Tall trees 2. Silvicultural practices
- Should not be planted near farm building Management
because they may fall and damage the building, there roots 1. Nearness to permanent water source
will break the building stone gradually. 2. Nearness to labour camp
3. Bushy trees and shrubs should not be near farm 3. Good accessibility
building because it can harbor predators 4. Central location
-Tall trees planted with main crop of a lower canopy should 5. Land availability
be pruned to prevent interception of the rainfall. 6. Cost
4. Cyprus trees have leaves that produce acidity in Silvicultureal factors
the soil preventing undergrowth beneath the tree. These 1. Soil – Good texture, sandy loam or forest soil
trees should not be planted within the farm but at the 2. Climate
periphery. - Avoid extreme temperatures
Tree nursery - Avoid frost pockets (valley bottom)
Types of tree nursery - Avoid areas prone to hailstones
1. Permanent nursery Nursery established on long - Avoid windy sites (hilly tops)
term basis to forest large pieces of land.

22
Nursery designs and layout - Should be prepared adequately to enhance
1. Perimeter fence – this can be done by use of live drainage.
fence e.g. cyprus, or offcuts. - A mixture of sand, soil and gravel is made in
2. Gate – should have lockable gate layers of specific depth.
3. Size- As small as 1 meter or as large as 2 hectares
4. The bed should be aligned North South
orientation to allow enough sunlight
5. Width – Usually 1 – 1.3m to allow efficient
weeding watering and nursery bed attendance.
6. Length. It depends on the size of nursery need.
7. Path – Are of 75cm in width between beds to
allow easier management during watering and weeding Sieved
8. Water points-
9. Rows across the length to divide the nursery Mixture
length.
NURSERY STRUCTURE Pure s
1. WATER TANKS Stone
2. Office – used for keeping records and acts as
store for seed. The method above lowers susceptibility to diseases such as
3. Maturing beds (Swaziland bed) made of offcuts dumping off.
4. Pricking out shed Conditioning/hardening of seedlings
5. Roof is made up of iron sheet  Root pruning
- It is also used for providing shade.  Hardening off
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE SIZE OF NURSERY  Introduction of Mycorrhizae
1. Level of planting programme – one should be  Stripping or topping
aware of seedling demand.  Inoculation with rhizobia and frankia
2. Methods of raising seedlings – bear rooted
method occupies less area. Root pruning
- Container method occupies more areas Involves cutting tap root inorder to encourage fibrous root
3. Nursery life of plants development
Ceremonial trees take more than 1 year in the nursery - Increases surface area for water and nutrient
hence requires large spaces. absorption
NURSERY TOOL AND EQUIPMENT - Help in reducing succulent growth of the plant
Wheelbarrow
- It increases root : shoot ratio
Horse pipe
Methods of root pruning
Pangas
1. Under cutting
Pruning saw
2. Side cutting – use piano wire
Dibler
3. Pot turning
Offcuts
4. Use of polythene sheet
Label
1. Hardening off
Jembe
- This is done by reducing shadding and watering
Piano wire used for pruning root
before planting out
Nails
Measuring tape - Done 4 – 6 weeks before planting out
Spray pump - It reduces succulent growth
- It increases woodiness hence the plant become
Types of nursery bed more steady
1. Raised - Help to reduce transplanting shock
2. Sunken 2. Mycorrhizae - it is a fungus found in the root.
It forms an association with the roots of certain trees e.g.,
Raised nursery bed Eucalyptus and pine.
- Raised 15cm from the ground level Advantage of mycorrhizae
- Practiced in high potential areas - Enhance uptake of nutrient especially phosphorus
- Drain excess water from the bed. - Improve water uptake
Sunken - Increase drought resistance
- Sunk 15cm below ground level - Enable the plant to withstand high soil
- A polythene is spread at the bottom to retain temperature
water and also act a remedy to pruning root - Destroys certain toxins in the soil
- Common in dry areas - Protect plants against soil pathogens
- Conserves water - Promotes growth through the effect on growth
Seedbed preparation regulators and hormones

23
INNOCULATION WITH RHIZOMBIUM AND
FRANKIA
- Rhizobium is a bacteria found in
association with legumes. Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Hedgrow
- -Frankia Frankia is a Actinomycetes fungi
found in association with trees.

Stripping/Topping 111111111111111111 Plants

Stripping is the removal of lower leaves before planting
out leaving only 3 leaves at the tip.
Topping is cut seedlings 15 – 25cm above the ground and
leaving them to sprout.
This helps to retain seedling in the nursery especially when
waiting for rain to avoid overgrowing.
AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM 4. Taungya System
1. Shifting cultivation - Originated from Barma
- Taung – stands for hill
- Also refered as bush fallow/slash and burn - Ya – cultivation
/swidden agriculture - Hence referred to as hill cultivation
- It is land use system in which the forest land is - It was used to regenerate teak tree at low cost
cleared and cropped for few years (5 -20) then left for - Originally started as a shifting cultivation
regeneration of bush fallow period. practice and later adopted as an afforestation method.
- Common practices in tropics and associated with N/B In east Africa it is referred to as shamba system.
sparse population. - It involves planting of Agricultural crops in early
- The actual work involves clearing of bushes and stages after clearing the forest before establishing forest
trees followed by burning of debris then plants are planted. plantation.
- It is mainly used to grow food crops e.g. maize, - It is considered a step further in the process of
beans potatoes, cassava. transformation from shifting cultivation to Agroforestly.
Disadvantages
1. Soil erosion 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th
2. Leads to weed infestation year
3. Burning affect chemical composition of the soils
Crops Crops and Crop and trees
e.g. increase exchangeable basis, increase in PH and
tree trees
decrease organic matter
4. Depletion of soil fertility
NB This practice has been carried out in the following
area : South Africa, East Africa, part of West Africa.
Improvement
1. Adding of fertilizer
It is suitable in establishing plantation of some tree species
2. Planting of leguminous plants
e.g. pine and eucalyptus
3. Conversion of land to tree planting.

2. Improved fallow system

FACTORS FAVOURING SHAMBA SYSTEM IN
- This system aim at shorting the furrow period
KENYA
instead of 5 – 20 years. It becomes 2 – 3 years.
- Growing leguminous trees e.g. Sesbania will help 1 Extensive natural forest resource
in improving system 2 Cheap method of establishing forest plantation
- The above species have ability to fix nitrogen 3 Large number of landless who keep leasing land
easily and fast hence improve soil fertility. 4 Availability of labour.
3. Hedgerow intercropping NB Shamba system in Kenya today is referred to pelis
- Is restricted to steep slope plantation establishment livelihoodness scheme established
- Mainly practiced to control soil erosion in the year 2000
- Trees/shrubs are planted across the contour Other Agroforestry Systems
- The steeper the slope the closer the hedgerow 1. Alley cropping
With time the lower part of the land accumulates deposits 2. Home gardening
from soil eroded from the upper part. This result to more 3. System Boundary planting
crop yield on lower parts than the upper parts. 4. Scattered trees in rangeland or farm land
5. Woodlots system
6. Tree for soil and water conservation system
7. Plantation crop system

24
8. Sand dune fixation system (found in ASAL 1. Dominant trees - They are light demanding
regions species. They are also called sun trees.
9. Plantation forestly 2. Middle canopy- Tolerant to shade
10. Mult cropping 3. Shrub layer – they are also shade tolerant
11. Entomoforestry 4. Perennial crop – Bananas, sugarcane.
5. Annual crops - Maize beans
HOME GARDEN SYSTEM 6. Annual crops – Sweet potatoes.
This are intimate association of annual and perennial crops Advantage of home gardening stratification
as well as livestock within the compound of individual 1. Soil and water conservation
houses being managed by labour from the family. 2. Nutrients recycling (closed nutrients cycle)
They are traditional systems found in tropical environment. 3. Brodiversity conservation – this is due to
They are well developed and consists of trees /shrubs. They different vegetation species
also consist of herbaceous plant and vines 4. Divesfication of products – e.g. wood
They are mainly planted and maintained by family =timber, charcoal, poles firewood
members and the products are mainly intended for Food fruits seeds
household conssumption. Medicinal value neem tree aloevera
Tropical home garden have high species diversity and Wabugia ugandenni
complex systems. Animal fodder sesbania sesban
Example of home garden system:- 5. Better sure utilization
6. Boundary planting
1. Javanese home garden – Java  This is done for demarcation of boundaries (both
2. Chagga home gardens – slopes of Mt. internal or external)
Kilimanjaro.  Trees are planted along boundaries
3. Central highland gardens – Mt. Kenya, Abadare  Spacing is between 5 – 10m depending on
4. Eastern highland – Mt. Kenya purpose of this trees i.e.
5. West Kenya – Mt. Elgon  1 – 10m for firewood and charcoal
6. South Nyanza – Kisii highland  3 – 5 m for poles
7. Coastal belt – Coast  7 – 10m fir timber
Characteristics  1 – 3 m for shrubs and fodder
1. Endemic species certain species are only found NB: 1 – 3 metre should be left away from the boundary to
in specific regions and not others. avoid root development to neighbours plot.
2. Species diversity, different types of species are Trees used include Grivelia robusta and it is managed
found in home gardens. through:-
 Pollarding
 Coppicing
NB Home gardens have been interfered with to give cash  Pranning
crops production e.g. coffee tea as well as horticultural  These are minimum interaction of crop because
production e.g. French bean, peas e.t.c. trees are in the boundaries.

- Vertical stratification of species in home 7. Woodlot system

gardens. - It involves planting trees in a portion of land
- This strafication arise due to variation and high which may be less productive, it may also be idle rocky or
number of species. steepy.
Advantages
1. Provision of fire wood
2. Provision of timber
3. Agriculture practice
4. Act as fodder bank

8. Alley Cropping
- A system that has come up through research
which involves growing of crops leguminous trees and
shrubs.
1 Importance
1. There is periodic pruning of trees/shrubs to
2 reduce shade.
5 4 2. Biomass after prunnind decompose to recycle
4 nutrients.
3. Wood products are used as a source of fuel.
4. Pruned leaves and stem can be used as fodder for
livestock.
Sporadic disease:- A disease that occurs occasionally.

25
5. More economical to utilize land on trees and 6. Statistics
crops. 7. Social economic science.
NB: The system can increase crop yield up to 3 times after Basic activities/phases of plant breeding
a period of 4 years. 1. Setting or establishing objectives.
Limitation - It is based on indentified problems to be solved
1. Failure to prune trees/shrubs may result to from a particular crop
competition for water and nutrient with crop. 2. Finding/ creading generational variability
2. It is limited to highlands and not asal region due 3. Selection and creating testing of desirable
to low moisture content. genotype
3. Require spacing of between 2 – 10m to reduce 4. Evaluate the best among the alteratives
competition. 5. Seed increased/multiplication.
Crops grown are Approaches of plant breeding
Maize, cowpeas beans (a) Conventional or biometrical approach
Tree shrubs It is based on observation and experience.
Caliandra and lucina (b) Statistical or biometrical approach
(a) Wind break shelter belt systems It relies on statistical parameters of variance, means
- The system is adopted mainly for reducing the heritability h2
speed of wind.
- Trees are planted perpendicular to the direction (c) Biochemical/physiological approach
of wind. Genetic control of some biochemical process in the plant
- It has more layers and more developed trees and how the processes relate to the final trait to be
arrangement improved.
- They are mainly used in desert where wind speed (d) Biotechnological approach
is strong. This is where it involves tissues and cell culture
PLANT BREEDING technology. DNA recombinant technology (plant genetic
This is an art and science of intentional genetic alterlation engineering).
of crop plant species to better them serve of mankind AGENCIES/ INSTITUTION INVOLVED IN PLANT
Why is it an art BREEDING
It is an art because its highly objective i.e. it can not be 1. IIIA International institute of tropical Agriculture
tested but it depend on one observational skills. Mandate
Why is it a science - Legumes
It is highly objective. It can be tested or verified based on - Roots and tuber crops
scientific principles of plant science. - Headquater is in Ibadan in Niger
Objectives of plant breeding
Objectives depends with the needs of the farmers and 2. CIAT – (entire for internatinave Agriculture
consumers. tropical
They include:- Mandate crops
1. Yield increase Beans and cassava
2. improved quality 3. CIP – Central international de la papa mandate
3. Asthetic value beauty crops
4. Pest resistance Potatoes
5. Disease resistance Ho2 lima peru
6. Adaptation
7. Adapted to mechanization 4. IRRI International Rice Research Institute
8. Cropping system Mandate crop
9. Physical or abiotic stresses. Rice
Importance of plant breeding Hedd quarters
1. 50% gain in yield and improvement of major Loss banos [Link]
crops has been attributed to plant breeding.
- The other 50% is attributed to good agronomic 5. CIMMYT – Central international de la mejora
practices and environmental condition. miento de maize y trigo
2. It has lead to release of new varieties that are:- Mandate
- Resistant to pest and diseases hence decrease in Maize
cost of production Wheat
- Having a wide adaption which gives yield Triticale (wheat Evye)
stability Hq Mexico city
Relationship of plant breeding to other disciplines 6. ICRISAT
1. Genetics International crop research institute for semi and tropic
2. Botant Mandate crops
3. Agronomy Millet sorghum
4. Plant physiology/ plant brochemistry 7. ICARDA
5. Plant protection e.g., plant pathology entomology International centre for Agricultural Research for dry areas

26
Hq Allepo – Syria Mechanism involved or features that enhance self
Manade crops pollination
Originaly dealt with berry but moved to wheat and dryland 1. Clerstogamy:- The flower (perfect) which will
legumes e.g. chick peas. never open at all.
(b) National Agencies 2. Chasonogamy where a perfect flower opens after
1. K.A.R.I – Kenya Agricultural research Institute pollination and fertilization has taken place.
2. C.R.F. - Cofee Research Foundation 3. Formation of a cone of anthers (sterminal
MandatedCrop column) around the stigma e.g. in solanacea family.
Coffee 4. Stigma and stamen may be hidden
Found in Ruiru As the flower opens
3. TRF – Tea Research foundation Genetic consequences of self pollination
Mandate - Tea
Hq Kericho 1. The implication is that there will be no genetic
4. KSRF – Kenya Sugarcane Research Foundation variation
Mandate 2. It will result to continous setting which will cause
Sugarcane rapid increase of homozygosity or gene get fixed. This
result in information of inbreed lines or pure lines i.e.
(homozygous genotype in all hozi.
5. KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate B: Cross pollination allogamous crop plants.
Services. -This is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther of one
flower to a stigma of another flower. In a different plant of
Origin of plant breeding the same species.
There should be less than 5% self pollination
- Man used to survive as hunter and gathers
therefore man started living in groups/community. This Features/mechanism enhancing cross pollination
brought to an accumulation of dirt ending up in improving
soil fertility. (i) Dichogamy – Different maturation time of
- This lead to accidental seed which germinated stamen and pistil.
giving forth to better plants than they were where they were - There are 2 types of dichogamy
collected. (a) Protandry The stamen of the pollen in the
- They realized the crops they have been going for another mature earlier than the pistil or stigma e.g. carrots.
can do well where they were living. This resulted to man (b) The stamen or the pollen in the anther matures
selecting the best one. earlier than the stamen or anthers e.g. avocado.
- Babylonian and Asyrians cross pollinated date
palms as early as 700 BC. (ii) Monoecism :- male and female parts are position
- Modern plant breeding become famous after in different parts of the plant e.g. maize.
rediscovering of Gregory medal in 1900 which provided a (iii) Dioecisms Each plant have different sex i.e. one
wide range of knowledge in science of genetics. plant having male or female parts e.g. paw paw.
Reproductive system in plant in Relashion to plant (iv) Adoptation to insect pollination
breeding (v) Selfing incompatibility
- It is also refered to as self sterility
Modes of reproduction - This is a physiological process that prevent occurrence
1. Asexual reproduction (apomixes) of self pollination even though both stamen and pistil are
2. Sexual reproduction (Amphilmixis perfect, fertile and mature at the same time.
- It is genetically controlled.
Sexual reproduction - There are 4 types of setting incompatibility.
Modes of pollination 1. Gamitalphitic self incompatibility
2. Sporophytic self incompatibility
Modes of pollination 3. Heteromophyc self incompatibility
1. Self pollination/autogamy/herbatual inbreeding 4. Herkogamy self incompatibility
2. Mixed pollination (vi) Male sterility
3. Cross pollination / allogamy/herbatual - A condition characterized by non functional
outbreeding pollen (male gametes) while the female gametes function
normally.
NB Sexual reproduction involves the union of make and Genetic consequences of cross pollination
female gamets to produce sexual seeds or spores 1. You always get new genotype or additional
A:Self pollination crop plant Autogamous plants genetic vbariation
- This involves the transfer of pollen grains from 2. Recessive allele remain hidden in the
another to the stigma of the same plant or another flower heterozygous genotype.
with the same plant. 3. In each cycle of cross pollination there is a
- The plant is said to be self pollinated when cross reshuffle of genetic material occasionally caused by
pollination is not more than 5%. recombination and segregation of genes.

27
Examples of cross pollinated plants

1. Maize 4 pawpaw
7
2. Pumpkins 5
8
3. Caster 6 ovary
9

(c) Mixed pollinating crop plant

- The plant are usually self pollinating but with
more than 10% (10 – 30% Cross pollination.
- It happens depending on environmental condition Bract
Examples
Cotton peagon peas
Broad beans

Parts of a flower
- Flowers are reproductive structures whose Asexual Reproduction Apomizis
evolutionary origin is unclear, but which are sometimes - In Asexual there is no union of make and
regarded as collection of highly specialized leaves. female garments hence the progenies are garments hence
- Some parts used to describe flowers include the the progenies are exact replica of the maternal parents
following. (clone)
a) Infloresence A collection of flower which may - There is no genetic variation unless
be more attractive to pollinating insects than a small through mutation. Reproduction can be achieved through
solitary flower. vegetative parts e.g. Tubers, bulbs, split bulbs.
b) Receptacles Top of the flower stain (pedices) - Through formation of asexual seed spore
from which flower parts arise. in a process called. (agamospermy)
c) Perianths – It consists of 2 wharls of structures Forms of Agamospemy
called perianth segments i.e. sepals and petals. 1. Gametophyc
d) Calyx – collection of sepals 2. Pseudogamy/pseudoapagamy/false union
e) Sepals – usually green and leaf like structures 3. Adventitious embryo
that enclose and protect the flower buds. Variation in asexual reproducing plant (Apomietic)
f) Corolla – collection of petals 1. No garmetic variation and if any it might
g) Adroecium –collection of stamen forming the be due to
male reproductive system of a flower. (i) Somatic mutation
h) Gynoecium – Collection of carpel forming the (ii) Somatic recombination
female reproductive system of a flower. Types of apomitic plants
i) Ovules – Structure in which the embryo sack 1. Obligate apomitic plant
develop and which after fertilization becomes seeds. 2. Facultative opomitic plants
j) Hermaphrodite (bisexual) plant - A plant Obligate reproduce only asexual means
where male and female sex organs borne on the same Facultative asexual plant they occasionally undergo sexual
flower. reproduction
k) Dioecious (unisexual) plant –Male and female Advantages of Apomiocis
sex organs borne on separate plants pawpaw, poplar, holly. 1. Develop faster
l) Monoecious – Separate male and female sex 2. Low cost of producing and maintaining
organs on the same plant e.g. maize. them
3. You can develop genotype that can breed
true to type regardless to heterozyosity.
Disadvantages
1. They can annuisance the breeder when
sexual progeny is required.
2. Thereanther
is element of seed sterility
3. It is not always easy to achieve it stamen
due to a
stigma number of genes involved.
Heterosis/Hybreed vigour
- It is the opposite of inbreeding depression
- It is manifested by a particular
quantitatively inherited character when it’s expression in
style the f1 hybrid exceeds the expression in f1 hybrid the
expression of characteristics of parental line grown under
comparison.
Petal – collection of
28 petals is called
corola
Criteria used in plant breeding to accurately specify the (c) POLYPOIDY AND VARIABILITY
magnitude of heterosis effect Great difference in hybrids of different species that are
1. Comparison of the f1mean with the mid- distantly related to one another favour hybrid vigour.
parent i.e. the average of e parental value (d) polypoids and variability
% increase due to heterosis = f1-mp X 100 Polipoidy are tobe more stableand able to tolerate a wide
Mp range of environmental conditional
MUTATION BREEDING
Where f1= progeny mean value This is deviation of improved cuttivers or plant by induced
2. Comparison of the f1mean with the mean mutation of existing varieties.
of the higher of the 2 parents Mutation breeding utilizes mutation and selection of
% heterosis= f1- Hp X 100 population of limited variability.
HP Induced mutation is another way of generatic genetic
When HP = mean value of the higher parent variability in the plant breeders materials followed by
selection of desirable mutants.
3. Comparison of the f1 mean with the mean Causes nature of mutation
of f2 population of the same hybrid 1. natural causes –they are caused due to environmental
% heterosis = f1- f2 X 100 factors e.g. temperature.
F2 2. induced mutation –this is done by use of mutagenic
Improvement by clonal selection agents e.g. ionizing radiation (x-rays [Link] gamma rays
Comparison of several colones within a variety or among neutrons)
variety may reveal clones which perform better than others. 3. chemicalsmutages
- The better clones can be selected and used the following chemical can cause mutation in plant
as new varieties ethyl methane sulphonate.
- The observed variation with a variety may Nilo ethyle layer
originated mutation or somatic crossing over. Advantages of mutation breeding
Improvement of hybridization [Link] lead lodging resistant varieties in [Link] 1
- Sexual reproduction is possible in some NJORO I
vegetative propagated plant to produce viable seeds. 2 DISEASES resistance varieties
- Often special care is needed in handling 3 good quality food in some crops
such cases. 4increased crop yield
- Sexual reproduction can be used to 5it has lead to application in biological control program.
produce new hybrids from which selection can be made to [Link] cytoplasmic male sterlivity in maize,berry and
obtain better performing biotypes. tomatoes.
- The selected biotypes can then be Disadvantages
propagated asexually as new cultivars. Large number of population have to screened inorder to
- Sugarcane, onion, cassava are some of the indentify useful mutants.
crop that can be improved by hybridization. 2promising mutants may have some qualities defects
Polyploidy 3mutation breeding often involves handling dangerous
This is the duplication of whole set of individual mutagens that can cause physical defects.
chorosome. BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE
- There are 2 forms of polyploidy namely A disease is enterferance to physiological proceses that
- Euploidy cause limitations of full expersion of the phenctype of
- This is the exact multiples of the basic individuals or cause them to give poor yield of desired
chromosomes number of the gene. product or effect the quality of such products.
Aneupoloidy not exact multiples of the basic chromosomes Growing of disease resistant crops varieties can prevent
number are duplicated. losses due to pathogens like fungi, bacterial, viruses
EFECT OF POLYPLOIDY nematodes and insects pests.
Some superiority has been noted of some polyploidy The kind and amounts of loss caused by plant diseases and
cultivated plants over non-polyploid related diploid plant as pests vary with crop products. The pathogen, the local
supported by the following general observation on environments the control measure used and the
polypoids. combination of this factors.
Before starting a breeding programe to introduce resistance
(a)Gigantisms of polypoid to a disease in a crop the breeder must consider the
Polyploidy is often aci by an increase in cell and tissue. following 3 factors.
This in turns leads to enlargements of fruit seed, flowers an 1. The economic of the particular disease to determine
roots. whether the losses are large enough and frequent to justify
(b) MULTIPLES GENE EFFECT the time and money required.
Gene are also multiplied during chromosome multiplication 2. The nature and genetic variability of resistance in the
hence the effect of individual gene adds up. crop species and possibly in related wild species.
The large number of gene found in polypoids probably 3. The genetic variability of virulence in the pathogen.
makes them able to achieve increases in performance that (a) Immune –no proliferation or the pathogen
might not be possible in non-polypoid plants. in the host.

29
(b) Resistance – restriction on the penetration
or growth of the pathogen in the host (f) AResistance to spread of pathogen
(c) Susceptible –a susceptible has no within the most.
apparent restriction on the growth of the pathogen in the - The spread of pathogen in a host can be
host. prevented through the following.
(d) Pathogen- any organism that causes a 1. Developing of a cock layer after injury to
disease. isolate the point of infection hence acting as a barrier to the
(e) Pathogenic- used to describe the reaction pathogen and also to the toxic substances it may produce.
of a pathogen to host species. 2. The cytoplasm of the resistance host may
(f) Virulence- this is used to describe the dissolve the hyphae of the invacling pathogen.
reaction of a particular race of the pathogen e.g. when a 3. Formation of necrotic reactions that
race grows in a particular host, variety it is considered to be prevent further infection after an infection.
virulent in resistant variety it would be a virulent.
(g) Vertical resistance –Host variety resistant (g) Resistance of plants to insects
to a specific race or races of the pathogen. It is also called - Plant resistance mechanisms to insects can
gene resistance as it is controlled by a single major gene be divided into 3 broad categories.
moderately resistant to a wide range of races ofthe 1. Non- preference – plant displays a degree
pathogen. It is also called polygenic resistance to indicate of resistance by exerting an adverse effect on the insects
it’s probable genetic control behaviour.
(h) Tolerance – This is used to indicate that - This will deter insect from feeding on egg
although the host is parasitized by the pathogen it tolerates laying.
the infection and the yield is not reduced significantly as a 2. Antibiosis plants may exert an adverse
result. effect on the growth and survival of the insect e.g. inhibited
FACTORS THAT MAKES PLANTS AVOID growth death and prolonged to maturity.
INFESTATION/ESCAOE DISEASE INFECTION The following 3 forms of antibiosis are known
(a) Absence of a pathogen from an area:- (i) Physicals tissue toughness as a result of
- A crop being cultivated in a new area lignifications and high silica content that make plant to feed
leaving behind it’s pathogen. This can also be achieved or Oviposition
through fumigation or sterization. (ii) Biochemical i.e. presence of some
(b) Absence of vectors from an area chemicals inhibit the growth and development of insects.
- Some pathogens requires vectors to (iii) Nutritional deficiencies – absence of a
transmit them especially the viruses hence absence of specific nutrient required by an insect can serve to make a
vectors exclude them. plant resistant
(c) Cultural practices to avoid or diminish 3. Tolerance – is a plant may be capable of
disease attack. Some varieties may escape infection or supporting an insect population without loss of vigour or
suffer reduced losses if their lives avoid the disease peak. recuction in crop yield.
E.g. growing early maturity varieties, crop rotation, crop GENETIC BASIS OF DISEASE RESISTANCE
hygiene e.t.c. - Disease resistance is genetically controlled
(d) Morphological structures of the plant in character.
disease escape. - A complex genetic relationship between
- Some plant structure helps a variety to the host and the pathogen.
escape infection e.g., sorghum midge where the Numaba - There is great variability with the
sorghum of West Africa have long purpery glumes which pathogen species and also with the host species.
are not pushed open by anthers so that the midge cannot lay - A given pathogen species may have
eggs in the Thorets. several races each different in ability to infect or attack
(e) Resistance to entry of pathogen in host various host genotype.
- This is a non active host response e.g. - Some races may have the ability to attack
preventing the pathogen entry by phenolic compounds in some plant types and fail to infect others.
onions outer leaves as it prevents germination of onion - Breeding for disease resistance has been
smudge spores this resistance to penetration can be dependant on these important observation.
attributed to any of the following. Variability system in pathogenic fungi
1. A water repellant waxy buyer on the plant - Plant resistance to diseases is susceptible
surface that makes adherence of spores containing droplets after a given period of time due to rise of new races, that
more difficult, it also limits the exudation from the plant of could infect known resistant plants.
nutrient which a pathogen might use in the entry stage of - The following are mechanism by which
‘infestation’ infection. fungi rise to new races.
2. A cuticle is a direct mechanical barrier to
prevent penetration 1. Sexual reproduction
3. Pre-existence cork buyer can also add to - Through segregation an recombination of
prevent penetration. genes during meiosis it lead to new races.
4. Epidermal structures such as hairs, can 2. Mutation
help to restrict penetration

30
- Through mutation it lead to effective - Resistant varieties which are found to be
evolving of new virulent races of pathogens. superior in other important character are selected to replace
3. Heterokraysis susceptible cultivars.
- It’s a form of asexual recombination in - Back + cross procedure are used
which the whole nuclear are exchanged between dicaryotic incorporating a resistance gence in an otherwise desirable
hyphae of different spaces of the fungis. genotype.
This nuclear exchange may affect the pathogenicity of the Strategies for bleeding for disease resistant cultivars
fungal races. Through development of varieties with broad Genetic
4. Parasexualism or somatic hybridization Bases.
-2 Haploid nuclear join to form a diploid which then divide - This can be achieved in 3 ways.
meteorically to form recombination followed by a rare (a) Use of combination of major genes (gene
haplordization to give rise to new races of the pathogen. pyramiding) This gene which has not previously been used
5. Cytopl;asimic changes within the in the local commercial varieties.
organism which enables to attack the host is another source - This extends the useful life of each of the
of new virulent race. resistance genes involved. It also offers ones means of
Variability in host species exploiting any significant stabilizing selection against races
- Host plants of a given species differ in carrying multiple genes for virulence.
their reaction to pathogen depending on their genetic make-
up. (b) Use of general or non specific resistance.
- Some plants are suscpeptible while others - This operates against a larger number of
are resistant. The duration of resistance varies among races. It is polygeneticaly controlled hence it’s likely to be
plants. This discovery increasing efforts by breeders to easily overcome by the pathogen as in the case of specific
breed disease resistant varieties for release to farmers. resistance.
Identification - Varieties with general resistance often
Techniques used to transfee resistance from wild varieties show a more stable disease reaction, such variety rarely
to cultivated one. suffer severe attacks. From new races of the pathogen and
- Conventional crossing and back crossing are not subject to the dramatic breakdown of major gene
- Chromosome transfer using either addition resistance.
or substitution lines recombinant DNA technology.
Identification of physiological laces (c) Combining specific and nonspecific
- In breeding for disease resistance efforts resistance
are usually made develop varieties that are resistant to all - The resulting resistance become more
races prevalent in a given area. effective and provides more permanent resistance through
- Identification of physiological races of a this combination the spread of disease is much more
particular pathogen species is usually based on differences retarded.
in types of infection produced in a given group of selected 2. Use of multiline resistance or interaction
varieties called host testers or differentials. resistance.
Breeding Disease Resistant Cultivars - A multiline cultivar is one that is
Sources of disease Resistance gene composed of a mixture of isogenic each possessing a
1. Resistant gene within the crop species. different major gene for resistance.
This can be various varieties of the same species including - It is aimed at introducing genetic diversity
a differential set resistant varieties. for disease resistance into a homogeniods crop thus
maintaining uniformity in morphology, yield performance
- Land races though of poor yield often and product quality.
serves as valuable source of genes for disease resistance - Varieties with different genes for
hence the importance of conserving them. resistance are selected and closed separetly to best available
2. Resistance genes from wild crop relatives. local variety.
- Three techniques can be used to transfere 3. GENE DEPLOYMENT
resistance from related wild species to a cultivated farm. - It is carried out in 2 ways in time and
This are. space. The idea is to produce a series of different varieties
(a) Conventional crossing and back crossing with different genes and release them in turn, over more
i.e. introgression than one cycle or release them at different location or
(b) Chromosome transfer using either addition region.
or substitution lines Use of interspecific Diversity
(c) Recombinant DNA technology This creates stability mixed mono culture or mixed
3. Iduced mutation cropping can be effectively used to reduce disease
- Positive results have obtained whereby outbreak.
induced mutations have confired resistance to various Role of cultural practices
diseases in several crops including wheat, rice, peanut and - Good management practices added to
others. genetic resistance provides unbeatable combination in
Methods of breeding for resistance reducing crop hazards and eliminating source of disease.

31
- Removal of alternative host also reduces The harvest from this crop bulked and it is called
the number of new races involving time to time. foundation seed . it is common for this work to be done by
SEED PRODUCTION PROCESSING AND specific foundation seed farms that are publicaly owned in
DISTRIBUTION most third countries.
- When a breeder has developed a variety Registered seed
gadget to be a candidate for release to growers several Foundation seed is normaly turned over to an agency or a
decisions must be made with regard to it’s face i.e. whether small group of highly experienced growers who plant it to
the variety should be released or discarder, whether the produce registered seed. This registered seed is the progeny
variety should be recommended for a particular production of highly of the foundation seed its production and
area only and how the know variety is to be identified. The handling must be approved and certified agency and its
process of variety or culture release and subsequent quality must be such that its suitable for the production of
certification multiplication and distribution is generally the certified seeds.
same in most countries. Certified seed
- The primary function of the breeder is to Certified seed is the progeny of the registered seed i.e
develop new varieties and carryout serious studies on them registered is planted to provide certified seed .
to justify their release before presenting a request for This is then seed produced on a large scale to meet the need
release to an official variety release agency which may be a of growers . it must be produced and handled in such a way
government organ or a private organization. as to meet the standard set by the seed certifying agency.
- The plant breeder present information on [Link] year involved from the time of variety released to
the proposed selection collected over the period of testing the build up of commercial stock this is the time added to
and evaluation. This includes yield performance, quality, the end of breeding program before a variety is grown on a
disease reactions morphological characteristics and all the large scale.
other available data. Extension and post release studies
- The breeder is required to provide a -After the release of a variety information must be made to
complete summary of his findings including deficiencies as the grower about the new release . the ministry of
well as the advantages of the new variety and in what ways agriculture have elaborate extension programes which
its superior be existing cultures. provide information to farmers on the attributes and
- The variety release agency or certification agronomic packages recommended for the new cultivar .
agency is the overall in charge and oversees all the step the success or failure of a new variety rests within the
followed before the seed is released to the growers and it grower who uses experience and judgment to compare the
also administer regulations of production and marketing new variety against those already available to the
that are designed to assure variety purity and reasonable management system.
standards of seed quality. -Growers try new variety on a limited area for an a year or
- Public seed testing labs have been two years and conduct their own evaluation before
established in most countries to achieve above mentioned extending to large areas. After a variety has been accepted
functions. by growers it is necessary for plant breeder to make a
- Once approved by the certification agency follow up study on the performance of the variety to take
the material is made available to commercial seed note on any problem that may arise. This will provide an
production agencies which can be government owned opportunity for plant breeders to make further improvement
normally having the equipment and experience to grow on the variety if these are any problem associated with it in
clean, and market large quantities of pure seed. terms of its performance in the field, quality of the desired
- The commercial seed production company product, strange characteristic e.t.c.
would then sell the seed to private sellers or co-operative FORAGE CROPS
who inturn would sell the seeds to farmers/growers. These are plants which grow naturally or are planted by
Seed production and distribution man. They are of two types.
The seed can be classified into for classes as it passes from 1fodder crops which forage crops that are harvested at
breeders seed up to the stage. It is sold to farmers. This certain stage and fed to the livestock
classes are. 2. pasture crops this are forage crops harvested at directly
by livestock through grazing
1. Breeders seed Pasture
This is a seed or vegatatively propagated materials A pasture is a land on which forage crops are grazed on
produced by the breeder directly by livestock
Breeders seeds comes from a small increase that the breeds Classification of pasture
feeds is a true genetic representation of the variety. - Pasture can be classified into.
Seeds increase begins during advanced yield trials or (a). pasture stand
uniforms yield trials so that adequate seed would be In this class the pasture may be
available for the production of foundation seed. (1). Pure stand pastures
2Foundation seed This pastures have either grasses or legumes on them, it
Breeders seed is planted in field not subjected to volunteers May have only one type grass or a mixture of different
plant of the same crop and keep free of weeds. grasses.
-the field is then roqued several times during the season to -it may also have only one type of legumes of a mixture of
remove off-types. different legumes.

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(11). Mixed stand pasture - They are normally of high quality and
This pasture the grasses legumes are grown together give high yields.
C. Classification on the basis of altitudes or zones
Pasture establishment - This pastures are classified as
In this class pastures in this class pastures are classified as; 1. High altitude grasses pasture and legumes
(i) Natural pastures this are pasture grasses - This are pastures which are found at high altitudes of
or legumes that grow naturally and extensively for both 2500 m A.S.L. or higher.
domestic and wild animals. They are mainly mixed stands This pastures are ever green and show vigorous growth
pastures. throughout the year. They are suitable for dairy and sheep
(ii) Artificial pastures/ hays This are grasses farming e.g.
and legumes planted by man purposely for livestock feeds.
grasses: legumes
Kikuyu grass Kenya white clover
Nandi Setaria Louisiana while clover
Molasses grass Subterranean clove
Giant sectarian Lucerne
Rhodes grass
(II) Medium altitude pasture This favours beef, goat, sheep and dairy farming
This are pastures found at the……………………
Giant setaria
Guatemala grass
Legumes
Lucerne
Example Grasses Silver leaf desmodium
Rhodes grass Green leaf desmodium
Nandi sataria Sivatio stylo
Star grass
Makueni guines
Congo signal
Malava guinea
(III) Low altitude pasatures indegegenous livestock like camels, donkey cattle, sheep
This are pasture found in marginal areas of Kenya below and goats are kept.
1500m A.S.L. this area receives little rainfall and usually - This zone is characterizes by natural pastures.
Example
Grasses Cymhopogan
African fox tail Digitaria
Maasai love grass Legumes
Likoni guinea Stylo
Makarikari grass Glycube
Red oat grass centro
Hyparrheia (thatch grass)
Giant star grass
Bothriochlwa
Para grass
Andropogolo
Other pastures crops Fodder shrubs
Weed grasses Leucaenia
Cough grass Atrippex
Nut sedges
Sporobolus
PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT (4) It should be of high quality nutritative value.
- Pastures can be established by use of seed rhizomes or Land preparation
splits - Land should be ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth
Selection of planting materials before planting. This is done before onset of rains by
- Planting material selected should bear the following removing all the perennial weeds.
characteristics. Planting materials
(1) Should be adopted to prevailing environment - This are mainly seeds but there are some established
condition. vegetative.
(2) Should be fast growing inorder to give a good ground - Seed rate
cover which will help control soil erosion. - The seed rate for a pasture grass is 1.5 kgs – 2kgs of
(3) It should be a variety that alse to give high herbage the pure germinating seed (PGS). This seed in Kenya are
yield per unit area.

33
produced by the Kenya seed company but distributed by fertilizer depends on the soil conditions of a particular area.
various agents throughout the country. E.g. single superphosphate SSP 20% P 2 0s and 12% S is
Seed quality applied at the rate of 200kg/ha for grasses and legume
- Seed are normally sold in 2 lots Namelu: mixtures because of its sulphur contents. For pure grasses
- High quality seeds- this are seeds with 13 – 25% it’s recommended to use compound fertilizer like NPK
(pgs) 20:20:0 or 23:23:0 at a rate of 200kg/ha which ensure rapid
- The standard quality this are seed with 12.5% pgs establishment due to the presences of starter nitrogen.
Legume seed rate Legume seed innoculation
This depends on the seeds size e.g. 2kg/ha for the tiny - This is addition of effective rhozobia to leguminous
seeds like clovers. 2 – 3 kgs/ha for the medium seed e.g. seed prior to planning to promote nitrogen fixation.
desmodium and Lucerne which is planted in rows of 30 – - This is done in areas where soil is deficient in
45cm at a seed rate of 8 – 10 kgs/ha as pure stand. nitrogen. It involves coating of the legume seed with
N/B vegatatively propagated pasture grass such as Rhodes pelleting especially in acid soil and peat best Rhozobia.
grass and Kikuyu grass should be planted to ensure a rapid Some Rhozobia strains are naturaly found in the phorus
ground cover. potassium and rainfall.
Fertilizer application at - -Others are introduced through inoculation.
Forage crops require phosphorus for proper root Examples of Rhozobium strain
development and establishment. The type and rate of
Crop Rhizobium species
Lucern Rhizobium melioti
Cloves Rhizobium trifolli
Beans Rhizobium phaseols
- Most pasture reeds are small hence they should be 2. They compete with forage crops for nutrients
covered lightly after broadcasting. sunlight, moisture.
- There are 3 main methods of sowing pasture crops this 3. Weed reduce the quality and herbage yields
are. 4. Some weed may result in livestock poisoning
1. Direct sowing e,g thorn apple Datura Stramomonium
- This involves establishment of a pasture crop in a 5. They interfere with forage fertilization
clean seed bed. Where no other crops are growing. Seeds
are first mixed with fertilizer thoroughly broadcasted and Weed control measure on pastures
then lightly covered by use of a rake to about 3mm deep a 1. Timely land preparationthis ensures a clean
depth of more than 5mm often results in poor germination. seed bed with less subsequent weed problems.
2. Slashing this ensures that he broad leafed
weed are eliminated before the flowering stage hence
2. Under sowing preventing the formation of weed seeds.
- It involves establishment of a pasture under a cover 3. Application of selective herbicidesThis is
crop usually maize. mainly done on pure grass pastures e.g. 24 – D is applied
- Maize is planted as recommended by weeded 2-3 against broad leafed leaves.
weeks after the onset of rains. NB Non – Selective herbicides can be applied as a pre-
- Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with the emergence application.
recommended amount of fertilizer no further weeding 4. Uprooting of weeds very effective where
should be done. weeds are scattered.
- Maize is harvested early to expose the young pasture
seeding to sunlight. (b) Top Dressing
3. Over sowing Application of plant nutrients after the pastures has
It involves establishing of a pasture legume in an existing established.
grass pasture. This sowing surpreses the growth of the
existing pasture by burning, slashing or hard grazing
together with slight soil disturbance. Just before sowing.
A heavy dose of single superphosphate at the rate of Reasons for top dressing
200kg/- 400kg/ha is also recommended. Keep the grass 1. To add or replenish soil nutrients and ensure
pasture short until the legume pasture is well established. proper nutrients balance.
Management of pasture 2. Increase the herbage yield.
Management of pastures 3. Improve the nutritive value of the crop[
4. Correct or amend both physical and chemical
(i) Weeding properties such as soil structure and moisture holding
Weeding should be controlled as much as possible from capacity
invading the pastures. 5. To enable the soil micro organisms to break
down organic residue into available nutrients.
(ii) Effects of weed on pastures Top dressing material
1. They reduce life span of pastures

34
It depends on the crop and soil nutrients status. Inorganic 6. Frequent early defoliation leads to a graded
fertilizers are better top dress material than organic weakening of the stand followed by empty patches with
manures since they release their nutrients much faster invasion and eventual reduction in the productive life of the
stand.
Pure grass pasture require large amount of nitrogen and Effects of rate defoliation (more than 10 weeks)
occasionally potassium. While grass, legume mixtures
requires phosphorus potassium, calcium and sulphur for 1. The forage has high dry matter content hence
nitrogen fixation. high dry matter yield.
2. It has high cellulose content hence its woody and
Rate of application fibrous.
This is related to the nutrient uptake by the forage crop in 3. It has high lignin, cutin tannin and silica content
question e.g. in pastures fertilizers and broadcast at the which are all indigestible
beginning of rains, small as a time to reduce losses through 4. It has low crude protein content
runoff percolation and volatilization. 5. Has low leaf to stem ratio
6. It has low dry matter digestibility
C. TOPPING
this is the removal of stormy fibrous material left over NB The time of the defoliation and subsequent frequency
after a period of pasture grazing. This stimulates fresh should strike a compromise between dry matter yield and
growth, it is done at the onset of rains and subsequently the quality components between dry matter yield and the
during a wet spell preferably followed by top dressing. Its quality component mainly curde protein and digestibility
done through slashing, mowing and burning. Grazing should be done 4 – 6 month after planting
depending on the species and the amount of rainfall during
D. Re seeding/Gapping the establishment period.
It is done when the grass or legume is partially denuded ot - Subsequently grazing is done on a 4 – 8 week
an extent of re-filling the gaps. interval.

E. Some pastures are seriously affected by heavy grazing Reasons for paddoking
leading to low herbage product. Cush pastures require 1. To control grazing and ensure sufficient
controlled grazing though paddocking tethering and strip regrowth before grazing is resumes.
grazing. 2. To ensure better forage utilization and less
wastage through trampling and selective grazing.
Pest Control 3. Facilitate conservation of excess pasture inform
This most common pest in pasture is moles that make of hay or standing forage.
underground tunnels destroy of pasture crops hence killing 4. To maintain a favourable grass legume balance
them. Soils from such tunnel cover the pasture crop which where applicable.
results in denudation of pasture. More are controlled by
trapping, use of rodentcides and use of cats. Carrying capacity of a forage
This is the ability of the forage stand to maintain a
Pasture utilization particular number of livestock units per unit area.
-large quality declines with age, the quality components It depends on herbage yield and the animals daily
are: soluble sugar, starch, protein, organic matter and requirement.
digestibility.
Digestibility declines due to increase in crude fibre content Stocking rate
as the herbage mature. It refers to the number of animal or livestock units
maintained per unit area of land.
Frequency of defoliation
Defoliation is the grazing in pastures and cutting for feed in NB:To determine the carrying capacity and hence the
fodder crops. proper stocking rate for a particular forage stand, dry matter
Frequency of defoliation refer to how often the forage stand yields per unit area per unit time and the live weight of the
in grazed and cut for feed. animal to be fed are considered.

Effects of very early defoliation (less than 4 weeks) Example

1. The forage has very high moisture content of A dairy cow consumes 2.5kgs DM for every 100kgs. How
about 90%. much dry mater consumed by a jersey cow weighing
2. The forage has very high protein content on the 400kgs live weight per year.
weight basis
3. It has very low dry matter content hence low dry 2.5kgDm Per 100kg’s 365/per year
matter yield. 100
4. It has very low crude protein yield
5. It has high dry matter digestibility but low 400 X 2.5 X365 = 3650
digestible nutrients 100 1,000
3.65 tonC Dm/Year

35
How much Dm will quency 450 kg per one year 3. Animals waste are distributed evenly in all fields or
peacocks
2.5 X 400 X 365 = 4.1 tone of DM/year 4. Pasture area is given time to regrow before it is grazed
100 100 again.
5. Excess pasture can be harvested for conservation
Ayrchire 6. It is possible to apply fertilizers in parts of the pasture
Weighing 500kg live weight which are not in use and also reseeding and weeding.
2.5 X 500 X 365 = 4.6t of Dm/year
100 100 Methods of rotation grazing
1. Paddocking
- Carrying capacity is increased by intensive - A paddock is a fenced portion of pasture in which
management practices such as irrigation, fertilizer animals are restricted for grazing.
application, manure use of supplementary roughage e.g. Paddocking is grazing livestock in one paddock for a short
agro individual by products like molasses. period and then moving them to another. The size of
paddock depend on carrying capacity of pasture.
Under stocking
- Water troughs are placed between paddock such that
It is the stocking rate below the carrying capacity of the animals can drink water from either paddock. This saves
pasture. energy and labour in changing from one paddock to
another. Paddocking though expensive saves herding
Effects of overstocking labour.
1. Insufficient regrowth period for the forage hence
effects similar to those of very early defoliation. 2. Strip grazing
2. Overgrazing and loss of soil cover leading to This allows livestock to graze on restricted portions of the
erosion. pasture at a time and then moving them to the next. It is
3. Invasion of undesirable species especially weeds and done on a very high quality pastures.
shrubs.
- Electric fences can be used to enclose animals in a
Intensity of defoliation given strip of pasture.
- Herding can be done to restrict animals to stay within
This is the proportion of herbage removed through grazing the strips
and that of residue forage in fodder crops it refers to the r - Temporarily fences can also be used.
ratio of the forage . In fodder crops it refers to the ratio of
the forage grazed or cut to what is left. TETHERING
Pasture should be grazed until 70% pf the aerial herbage is
eaten up which concedes with 5cm stubble. For short - This involves tying an animal to a post with a rope
grasses such as kikuyu grass and 10.15 cm for taller grasses such that it feeds within a restricted area. The rope may
such as Rhodes grass. have a metal ring which slides along a strong wire
supported by poles.
NB: Frequency and intensity of defoliation should be
planed in such away that sufficiently mature forage with B: ZERO GRAZING/STALL FEEDING
high crude protein content is ensured at each defoliation
without sacrificing the productive life of a forage stand. - It is a practice of laying animals in a permanent
feeding enclosure known as a stall.
GRAZING SYSTEM - Feed is cut and taken to the animals in the stalls,
There are 3 main types of grazing systems. This are. animals are provided with plenty of clean water together
1. Rotational grazing with mineral links.
2. Continous grazing
3. Zero grazing Advantages
1. There is quick accumulation or manure.
A. Rotational grazing 2. Animals make use of the feed without wastage
3. Animals produce high yields due to less wastage of
- This is the practice of allowing livestock to feed on energy.
part of a pasture for a period down to a certain level be they 4. It is easy to control diseases and parasites.
moved to the next. This is organized in an orderly 5. It requires little land.
sequence such that by the time the animals are returned to 6. It allows higher stocking rate.
the place where they started the pasture will have properly
regenerated. Disadvantages
Advantages 1. It requires high initial capital
1. Livestock make maximum use of pasture 2. It requires high management skills
2. It reduces the build up of pests and diseases 3. It is labour intensive. i.e. it require a lot of labour.
4. Diseases can easily be spread.

36
 ELEMENT IONIC FORM AVAILABLE
C. Continous Grazing/herding TO PLANTS
- This is the type of grazing where the pasture is not Carbon CO2
allowed any resting period. Oxygen Co2, O2-, OH- CO32-
- The pastures and the animals wander all over the area Hydrogen HoH, H+
on daily bases. The animals have to be herded to control Nitrogen NH+ NO3-
their movement as they graze. Their system can result to Calcium Ca2+
overgrazing if the stocking rate is not controlled. Potassium K+
- It is commonly in arid and semi arid areas. Magnesium mg2+
- It is the method used by nomadic pastoralist.
Phosphorus H2 PO4-, HPO4-
sulphur SO42-, HSO4- HPO4-
FODDER CROPS
Chlorine CL-
The forage crops are grown allowed to mature them out and
given to livestock as feeds. Animals are then not allowed Iron Fe2+, Fe3+
to graze on them directly because they easily degenerate. Boron H3BO3, H2BO3-
The fodder has higher herbage production per unit area of Manganese Mn2+
land. zinc Cu2+
Fodder crops can be conserved and be sold if produced on copper Cu2+ CU (OH)+
large scale. molybdenum MoO42-
Cobalt Co2+
Examples of fodder crops 6. Deficiency This is a condition where an element is
Napier grass (Pennisetumpurpuneum) low quality in plant tissue such that the plant will show
certain characteristic symptoms leading to
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION measurable/observable features.
Common terms 7. Toxic element This is an element of which when
1. An element is a fundamental substance that consists taken up by plant in excess will impair the normal
of atoms of one type which are defined by the number and performance of the plant e.g. Al and Mn
arrangement of electrons I the orbital.
2. A Mineral This is an inorganic substance usually Beneficial element
made up of one or more element that is formed under given - These are mineral element which either stimulate
temperature pressure condition and it’s characterized by growth but are not essential or might not be essential to
unique set of chemical and physical properties. plant under certain condition.
3. Soil productivityThis is the capacity of the soil to Plant Nutrition
produce a certain amount of crop yield per unit area of This is the process of absorption and utilization of essential
land. element for plant growth and reproduction. There are 17
4. Soil fertility This is the chemical nature of the soil main elements, important for crop growth. The table below
that can be defined as the ability of soil to provide essential shows the 17 elements and their Ionic forms observed by
plant nutrients in adequate and balanced amount to support plants.
the set level of crop yield.
5. Nutrient this is the element or chemical compound
which is required by an organism e.g. plant for metabolism
and growth.
Carbon hydrogen and oxygen are mostly obtained from
water and air while the rest is from the soil and solid.
- Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur
are required in large quantities hence called Macro
Nutrients N.P.K. are the primary nutrients while calcium,
magnesium and sulphur are secondary nutrients. These
primary nutrients cannot be substituted with any other
element.

- The rest are required in relatively low amount and

are called micronutrients or trace elements.
- The plants growth are dependent on a favourable
combination of the following six environmental factors.
i.e.

Hight Air
Mechanical support Water
Heat Nutrients
Soil can supply all of them with exception of light. The the law of Minimum. Which states that the level of plant
condition that is least optimal will limit plant growth hence production can be no greater essential plant growth factors.
Mechanism of plant nutrient up-take

37
Prior to absorption into root cell, nutrients reach the surface
of root by 3 mechanisms.
1. Mass flow - this is the movement - The factors that affect metabolism and thereby
of plant nutrients in the flowing soil solution i.e. (water) it the availability of respiratory energy will directly affect
is the most important as it delivers the largest amount of nutrient uptake.
nutrients of about 80%. They include:-
2. Diffusion – this is the movement 1. Temperature in soil which affects microbial activities.
by normal dispersion of the nutrient from a higher 2. Oxygen supply which is usually altered by
concentration through the soil water to areas of lower management practices like compaction which affects the
concentration of that nutrient. amount of oxygen reading the roots.
3. Root interception – this is the 3. Concentration of the nutrient- the higher the
extension of the root into new soil areas with untapped concentration the higher the likelihood of more uptake up
supplies of nutrients in the soil solution. to a given level.
4. Soil moisture or water content- Which influences the
The mechanism of absorption into the root cells are. rate of nutrient movement.
1. Carrier transport (active process) for a nutrient 5. The density and distribution of roots e.g. phosphorous
to cross a cell membrane into the cell. It is believed that uptake is favoured by root proliferation.
each ion must be attached to a carrier. The carrier nutrient 6. Soil reactions (Soil PH).
complex can pass through the membrane into the cell. 7. Source of nutrient – The strength in which the nutrient
The carrier utilize energy utilize energy and thus enable is held (available.
transportation of nutrients against concentration gradient. 8. Antagonism- Some enzymatic and other biochemical
2. Facilitated diffusion reactions requiring a given micro nutrient may be affected
- As cations are absorbed hydrogen ions are excreted by the presences of a second trace element in toxic
into the soil solutionor more organic acid anions are quantities e.g. excess copper or sulphate may adversely
produced inside the cell to balance the absorbed cations affect the utilization uptake molybdenum. Excess
likewise as nutrients anions are absorbed and/or hydrogen phosphate may encourage deficiency of zinc iron, or copper
carbons HCO3- are excreted into the soil solutions inorder but enhance the absorption on molybdenum. Heavy
to maintain the electron balance in the cell. nitrogen intensifies copper and zinc deficiencies.
Plant nutrient
3. Simple diffusion (passive - Plant nutrients are divided into 2 major groups this are
process) macro nutrient and micro nutrient.
Plants also absorbed nutrients through the stomata e.g. Micro nutrients-This are also referred to as major
carbon inform of carbon dioxide and hydrogen inform of elements and they are needed by plants in large quantities
water but in small amounts for growth and development. They cannot be substituted
4. Transpiration pull growth and development. They cannot be substituted by
As the plant transpire more water is absorbed from the fall any other element. They include Nitrogen, phosphorus and
with some nutrients with some nutrients dissolved in it. potassium referred to as Primary Macro nutrients and
Factors affecting nutrient availability/uptake calcium magnesium and suphur referred to as secondary
macro nutrients. All this elements are found in the soil.
They include the following.

38