OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

BACHELOR OF ARTS
SEMESTER 3

OBAP312
COMPARATIVE POLITICAL
ANALYSIS
Unit: 11 – Party System 1
OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

Unit 11
Party System
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SL Fig No / Table SAQ /
Topic Page No
No / Graph Activity
1 Introduction - -
4
1.1 Objectives - -

2 Party System – A Comprehension - -

2.1 Origin And Growth - -

2.2 Functions Of A Political Party - -

5-18
2.3 Theories Regarding The Origin Of Political
- 1
System

2.4 Classification Of Party System - 2

3 Party System In The Usa - -

3.1 Why A Two-Party System? - -

3.2 History Of American Parties - -
3.3 Growth Of The American Party System - 3 19-29

3.4 Functions And Role Of US Political Parties - -

3.5 Organization Of Parties - -
3.6 Other Parties - 4

4 Party System In China - -

30-35
4.1 Communist Party Of China - 5

5 Summary - - 36-37

6 Glossary - - 38

7 Terminal Questions - - 39

8 Answers - -

8.1 Self-Assessment Questions - - 40-42

8.2 Terminal Questions - -

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9 References - - 43

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1. INTRODUCTION
A system of parties delineates the organization and interplay of political factions within the political
sphere of a nation. It includes aspects such as the count and comparative size of these parties,
their ideological stances, and how they compete and collaborate. There are primarily three
categories of party systems: single-party, dual-party, and multiparty arrangements. The single-
party framework is identified by the rule of one party that monopolizes governmental power. In
contrast, a dual-party model sees two predominant parties taking turns at governance, with
minimal opportunities for others to lead. Conversely, a multiparty system entails the presence of
at least three political parties vying for dominance, often necessitating the formation of coalitions
to establish a government.

The choice of a party system within a country is determined by a variety of factors, such as its
historical trajectory, societal divisions, the electoral framework, and the prevailing political ethos.
Each configuration offers its benefits and drawbacks, affecting how diverse interests are
represented, the stability of the political environment, and governance efficacy. An understanding
of party systems is imperative for scrutinizing how democracies function, the process of
government formation, and the competitive political landscape. Exploring the attributes and
consequences of different party systems allows political analysts to discern the complexities of
global political scenarios.

1.1 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
Explain the origin and growth of Political Parties
Discuss the functions of political parties.
Illustrate the classification of the party system.
Analyse the party system in the United States of America
Evaluate the party system in China

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2. PARTY SYSTEM – A COMPREHENSION

2.1. Origin and Growth
Political parties have become an essential part of modern democratic systems, playing a vital role
in the representation of citizens' interests and the establishment of governments.

The conception of political parties can be traced back to the early contemporary period, with the
rise of representative assemblies in Europe. As noted by the well-known political scientist Maurice
Duverger, the emergence of political parties was nearly linked to the development of parliamentary
systems and the extension of franchises. The English Civil War of the 17th century saw the
emergence of rudimentary political groupings, for instance, the Royalists and the
Parliamentarians, which laid the groundwork for the later development of more structured parties.

The Age of Enlightenment and the French Revolution further catalysed the growth of political
parties. The works of Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Montesquieu, emphasized
the importance of political pluralism and the separation of powers, providing a philosophical basis
for the emergence of competing political factions. The French Revolution of 1789 witnessed the
formation of distinct political clubs, such as the Jacobins and the Girondins, which represented
different ideological positions and vied for power in the newly established National Assembly.

The 19th century marked a significant turning point in the development of political parties, with the
rise of mass political parties. The extension of suffrage to larger segments of the population,
particularly in Europe and North America, created a need for more organized and structured
political entities capable of mobilizing and representing the interests of the newly enfranchised
masses.

The United States provides a prime example of this transformation. The early American party
system was characterized by loose coalitions of political elites, such as the Federalists and the
Anti-Federalists. However, the Jacksonian era of the 1820s and 1830s saw the emergence of the
Democratic Party, which sought to appeal to the common man and challenge the power of the
aristocratic elite. The Republican Party, founded in 1854, emerged as a response to the growing
debate over slavery and quickly became a major force in American politics.

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In Europe, the rise of mass political parties was closely linked to the growth of socialist and labour
movements. The German Social Democratic Party, founded in 1875, became a model for socialist
parties across the continent, advocating for the rights of workers and the transformation of society
along socialist lines. The British Labour Party, established in 1900, emerged as a voice for the
trade union movement and the working class, challenging the dominance of the Conservative and
Liberal parties.

The 20th century witnessed the further institutionalisation and consolidation of party systems. The
advent of universal suffrage and the growth of democratic institutions created a more stable and
predictable environment for political competition. As Giovanni Sartori argues in his seminal work
"Parties and Party Systems" (1976), the institutional framework of a country plays a crucial role in
shaping the nature and dynamics of its party system.

In Western Europe, the post-World War II period saw the emergence of stable party systems,
characterized by the dominance of two or three major parties alternating in power. The German
party system, for example, has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union/Christian
Social Union (CDU/CSU) and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since the 1950s, with smaller
parties such as the Free Democratic Party (FDP) and the Greens playing a pivotal role in coalition
formation.

The United Kingdom, on the other hand, has maintained a two-party system, with the Conservative
Party and the Labour Party alternating in power for much of the 20th century. However, the rise of
regional parties, such as the Scottish National Party (SNP) and the Welsh nationalist party Plaid
Cymru, has challenged the traditional two-party dominance in recent decades.

In the United States, the two-party system has remained remarkably stable, with the Democratic
and Republican parties dominating national politics since the mid-19th century. However, the rise
of polarization and the growing influence of interest groups and media have led to increased
gridlock and dysfunction in the American political system.

2.2. Functions of a Political Party

Political parties are essential components of modern political systems, serving a multitude of
crucial functions that contribute to the stability, efficiency, and democratic nature of governance.
They are, as follows;

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1. Unification and Stabilization of the Political Process: One of the primary functions of
political parties is to bring coherence and stability to the political landscape. In nations with
diverse geographical, social, and economic interests, parties act as unifying forces, bridging
the gaps between disparate groups and providing a common platform for their concerns. For
instance, the Democratic Party in the United States serves to unite the conservative Southern
states with the more liberal Northern states, while in Germany, the Democratic Party brings
together Protestants and Catholics. This unifying role is particularly crucial in federal systems,
where parties work to harmonize the interests of different government structures, as
exemplified by the former USSR. By acting as the highest common denominator, parties
simplify the political process and contribute to its overall stability.

2. Power Struggle and Interest Aggregation: Political parties are the key players in the struggle
for power within a political system. They strive to capture and maintain control of the
government by widening their support base and harmonizing the interests they represent.
While pressure groups may articulate specific interests, it is the parties that aggregate these
interests into coherent platforms. The Conservative Party in Britain, for example, relies on the
support of various economic, social, and geographical sections of the electorate. Whether in a
bi-party, multi-party, or single-dominant party system, all parties aim to expand their influence
and mitigate societal divisions in the process.

3. Linking Government and the People: Parties serve as vital intermediaries between the
government and its citizens. They engage in political education, mobilization, and recruitment,
ensuring that the public is informed, engaged, and represented in the political process. In
liberal-democratic systems, parties utilize mass media to educate and activate the electorate.
They may also organize and control unions or other organizations to embed themselves in the
social fabric, as exemplified by the Communist Party in France. In totalitarian systems, the
dominant party mobilizes support through rallies, symbols, and displays of unity, emphasizing
the identification of individuals with the party in power.

4. Political Recruitment: Political parties play a crucial role in recruiting and selecting political
leaders. The channels through which individuals attain positions of authority vary depending
on the nature of the political system. In countries with weak or poorly organized parties, power
often remains in the hands of traditional elites, such as hereditary ruling families or military
organizations. In totalitarian states with a single dominant party, recruitment occurs within the

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party ranks. However, in liberal democratic systems with competitive party structures, political
recruitment is more diverse, with leaders emerging from various parties.

5. Setting Societal Goals and Values: Parties shape the ideological landscape of society by
presenting issues and setting value goals. While the degree of ideological clarity may vary, all
parties have philosophical foundations that guide their actions. In the United States, for
example, the two major parties may have ideological similarities but differ on specific issues.
Totalitarian systems, on the other hand, often feature single parties that set rigid ideological
goals, such as the Communist parties' pursuit of socio-economic equality through the
dictatorship of the proletariat.

6. Brokering Ideas and Focusing Attention: Parties act as brokers of ideas, selecting and
prioritizing issues for public discourse. In democratic systems, revolutionary parties that are
hostile to the established order serve as focal points for discontent and organized opposition,
eschewing compromise in favour of adhering to their ideological positions. These parties can
span the political spectrum, from the far-left Communist parties to the far-right Fascist and Nazi
parties, or embrace revolutionary nationalism, as seen in various Latin American movements.
In non-democratic systems, revolutionary parties may not merely be mechanisms of the
political system but their very core, with party leaders wielding real power rather than
government officials.

7. Political Modernization in Developing Nations: In newer and developing nations where

political traditions are still evolving, parties play a vital role in political modernization. They
shape the government, provide links between social and economic groups, educate and
socialize the populace, break down traditional barriers, and act as a binding force in diverse
communities. The Indian National Congress, for example, has been instrumental in framing
the constitution and guiding the country towards parliamentary democracy.

8. Social Welfare Functions: Beyond their strictly political roles, parties also engage in social
welfare activities, particularly during times of crisis such as famines, droughts, epidemics, and
wars. They work to alleviate suffering and eradicate social evils like illiteracy, untouchability,
ignorance, and disease. In some countries, like Australia, citizens can lead their entire lives
within the framework of party-linked organizations, ranging from trade unions and welfare

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groups to hobby clubs and associations. Indian parties like the Congress and the Bharatiya
Janata Party often undertake extensive social welfare and public service initiatives.

However, it is crucial to recognize that political parties can also have dysfunctional aspects. They
may polarize opinions in ways that threaten the stability of the political system, as seen in the near
collapse of the French Fourth Republic in 1957 due to the influence of the Communists and the
Gaullists, both of whom were hostile to the constitutional framework. The disastrous
consequences of the Fascist and Nazi parties in Italy and Germany during World War II also
highlight the potential dangers of party dysfunction.

Merits of the Party System:

1. Enables Parliamentary Functionality: The party system plays a crucial role in making
parliamentary government workable by providing the ruling party with a majority and
ensuring homogeneity in decision-making. This allows for smoother governance and
reduces the likelihood of deadlocks or conflicts within the government.

2. Serves as a Platform for Public Opinion: Political parties act as agencies of public
opinion, engaging in discussions on various issues and raising awareness among the
populace about the prevailing situations in the country. By doing so, parties contribute to
the shaping and moulding of public opinion, ensuring that citizens are informed and
engaged in the political process.

3. Organizes and Empowers Citizens: The party system organizes unorganized individuals
into groups, enabling them to express their views more effectively and forcefully. This
aggregation of interests allows for better representation and amplification of the voices of
different segments of society.

4. Educates and Engages the Public: Parties play an essential role in educating the public
by constantly highlighting different problems and proposing solutions. This process raises
political consciousness among citizens, encouraging them to take an active interest in state
affairs and participate in the democratic process.

5. Bridges the Gap between Government and Citizens: The party system serves as a vital
link between the government and the governed, as well as between different branches of

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the government. In countries like the United States, the development of the party system
has helped avoid frequent conflicts between the executive and legislature by facilitating
communication and cooperation.

6. Acts as a Check on Hasty Legislation: Opposition parties play a crucial role in

scrutinizing and challenging the actions of the ruling party. The constant threat of opposition
criticism acts as a check against hasty and ill-considered legislation, compelling the party
in power to be more deliberate and considerate in its decision-making.

Demerits of the Party System:

1. Subordination of Individual Opinion: The party system often demands strict adherence
to party discipline, which can stifle individual opinion and creativity. Members are expected
to toe the party line and become "yes-men," agreeing with whatever is dictated by the party
leadership. This suppression of individuality can lead to a lack of diverse perspectives and
innovative ideas within the party, as dissenting voices are often marginalized or expelled.

2. Fosters Animosity and Unproductive Criticism: The party system can breed mutual
hatred and bickering among political factions. Parties may engage in unproductive criticism
and condemnation of their opponents, even when constructive feedback is warranted. This
adversarial atmosphere can spoil the political climate and hinder constructive dialogue and
cooperation.

3. Prioritizes Party Interests over National Interests: In the pursuit of party goals, the larger
interests of the nation may be neglected. Parties can become narrow-minded and sectional,
focusing on their agendas rather than working towards the common good of the country.

4. Discourages Capable Individuals from Participating: The negative aspects of the party
system, such as infighting, mudslinging, and the pressure to conform, can deter highly
capable individuals from entering politics. This deprives the nation of the services of
talented and principled leaders who could have made significant contributions to public life.

5. Encourages Fanaticism and Foreign Influence: In some cases, party members may
develop a fanatical obedience to party ideology, even if it goes against the interests of the

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state. This can lead to anti-national activities and the influence of foreign powers on
domestic politics.

6. Breeds Corruption and Unethical Practices: The party system can be a breeding ground
for corruption, with parties resorting to bribery, false propaganda, and other unethical
means to gain political advantage. The suppression of truth, distribution of money and
offices for political gains, and vote-catching legislation can lower the moral standards of
society and undermine the integrity of the political process.

2.3. Theories regarding the Origin of Political System

The emergence and evolution of political party systems have long been a subject of fascination
for political scientists. Various theoretical frameworks have been proposed to understand the
underpinnings of this important aspect of modern democracy. In this article, we examine the three
main theoretical approaches that have been put forward to explain the origins of the party system:
the Human Nature Theory, the Environmental Explanation, and the Interest Theory.

The Human Nature Theory

One prominent perspective on the origin of the party system is the Human Nature Theory. This
theory posits that the formation of political parties is rooted in the inherent characteristics and
tendencies of human beings. Three key explanations fall under this theoretical umbrella.

One explanation argues that the tendency of human nature towards combativeness is a driving
force behind the rise of political parties. In this view, the formation of parties provides an organized
outlet for the innate human instinct for confrontation and rivalry.

Another explanation under the Human Nature Theory identifies the diversity of human
temperaments as the catalyst for the emergence of different political parties. Individuals with a
preference for the established order tend to gravitate towards right-wing parties, while those who
seek reforms and changes in the existing system coalesce into left-wing parties. This divergence
in individual temperaments is seen as a fundamental reason for the formation of opposing political
camps.

The third explanation within the Human Nature Theory emphasizes the role of charismatic political
leaders. It is argued that the dormant masses require dynamic leadership to articulate their latent
feelings and aspirations. The availability of such charismatic leaders is thus considered a crucial

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factor in the formation of political parties, as they are able to inspire the masses to work towards
the goals of a particular party.

The Environmental Explanation

In contrast to the Human Nature Theory, the Environmental Explanation highlights the role of the
broader socio-economic and political context in the evolution of the party system. This perspective
suggests that the modern democratic party system is a product of two significant historical
developments.

The first development is the limitation of the authority of the absolute monarchy, as the legislature
sought to curb the prerogatives of the king. The second is the extension of the franchise to a wider
segment of the population, leading to the emergence of diverse groups within the expanded
electorate, each taking sides in the political battles or demanding recognition of their interests.

By the late 17th century in Britain, for instance, public policy had become the shared concern of
both the King and Parliament, giving rise to the terms "Whig" and "Tory" to describe those who,
respectively, opposed and supported royal policy. This interplay between the struggle for power
within the political institutions and the changing composition of the electorate is seen as a crucial
factor in the formation of the party system.

The Interest Theory

While the aforementioned explanations provide valuable insights, they are not without their
limitations. In response, the Interest Theory has emerged as a widely recognized hypothesis for
understanding the origin of the party system.

The core assumption of the Interest Theory is that political parties serve as convenient agencies
for the expression of individual and group interests. The nature, extent, and degree of an
individual's political activities are driven by the range of interests they develop, which in turn are
shaped by the interaction between their personality and cultural environment.

This theory acknowledges the significance of economic interests in influencing an individual or

group's decision to affiliate with a particular party or coalition of parties. However, it departs from
the Marxist assumption of economic determinism and the simplistic dichotomy of "haves" and
"have-nots." Instead, the Interest Theory suggests that human beings tend to support the political

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party that offers the prospect of achieving their desired economic as well as socio-cultural
objectives.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 1

1. For the following multiple-choice questions, choose the correct option.

A. The emergence of political parties is closely linked to:
(a) The rise of monarchies
(b) The development of parliamentary systems
(c) The decline of feudalism
(d) The Industrial Revolution
B. The Jacksonian era in the United States saw the rise of which major
political party?
(a) The Republican Party
(b) The Federalist Party
(c) The Democratic Party
(d) The Whig Party
C. Which of the following is NOT a function of political parties?
(a) Interest aggregation
(b) Political recruitment
(c) Economic regulation
(d) Setting societal goals
2. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
a) The ___________________ Party in Germany became a model for
socialist parties across Europe.
b) Giovanni Sartori argues that the ___________________ of a country
shapes its party system.
c) The idea that political parties are essential for stable democracies was
argued by political scientist Giovanni Sartori in his book _______.
d) Political parties that challenge the existing political order and advocate for
radical change are known as _________ parties.

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2.4. Classification of Party System

Party systems refer to the number, size, and ideological orientation of political parties within a
given country. The classification of party systems is based on several criteria, including the
number of parties, the relative size of the parties, the ideological distance between the parties,
and the level of polarization. Giovanni Sartori made an important contribution to the classification
of party systems by going beyond a pure "numbers approach" to consider additional qualitative
dimensions.

Sartori argued that merely counting the number of parties offers limited explanatory power. Of
greater significance is analyzing the ideological distance between parties, the intensity of conflicts
between them, and their relative strength and roles in government.

Accordingly, Sartori only considered "relevant" parties that actually impacted party competition,
disregarding smaller fringe parties. This allowed him to identify four main types of party systems:

• Predominant Party System: One party consistently dominates and holds power despite the
existence of other parties. Dominance may arise from historical legacies, charismatic
leadership, strong organization, or popular support. Examples include the Progressive
Conservatives in Canada, the Institutional Revolutionary Party in Mexico, and the African
National Congress in South Africa.
• Two-Party System: Power alternates between two major parties that dominate the political
spectrum. Other parties rarely gain significance. The United States is the archetype.
• Limited or Moderate Pluralism: No party gains a majority and durable coalitions are
necessary. While government may be less stable, moderate polarization allows for
functional governance, as seen in countries like Germany and India.
• Extreme or Polarized Pluralism: The proliferation of small parties with extreme, antagonistic
ideologies fosters fragmented, unstable cabinets and policy deadlock. Deep societal
cleavages are reflected in the party system breakdown. Pre-WWII France exemplified such
polarized pluralism.

Classification of Party Systems:

1. One-Party System

2. Two-Party System

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3. Multi-Party System

a. Moderate Multi-Party System

b. Polarized Multi-Party System

1. One-Party System:
A one-party system is characterized by the dominance of a single political party that holds
exclusive control over the government and the political process. In such a system, other parties
may exist, but they are either banned or have no realistic chance of gaining power. The ruling
party often maintains its dominance through a combination of ideological indoctrination,
coercion, and the suppression of opposition forces. Examples of one-party systems include
China under the Communist Party and the former Soviet Union.

In a one-party system, the ruling party's ideology becomes the dominant political doctrine, and
the party's leadership is often synonymous with the state's leadership. The absence of
competitive elections and the lack of a viable opposition can lead to the concentration of power
in the hands of a few individuals or a small group within the party. This lack of political pluralism
can result in limited freedoms, restricted civil liberties, and the suppression of dissent.

However, proponents of one-party systems argue that they provide stability, unity, and the
ability to mobilize resources effectively for national development. They contend that the
absence of political competition allows for long-term planning and the implementation of
policies without the distractions of short-term electoral considerations.

2. Two-Party System:

A two-party system is characterized by the dominance of two major political parties that
regularly alternate in power. In such a system, other parties may exist, but they have little
chance of forming a government on their own. The two main parties typically have distinct
ideological positions and compete for electoral support based on their policy platforms.
Examples of two-party systems include the United States (Democratic Party and Republican
Party) and the United Kingdom (Conservative Party and Labour Party).

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In a two-party system, the electoral process is often highly competitive, with both parties
seeking to attract voters from the political centre. The parties may converge on some policy
issues to appeal to a broader electorate, while still maintaining distinct identities and core
principles. The competition between the two parties can lead to a stable political environment,
as the losing party has a strong incentive to serve as a check on the actions of the governing
party and to offer alternative policies.

However, critics of two-party systems argue that they can lead to political polarization, as the
parties may adopt more extreme positions to differentiate themselves from each other.
Additionally, the dominance of two parties can limit the range of political choices available to
voters and may not adequately represent the diverse interests and views within a society.

3. Multi-Party System:

A multi-party system is characterized by the presence of three or more political parties that
compete for power. In such a system, no single party typically holds an absolute majority in
the legislature, and governments are often formed through coalitions or alliances between
parties. Multi-party systems can be further classified into two sub-categories: moderate multi-
party systems and polarized multi-party systems.

a. Moderate Multi-Party System:

In a moderate multi-party system, the ideological differences between the parties are
relatively small, and the parties are willing to compromise and form coalitions to govern.
The competition between the parties is largely centred around specific policies and issues
rather than fundamental ideological divisions. Examples of moderate multi-party systems
include Germany and the Netherlands.

Moderate multi-party systems can promote political stability, as the parties are incentivized
to cooperate and find common ground to form stable governments. The presence of
multiple parties allows for a broader representation of societal interests and can lead to
more inclusive policy-making. However, the need for coalition-building can sometimes
result in political gridlock or the formation of governments that lack a clear mandate.

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b. Polarized Multi-Party System:

In a polarized multi-party system, the ideological differences between the parties are
significant, and the parties are less willing to compromise or form coalitions. The political
landscape is often characterized by the presence of extremist or anti-system parties that
challenge the legitimacy of the existing political order. Examples of polarized multi-party
systems include the Weimar Republic in Germany before the rise of the Nazi Party and
Italy during the post-World War II period.
Polarized multi-party systems can lead to political instability, as the formation of stable
governments becomes difficult due to the ideological distance between the parties. The
presence of extremist parties can also contribute to the erosion of democratic norms and
institutions. In such systems, politics may become highly confrontational, and the risk of
political deadlock or even the breakdown of the democratic order is heightened.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 2

3. For the following multiple-choice questions, choose the correct option.

A. A party system with only one dominant party is called:
(a) Two-party system
(b) Multi-party system
(c) One-party system
(d) Coalition system
B. The United States is an example of:
(a) One-party system
(b) Two-party system
(c) Moderate multi-party system
(d) Polarized multi-party system
4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
a) A __________________ multi-party system is characterized by significant
ideological differences and a reluctance to form coalitions.
b) The absence of a viable opposition in a one-party system can lead to a
concentration of power and limited __________________.
5. The two main parties in a two-party system typically compete for voters from the
__________________.

– Party
Unit: 11 6. 5. State whether the following statements are true or false.
System 17
7. In a one-party system, other parties are always completely banned.
OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

c) The two main parties in a two-party system typically compete for voters from
the __________________.
5. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) In a one-party system, other parties are always completely banned.
b) Two-party systems often lead to greater political polarization than multi-party
systems.
c) Moderate multi-party systems can sometimes struggle with forming stable
governments due to the need for coalitions.

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3. PARTY SYSTEM IN THE USA

In both parliamentary and presidential systems of governance, the role of political parties is crucial.
Maclver points out that the existence of political parties is indispensable for achieving a unified
administration and for the methodical evolution of policies. In the United States, the political
landscape is dominated by a two-party system, consisting of the Democratic Party and the
Republican Party, which stand out as the two main political parties.

3.1. Why a Two-Party System?

The United States and Britain serve as prime illustrations of the two-party system's efficacy. What
drives the emergence and endurance of such a system? The predominant catalyst is each nation's
historical evolution. Specifically, in America's case, during its formative years, the British model of
a two-party framework was adopted as the epitome of political structure. Following independence,
political allegiances in the newly formed states were split between the Federalists, who endorsed
a centralized approach, and the Anti-Federalists, who advocated greater autonomy for the states
and a more decentralized federal configuration. The Federalist faction was mainly composed of
business owners, merchants, and those with substantial property, whereas the Anti-federalists
were supported by small-scale farmers, craftspeople, and individuals from lower-income brackets.
This division based on interests, beliefs, and principles significantly influenced American politics,
even as the core issues dividing the nation evolved.

Another factor is the pragmatic nature of English-speaking populations, who generally prefer
subtle political distinctions over the extreme political ideologies common in Europe, necessitating
a multi-party system to represent a wider range of perspectives. This moderation has fostered a
widespread agreement on key societal objectives. For instance, there is no significant movement
in America pushing for a constitutional monarchy akin to that of Britain, nor is there any serious
challenge to the principles of property rights and fundamental freedoms by any major group, aside
from the Communist Party and similar leftist organizations. When there is consensus on essential
matters, the environment becomes less conducive to the formation of more than two major political
parties.

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Furthermore, a crucial element supporting the persistence of the two-party system is the unique
electoral framework established by America's founding fathers. The likelihood of a presidential
candidate securing an absolute majority is slim within a multi-party scenario, which would result
in the President being chosen by the House of Representatives. The practice of single-member
districts, as opposed to proportional representation seen with multi-member constituencies, also
supports the two-party system. An additional contributing factor is the political socialization
process, where young individuals often align with one of the two mainstream parties from an early
age, a mechanism described by Watson as a 'built-in mechanism' for the system's self-
perpetuation.

3.2. History of American Parties

Initially, in the United States, there existed a division between the aristocrats, who pledged their
allegiance to the king, and the commoners, who were loyal to the country itself. Following the War
of Independence, the aristocrats transformed into the Federalists, advocating for a powerful
central government. Conversely, the Democrats represented those in favour of states' rights and
sovereignty.

The history of American political parties is a fascinating story of evolving ideologies, shifting
alliances, and the power struggle. From the early days of the republic, two major parties have
dominated the political landscape: the Federalists and the Democrats. Over time, these parties
have undergone significant changes, with the Republican Party emerging as a successor to the
Federalists and becoming a major force in American politics.

The Republican Party:

Today's Republican Party traces its roots back to two significant predecessors. The Federalist
Party, led by Alexander Hamilton during George Washington's presidency, championed a strong
central government. However, the party made several tactical errors during the War of 1812,
leading to its decline and eventual disappearance. In the 1830s, opposition to Andrew Jackson's
policies coalesced into the National Republican Party. By 1854, this party had adopted the name
"Republican" and took a strong stance against slavery, nominating John C. Fremont as its
presidential candidate in 1856. Although Fremont lost the election, the party persevered and
nominated Abraham Lincoln in 1860, who went on to win the presidency.

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From 1860 to 1913, the Republican Party maintained uninterrupted control of the executive branch,
except for Grover Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms (1885-1889 and 1893-1897). Despite
this dominance, the party faced challenges, including corruption scandals during Ulysses S.
Grant's administration and internal conflicts between Eastern and Western factions. William
McKinley helped stabilize the party in the late 19th century, and Theodore Roosevelt played a
significant role in reshaping the party's policies.

Historically, the Republican Party has advocated for high tariffs, a strong national government, a
currency based on the gold standard, and conservative economic policies. It has also supported
African American suffrage and, at times, has embraced trust-busting and progressive reforms
under leaders like Theodore Roosevelt. The party has favoured centralized banking, commercial
enterprise, and low taxes on wealth.

The Democratic Party:

The Democratic party is the other party which is also equally influential. It has been around for
over one and a half centuries and traces its origins back to the days of George Washington's
administration. Under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, the party was known by various names,
including Anti-Federalists, Republicans, Democratic-Republicans, and eventually, Democrats.
Throughout its history, the party has demonstrated a remarkable ability to adapt and survive in the
face of adversity. In its early years, the party opposed high tariffs, ship subsidies, imperialism, and
the expansion of central government powers.

Following the disappearance of the Federalist Party in 1816, the Democratic Party enjoyed a
period of political prosperity. However, during Andrew Jackson's presidency, the party
experienced internal rifts and found itself in the opposition after the Civil War. Despite these
setbacks, the party has had significant successes, winning the presidency twice with Grover
Cleveland, twice with Woodrow Wilson, and an unprecedented four times with Franklin D.
Roosevelt.

The Democratic Party has undergone significant ideological shifts over time, adapting to changing
social, economic, and political circumstances. Although the party was initially resistant to
increasing the powers of the federal government, it has occasionally supported a more involved
role for the state in tackling economic and social challenges, especially during the period of the
New Deal led by Franklin D. Roosevelt.

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3.3. Growth of the American Party System

As previously mentioned, in colonial America, every colony featured legislatures elected by the
populace, assuming one views property-based eligibility as genuinely representative. Within each
colony, minor factions existed resembling the Whig and Tory parties, yet these factions shared
little with those in other colonies. A significant political faction, known as the Boston Junto and led
by Samuel Adams, emerged in the Massachusetts assembly, advocating for patriotic causes
shortly before gaining independence. Similar groups formed in the legislative bodies of New York
and North Carolina. During the Revolutionary War, political divides were muted, but the drafting
and ratification of the new Constitution highlighted the rift between federalists and anti-federalists.

Alexander Hamilton planted the seeds for a national political party in 1790 when as the inaugural
Secretary of Treasury, he revealed his financial strategy. To garner the essential support within
the government, he rallied a group of senators and representatives, which became widely known
as the caucus or the Hamiltonian party.

Hamilton’s adversaries formed the Republican Party, accusing Hamilton and his Federalist allies
of attempting to establish a monarchical government. The presidential races of 1796 and 1800
were notably partisan. In 1796, Federalist John Adams won over Republican Thomas Jefferson.
However, in the 1800 rematch, Jefferson triumphed over Adams, with the Republicans seizing
control over both the Senate and the House of Representatives.

As the American territory grew with new states entering the union, the Republicans endeavoured
to solidify their presence across all states. By 1816, the Federalists had faded from prominence,
while the Republicans diverged into two factions: the Democratic-Republicans (who later evolved
into the Democratic Party) and the National Republicans.

Today's Republican Party is a product of merging earlier parties, namely the Federalists led by
Hamilton and the National Republicans. The Democratic Party faced division during the Civil War
into Northern and Southern Democrats. In recent history, the Democrats have been influential in
American politics, with Presidents like Cleveland, Wilson, F.D. Roosevelt, Truman, Kennedy, and
Johnson not only proving to be effective leaders domestically but also recognized as distinguished
figures in global politics.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 3

6. For the following multiple-choice questions, choose the correct option.

A. The two main political parties in the United States are:
(a) The Libertarian Party alongside the Green Party
(b) The Democratic Party and the Republican Party
(c) The Federalist Party and the Whig Party
(d) The Communist Party and the Socialist Party
B. Which of the following factors contributed to the development of a two-
party system in the US?
(a) The influence of the British political system
(b) Implementing a system of proportional representation during
elections.
(c) A strong desire for a multi-party system among the founding fathers
(d) The presence of numerous, deeply divided ideological factions
7. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
a) The __________________ were a political faction in early American
history that supported a strong central government and were led by
Alexander Hamilton.
b) The Republican Party's dominance in the late 19th century was briefly
interrupted by the two non-consecutive terms of Democratic President
__________________.
8. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The Republican Party originated directly from the Anti-Federalist faction
present during the drafting of the Constitution.
b) The single-member district electoral system in the US discourages the
emergence of third parties.

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3.4. Functions and Role of US Political Parties

The American political party system has evolved significantly since the nation's founding, despite
the initial opposition to parties by influential figures like James Madison. In the Federalist Papers
(No. 10), Madison expressed concerns about the potential negative effects of "factions" on
government stability and justice. However, the emergence of the Federalist and Anti-Federalist
divide during the early years of the republic set the stage for the development of the modern two-
party system.

Key Characteristics of the American Party System

Political scientists Austin Ranney and Willmoore Kendall have identified four essential
characteristics that define the American party system:

1. Decentralization: The major parties, both Republican and Democratic, are highly
decentralized in their organizational structure. This decentralization is evident in the
nomination and election processes, where candidates for key positions are chosen directly
by voters through primaries rather than by party leaders. The federal system of government
in the United States has significantly contributed to this decentralized party structure.

2. Heterogeneity and Representativeness: Both major parties are composed of diverse

social groups, including people from various economic backgrounds, racial and ethnic
identities, and religious affiliations. While the proportion of each group within a party may
fluctuate over time, neither party exclusively represents a single, distinct social class or
demographic.

3. Moderation and Inconsistency: The political platforms of the Democratic and Republican
parties are moderate. They aim to appeal to a wide range of interests by offering some, but
not all, of what each group desires. As a result, party programs often contain elements of
inconsistency and ambiguity.

4. Similarities and Differences: Despite the apparent similarities between the two major
parties, there are some notable differences in their support bases. The Republican Party
tends to attract consistent support from individuals with higher incomes, more formal
education, and older age demographics. In contrast, the Democratic Party is perceived as
more sympathetic to the interests of lower-income groups, those with less formal education,

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and racial and ethnic minorities, such as African Americans and Hispanics. These
differences in support bases influence the policy priorities and programs pursued by each
party.

Functions and Role of American Political Parties

The American political parties perform several crucial functions that are common among
democratic parties worldwide, such as shaping public opinion, nominating candidates for public
office, exercising control over elected officials to ensure policy implementation, and engaging in
humanitarian efforts to support deserving segments of society. However, Ranney and Kendall
have identified four specific areas where the role of American parties is particularly significant:

1. Organizing Elections: Political parties play a vital role in presenting voters with alternative
policy options and candidates during elections. They develop and promote their political
platforms, select and nominate candidates for various offices, and actively participate in the
electoral process. By doing so, American parties ensure the smooth functioning of the
electoral system within the framework of separated powers.

2. Organizing Government: The party that wins the presidential election has a significant
role in shaping the new administration, although the President-elect retains considerable
discretion in this process. In the legislative branch, parties influence the appointment of
members to key congressional committees.

3. Democratizing the Constitutional System: While the Founding Fathers did not originally
envision the prominent role of political parties, these organizations have contributed to the
democratization of the presidential system. The emergence of the party system has
neutralized some of the intended checks on presidential power, such as the discretionary
role of presidential electors. As a result, the presidential election has become a more direct
expression of the people's will.

4. Nurturing Consensus: In a vast and diverse nation like the United States, political parties
play a crucial role in fostering national consensus and bringing Americans from various
backgrounds into the political mainstream. They work to address and eliminate various
forms of discrimination, promise to alleviate the hardships faced by different groups, and
moderate ideological conflicts by incorporating competing ideas into cohesive party

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platforms. By engaging people in the political process and protecting the interests of
different groups, parties help to maintain a pluralistic political system. The success of the
two-party system in the United States is evident in the limited impact of third parties on
national politics. As Ferguson and McHenry have noted, third parties have primarily served
as innovators of policy rather than as successful contenders for political office.

3.5. Organization of Parties

There are two noteworthy aspects concerning the organization of political parties in the United
States. First, the structure of the major political parties mirrors each other, and second, the
organization of these parties accommodates the country's federal structure by dividing into state
and national levels.

At the base of the party's organizational structure, a precinct committee exists to serve roughly
five hundred voters. This committee, led by a precinct chairperson or executive, plays a crucial
role in establishing a direct connection between the electorate and the party. Additional local
entities include committees at the ward, city, township, or village levels.

Ascending the hierarchy, the county committee functions to synchronize the activities of all local
groups. It also plays a pivotal part in the promotion of party candidates within congressional
districts.

On the state tier, we find the state central committee, which represents the apex of state-level
party organization. Composed of one male and one female representative from each
congressional district, members are nominated by district delegates at the regular state convention
for a two-year term. This committee is responsible for choosing its state chairperson.

The pinnacle of the national party structure is the national committee, which comprises one male
and one female representative from each state, appointed for a four-year term. The national
chairperson, although nominated by the presidential candidate, requires a formal election by the
national committee. Serving as the campaign manager, the national chairman oversees the
national headquarters and appoints an executive committee for aid. The central party office is
tasked with managing specialized departments dedicated to research and publicity, fundraising,
and engaging minority interest groups. In addition to these structured components, both parties
also operate senatorial and congressional campaign committees to amplify their election efforts.

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3.6. Other parties

The United States, often characterized by its dominant two-party system, has seen the emergence
of several smaller political parties throughout its history. While the Democratic and Republican
parties have traditionally held sway, other parties have sought to challenge the status quo and
champion alternative ideologies and policy agendas. The notable smaller parties in American
politics include:

1. The Prohibition Party:

The Prohibition Party, established in 1872, advocates for the complete prohibition of the
manufacture, import, and sale of intoxicating liquors. Initially focused on agitating for and
enforcing prohibition, the party experienced a decline in influence following the repeal of
the 18th Amendment in 1933. However, it has recently sought to regain support for its
objective. Despite facing challenges, the Prohibition Party remains committed to its cause
and continues to engage in political discourse.

2. The Socialist Party of the USA:

The Socialist Party of the USA emerged from the merger of the Socialist Labor Party and
the Socialist Democratic Party. Its platform encompasses a range of progressive policies,
including public ownership of transportation infrastructure, socialization of industry,
expanded social security benefits, and the abolition of the American Senate. The party
advocates for the extension of state ownership to natural resources such as mines and
forests, as well as the implementation of initiatives and referendums throughout the country.
While the Socialist Party of the USA has faced limited electoral success, it has played a
role in influencing public discourse and promoting progressive ideas.

3. The Communist Party of America:

The Communist Party of America, though facing significant challenges due to anti-
Communist sentiment, is a well-organized political party that fields candidates for various
offices. Despite its public visibility being lower than its actual strength, the party has
struggled to gain widespread acceptance in the United States. The prevailing anti-
Communist sentiment, particularly during the Cold War era, has hindered the party's
electoral prospects and limited its influence on national politics.

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4. Labor Groups:

Various labour groups have also played a significant role in American politics. The
American Federation of Labor (AFL), the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), and
the Rail-Road Brotherhood are notable examples of labour organizations with substantial
memberships and influential leaders. These groups have historically advocated for workers'
rights, better working conditions, and improved labour legislation. Their leaders have
wielded considerable political influence, often lobbying for labour-oriented policies and
endorsing candidates sympathetic to workers' concerns.

5. The Libertarian Party

The Libertarian Party, founded in 1971, is the third-largest political party in the United States.
It advocates for individual liberty, limited government intervention, and free-market
capitalism. Libertarians believe in minimizing the role of the state in both personal and
economic affairs, emphasizing the importance of personal responsibility and voluntary
cooperation.

6. The Green Party

The Green Party, established in 1984, focuses on environmentalism, nonviolence, social

justice, and grassroots organizing. Green Party members often prioritize issues such as
renewable energy, sustainable development, and reducing the influence of corporations in
politics. The party has gained visibility through the campaigns of notable candidates like
Ralph Nader and Jill Stein.

7. The Constitution Party

The Constitution Party, founded in 1992, is a conservative political party that emphasizes
strict adherence to the U.S. Constitution and the principles of limited government, individual
liberty, and traditional family values. The party opposes abortion, gun control, and
unauthorized immigration while advocating for a return to a government based on Christian
principles

The United States' two-party system, characterized by the Democratic and Republican parties,
has traditionally dominated the political landscape. This system has limited the prospects of other

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parties gaining substantial followings or achieving national prominence. According to Prof. Munro,
the two-party system functions effectively when the major parties are responsive to the desires of
a large number of voters. In such cases, the major parties absorb popular demands into their
platforms before they can become the foundation for new parties. Consequently, third parties often
struggle to gain traction, as they require strong leadership, organizational machinery, and
adequate financial resources to become influential players in national politics.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 4

9. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

a) The __________________ committee represents the highest level of party
organization at the state level.
b) The _________ Party is the third-largest political party in the United States
and advocates for individual liberty, limited government intervention, and free-
market capitalism.
10. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The national committee is the pinnacle of the national party structure.
b) Third parties in the US have historically had a significant impact on national
elections and policy-making.
c) The Democratic and Republican parties have distinct and unwavering
ideological platforms that never overlap.

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4. PARTY SYSTEM IN CHINA

In the political landscape of China, the Communist Party holds a paramount position, operating in
tandem with a government that mirrors its structure. The strategy devised by the party is executed
by the government, as party affiliates are ensconced in the highest echelons of government
leadership. This fusion between the party and government enhances the party's dominion.
Additionally, the practice of democratic centralism is observed, dictating that minorities adhere to
the will of the majority, subordinate party committees follow the directives of superior ones, and
every party faction is subordinate to the party's apex authority. Bernett astutely noted, "The
Communist Party stands as the peak of political power and the fount of decision-making in
mainland China today."

The Communist Party marked its inception in China in 1921, embarking on a tumultuous journey.
Initially, its membership was scarce, and leadership missteps led to numerous shortcomings,
bringing the party to the brink of dissolution by 1935. During this critical period, Mao Zedong
emerged as a pivotal figure within the party. The conflict with Japan and the inadequacies of the
Chinese Government presented the party with an unparalleled opportunity to bolster its popularity
and strength. By the culmination of World War II, the party's membership had surged to over a
million. The post-war effort to establish a coalition government between the K.M.T. and the
Communist Party fizzled out, ushering in a Civil War that spanned from 1945 to 1949. Mao Zedong
assumed unrivalled leadership over China until his demise in September 1976, wielding absolute
control over the state's mechanisms of power.

In China, the tyrannical rule of Mao Zedong went uncontested. All other branches of the state were
relegated to ancillary roles, incapable of exercising their constitutional mandates without his
approval. He stood as the foremost champion of Marxism and Leninism in China, the Communist
Party's leading theorist, and the exclusive expounder of Marxist doctrine, tailored to China's unique
conditions and spirit. These adaptations are recognized as 'Mao's thoughts'. Maoism diverges
from traditional Marxism and Leninism in several critical aspects. Mao eschewed the tactics and
strategies of Soviet communism, striving to preserve China's ideological autonomy. This stance
precipitated a fracture within the global communist movement.

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4.1. Communist Party of China

The Communist Party of China (CCP) is one of the most powerful and influential political parties
in the world today. Since its founding in 1921, the CCP has played a central role in shaping the
course of modern Chinese history, from leading the communist revolution to establishing the
People's Republic of China in 1949 and guiding the country's social and economic development
in the decades since.

Origins and Revolutionary Struggle (1921-1949)

The CCP was founded in July 1921 by a small group of intellectuals and labour activists, inspired
by the success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. In its early years, the party struggled to gain
traction, at times cooperating and at other times clashing with the ruling Kuomintang (Nationalists)
led by Chiang Kai-shek.

A turning point came in 1927 when Chiang turned on the communists, killing thousands and driving
the CCP underground. Led by Mao Zedong, the party regrouped in the countryside, mobilizing
peasants through land reform and guerrilla warfare. This marked the beginning of the CCP's
signature emphasis on the revolutionary potential of the peasantry, in contrast to orthodox
Marxism's focus on the urban proletariat.

The CCP's power base grew through the 1930s and 40s amid the Japanese invasion and civil war
against the Kuomintang. Mao's leadership and rural strategy proved decisive, and in 1949 the
communists emerged victorious, proclaiming the People's Republic of China with the CCP as the
sole ruling party.

Party-State Governance Structure

In the political system established under CCP rule, party and state are fused together, with CCP
organs and officials holding all key levers of power. At the national level, the party-state governs
through the following core institutions:

• National Party Congress: Convened every 5 years, the party congress is formally the
highest authority in the CCP. It reviews the party's work, sets policy guidelines, and "elects"
a new Central Committee.

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• Central Committee: With over 370 full and alternate members, the Central Committee is
the CCP's highest organ when the National Congress is not in session. It meets annually
and serves as a forum for policy discussion.
• Politburo: The political bureau of 25 top leaders is the centre of decision-making power in
the CCP, meeting monthly to decide on major policy matters. The Politburo elects a smaller
Standing Committee of 7 members that functions as the party's inner circle leadership.
• Party General Secretary: The top leader of the CCP serves as party general secretary, a
position that has been held by Xi Jinping since 2012. The general secretary also typically
serves as state president and head of the military.
• State Council: Headed by the premier, the State Council oversees the government
ministries and administration. However, the real power resides in the party organs that
oversee their state counterparts.

Party Presence at All Levels

One of the keys to the CCP's dominance is its extensive organizational reach into all corners of
Chinese society. The party's 96 million members are organized into local party committees that
exist in virtually every work unit, from villages and factories to schools and the military. At each
level, the party organization is headed by a party secretary who outranks the government head,
reflecting the primacy of the party over the state. Local party secretaries implement directives from
above while also overseeing the government, making personnel decisions, and mobilizing the
population. Party control is reinforced by CCP cells embedded in social organizations and
workplaces. For example, the party appoints political commissars to oversee the military, trade
unions, women's federations and other mass organizations. In companies and schools, party
committees guide ideological work and monitor for dissent.

Ideology and Adaptation

While Marxism-Leninism provided the ideological foundation for the CCP and China's political-
economic system, the party has proven pragmatic in adapting its ideology to changing times.
Under Mao, the CCP embraced a radical version of communism marked by collectivization, class
warfare against "capitalist roaders," and an emphasis on ideological transformation. However, this

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led to disastrous consequences such as famine during the Great Leap Forward (1958-62) and
social upheaval during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76).

After Mao's death, reformists led by Deng Xiaoping shifted the party's focus to economic
development and "opening up." Ideology was relaxed to allow market reforms, private enterprise
and foreign investment, unleashing rapid growth. The CCP now portrays itself as governing in the
interest of stability, development and national rejuvenation. However, the CCP has remained
Leninist in asserting a monopoly on power and cracking down on dissent. This was dramatically
shown in the crushing of the 1989 Tiananmen Square democracy protests. Under Xi Jinping, the
party has tightened political control while also promoting Chinese nationalism and more assertive
foreign policies.

Internal Workings

A defining feature of the CCP is democratic centralism, in which lower bodies are subordinate to
higher ones and decisions are binding once made. The party also emphasizes collective
leadership and "rule by law" within its ranks. However, in practice powerful leaders like Mao and
now Xi have dominated decision-making. The party maintains discipline through ideological
campaigns, a powerful anti-corruption body, and control over personnel appointments. Joining the
party is highly selective, with applicants needing recommendations, background checks and
training. Membership brings status and connections crucial for ascending the political ranks.

The Party's Future Role

After over 70 years in power, the CCP faces questions about its legitimacy and ability to handle
growing challenges: corruption, environmental degradation, economic inequality, and an ageing
population. Under Xi, the party has acknowledged a need for continued economic reforms and
"people-centred development."

At the same time, the CCP appears to be doubling down on political control, expanding domestic
repression and reviving Mao-era ideological indoctrination. Xi has consolidated his power and

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abolished presidential term limits, provoking concerns about a cult of personality and indefinite
one-man rule.

As China's global presence expands, the world is watching to see if the CCP can maintain stability
while allowing for more openness, and how its model of authoritarian one-party rule will impact
the international order. Managing China's rise and the CCP's rule will likely be one of the great
political stories of the 21st century.

Key Figures:

The CCP has been shaped by several towering figures:

• Mao Zedong was the founding leader of the People's Republic of China and the chairman
of the Communist Party of China until his death in 1976. He is credited with uniting China
but was also criticized for the disastrous policies of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural
Revolution.
• Deng Xiaoping: Paramount leader from the late 1970s until he died in 1997. The chief
architect of China's economic reforms and opening up to the world.
• Jiang Zemin: Party leader from 1989-2002, oversaw China's accelerating economic rise
and accession to WTO.
• Hu Jintao: General Secretary from 2002-2012, advocated for more balanced development
and a "harmonious society" but saw growing social tensions.
• Xi Jinping: General Secretary since 2012, has centralized power and pursued a bold
agenda at home and abroad. Eliminated term limits in 2018, allowing him to stay in office
indefinitely.

From its origins as a small revolutionary movement, the Communist Party of China has emerged
as a behemoth organization governing the world's largest country and second-largest economy.
The story of the CCP's evolution is in many ways the story of modern China itself. Though
nominally still communist, the CCP now presides over a mixed economy and a society radically
different from that envisioned by its founders. Yet the one-party Leninist system established under
Mao largely remains intact, with the CCP continuing to dominate all aspects of politics and society.

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As China navigates the challenges of slowing growth, environmental pressures, an ageing

population and geopolitical tensions, the CCP's governance and adaptability will be tested as
never before. How the party evolves in ideology and practice will have immense implications not
only for China's 1.4 billion people but for a world deeply interconnected with the most populous
nation. The CCP's experience governing China offers rich lessons on the possibilities and pitfalls
of one-party rule in a rapidly developing society. Understanding this resilient, powerful and ever-
changing party will be essential to making sense of China's trajectory and role in the 21st-century
world.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS - 5

11. For the following multiple-choice questions, choose the correct option.
A. The highest authority in the CCP, convened every 5 years, is the:
(a) Politburo Standing Committee
(b) Central Committee
(c) National Party Congress
(d) State Council
B. Which of the following is NOT a key figure in the CCP's history?
(a) Mao Zedong
(b) Deng Xiaoping
(c) Chiang Kai-shek
(d) Xi Jinping
12. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The CCP rose to power through a successful urban revolution.
b) Local party secretaries hold more power than government heads in China.

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5. SUMMARY
• A party system defines the organization and interaction of political parties within a nation's
political sphere. It encompasses the number and relative size of parties, their ideological
positions, and how they compete and cooperate. The three main types of party systems
are single-party, two-party, and multi-party systems. The choice of party system is
influenced by historical, social, electoral, and political factors. Understanding party systems
is crucial for analysing the functioning of democracies, government formation, and the
competitive political landscape.
• Political parties originated in the early modern period with the rise of representative
assemblies in Europe. The Age of Enlightenment and the French Revolution further
catalysed their development. The 19th century saw the emergence of mass political parties,
driven by the extension of suffrage and the need for organized representation of the newly
enfranchised masses. The 20th century witnessed the institutionalisation and consolidation
of party systems, with stable systems characterized by the dominance of two or three major
parties in Western Europe and the United States.
• Political parties serve several essential functions in modern political systems. They unify
and stabilize the political process by bridging gaps between diverse groups and providing
a common platform for their concerns. Parties engage in power struggles and interest
aggregation, striving to capture and maintain control of the government by harmonizing the
interests they represent. They act as intermediaries between the government and citizens,
engaging in political education, mobilization, and recruitment. Parties also play a crucial
role in recruiting and selecting political leaders, shaping the ideological landscape by
presenting issues and setting value goals, and acting as brokers of ideas by prioritizing
issues for public discourse. In developing nations, parties contribute to political
modernization by shaping the government, providing links between social and economic
groups, and breaking down traditional barriers.
• The classification of party systems is based on the number, size, and ideological orientation
of political parties within a country. One-party systems are characterized by the dominance
of a single party that holds exclusive control over the government and political process.
Two-party systems feature the regular alternation of power between two major parties, with
the United States and the United Kingdom being prime examples. Multi-party systems can

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be either moderate, with relatively small ideological differences between parties and a
willingness to form coalitions, or polarized, with significant ideological differences and less
willingness to compromise.
• In the United States, the political landscape is dominated by a two-party system consisting
of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. The emergence and persistence of this
system can be attributed to several factors, including the country's historical evolution, the
pragmatic nature of the English-speaking population, consensus on essential societal
objectives, the unique electoral framework established by the founding fathers, and the
political socialization process. Single-member districts and the practice of electing the
President through an absolute majority also support the two-party system.
• China, on the other hand, is governed by a one-party system led by the Communist Party
of China (CPC). The CPC was founded in 1921 and played a crucial role in the
establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. As the sole governing party, the
CPC exercises control over all aspects of the Chinese state and society. Its organizational
structure is characterized by democratic centralism, with the National Party Congress
serving as the highest authority. The CPC's ideology is based on Marxism-Leninism and
Mao Zedong Thought, with a focus on socialist modernization, economic reform, and
opening up to the world.

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6. GLOSSARY
The network of political parties that operate within a particular country,
Party System - characterized by the number of parties, their relative size, ideological
positions, and patterns of competition and cooperation.
The principle stating that plurality-rule elections structured within
Duverger's Law - single-member districts tend to favour a two-party system. Named after
French sociologist Maurice Duverger.
A type of political party that seeks to appeal to a wide range of voters,
Catch-all Party - downplaying ideology in favour of more pragmatic policies to maximize
electoral success.
A term used by Sartori to describe a party system with a large number
Polarized
- of parties, significant ideological distance between them, and the
Pluralism
presence of anti-system parties.
A multi-party system in which a single major party consistently wins
Dominant-Party elections and governs alone, with other parties serving mainly as
-
System opposition. Examples include the Liberal Democratic Party in post-war
Japan.
The process by which political parties become stable, valued, and
Party recurrent entities within a political system, measured by factors such
-
Institutionalization as organizational complexity, party roots in society, and the stability of
inter-party competition.

The increasing division and divergence of political views within a

Polarization -
society, often leading to heightened conflict and gridlock.

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OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

7. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Short-Answer Type Questions

1. What are the three main types of party systems?

2. Explain the role of political parties in linking the government and the people.
3. Compare and contrast moderate and polarized multi-party systems, highlighting their
potential impacts on political stability.
4. Discuss the historical factors that led to the development of a two-party system in the United
States.
5. Analyse the potential drawbacks of a dominant-party system, using the example of the
Communist Party of China.

Short-Answer Type Questions

1. What are the key functions of political parties in modern democratic systems?
2. Describe the two-party system in the United States.
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the party system.
4. Explain the historical evolution of the American party system, highlighting the key
developments and shifts in party ideology.
5. Describe the role and structure of the Communist Party of China (CPC) in the Chinese
political system.

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OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

8. ANSWERS
5. Analyse the relationship of sociology with History and political science.

8.1. Self-Assessment Questions

1. (a) The development of parliamentary systems (b) The Democratic Party (c) Economic
regulation
2. (a) Social Democratic (b) institutional framework (c) Parties and Party Systems (1976) (d)
Revolutionary
3. (a) One-party system (b) Two-party system
4. (a) Polarized (b) Freedoms/civil liberties (c) Political centre
5. (a) False (b) False (c) True
6. (a) The Democratic Party and the Republican Party (b) The influence of the British political
system
7. (a) Federalists (b) Grover Cleveland
8. (a) False (b) True
9. (a)State (b) Libertarian
10. (a) True (b) False (c) False
11. (a) National Party Congress (b) Chiang Kai-shek
12. (a) False (b) True

8.2. Terminal Questions

Short-Answer Type Questions

Answer 1: The three main types of party systems are single-party systems (one dominant party),
two-party systems (two dominant parties vying for power), and multi-party systems (three or more
parties competing, often requiring coalitions).

Answer 2: Political parties act as intermediaries, educating citizens about political issues,
mobilizing voters, and recruiting individuals for political office. They aggregate diverse interests
and present them to the government, ensuring public representation in the political process.

Answer 3: Moderate multi-party systems, with smaller ideological gaps between parties, tend to
foster stability through coalition-building and compromise. Polarized multi-party systems, with

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OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

larger ideological divides and extremist parties, can lead to instability due to difficulty forming
coalitions and increased political confrontation.

Answer 4: The adoption of the British two-party model during the nation's founding, the pragmatic
nature of the American populace, and the consensus on fundamental societal goals all contributed
to the emergence and persistence of a two-party system.

Answer 5: Dominant-party systems, like China's, can lead to limited political pluralism, restricted
civil liberties, and suppression of dissent due to the lack of a viable opposition. The concentration
of power within the party can also result in reduced accountability and potential for corruption.

Long-Answer Type Questions

Answer 1: The key functions of political parties include unifying and stabilizing the political
process, aggregating interests, linking the government and the people, recruiting political leaders,
setting societal goals and values, brokering ideas, and focusing attention on important issues. In
developing nations, parties also play a crucial role in political modernization and often engage in
social welfare activities. (Refer to Section 11.2.2)

Answer 2: The United States has a two-party system dominated by the Democratic Party and the
Republican Party. This system is primarily a result of the country's historical evolution, the
pragmatic nature of the English-speaking population, the electoral framework established by the
founding fathers, and the political socialization process that encourages alignment with one of the
two mainstream parties from an early age. (Refer to section 11.3.1)

Answer 3: The party system has several merits, such as enabling parliamentary functionality,
serving as a platform for public opinion, organizing and empowering citizens, educating and
engaging the public, and acting as a check on hasty legislation. However, it also has demerits,
including the subordination of individual opinion, fostering animosity and unproductive criticism,
prioritizing party interests over national interests, and sometimes breeding corruption and
unethical practices. (Refer to Section 11.2.2)

Answer 4: The American party system has undergone significant changes since its inception. The
early period was marked by the rivalry between the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The
Jacksonian era saw the emergence of the Democratic Party, which championed the interests of
the common man. The Republican Party, founded in 1854, rose to prominence during the Civil
War era, advocating for the abolition of slavery. In the 20th century, the Democratic Party

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OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

embraced progressive reforms and later the New Deal, while the Republican Party gradually
shifted towards conservatism. The modern era has been characterized by increasing polarization
between the two parties. (Section 11.3.2)

Answer 5: The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the sole governing party in China, holding a
monopoly on political power. The party's structure is highly centralized and hierarchical, with the
top leadership consisting of the Politburo Standing Committee, the Politburo, and the Central
Committee. The CPC's role extends beyond politics, as it also maintains a strong presence in the
military, economy, and society. The party's ideology, known as "socialism with Chinese
characteristics," guides policy-making and shapes the country's overall direction. (Section 11.4.1)

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OBAP312: Comparative Political Analysis

9. REFERENCES

• Johari, J. C. (1982). Comparative Politics. India: Sterling Publishers.

• Palekar, S. A. (2009). COMPARATIVE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT. PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.
• Caramani, D. (Ed.). (2014). Comparative Politics. Oxford University Press.
• Bhushan, V. (2006). Comparative Politics. Atlantic Publishers & Dist.
• Deol, D. (1991). Comparative Government and Politics. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Private Limited.
• Rathod, P. B. (2017). Comparative Political Systems (1st ed.). New Delhi, India:
Commonwealth Publishers.
• Das, H. H. (2003). Comparative Politics. Jaipur & New Delhi: National Publishing House.
• Duverger, M. (1954). Political parties: Their organization and activity in the modern state.
Wiley.
• Gienapp, W. E. (1987). The origins of the Republican Party, 1852-1856. Oxford University
Press.
• Lipset, S. M., & Rokkan, S. (1967). Party systems and voter alignments: Cross-national
perspectives. Free Press.
• Sartori, G. (1976). Parties and party systems: A framework for analysis. Cambridge
University Press.
• Thorpe, A. (2001). A History of the British Labour Party. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Webb, P. (2000). The modern British party system. SAGE Publications.
• Bibby, J. F., & Maisel, L. S. (2003). Two parties--or more?: The American party system.
Westview Press.

Unit: 11 – Party System 43