Operational amplifiers: Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier
characteristics, Operational amplifier configurations, Operational amplifier circuits.
Oscillators: Positive feedback, Conditions for oscillation, Ladder network oscillator, Wein
bridge oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal controlled
oscillators.
1.1 Operational Amplifiers
An op-amp is a multi-stage, direct coupled, high gain negative feedback amplifier used
to amplify AC and DC input signals.
Applications of op-amp: Active filters, oscillators, comparators, voltage regulators,
instrumentation & control systems, pulse generators, square wave generators etc.
The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.20.
The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while the
‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since 180°
phase shift produces an inverted waveform, the
‘-’ input is often referred to as the inverting input.
The ‘+’ input is known as the non-inverting input.
1.1.1 Operational amplifier parameters
1. Open-loop voltage gain
Open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage measured with no feedback applied.
It may be thought as the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device, given by: AV(OL) = VOUT / VIN
In practice, this value is exceptionally high (typically greater than 100,000).
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio:
AV(OL) = 20 log10 (VOUT / VIN)
Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB or more.
2. Closed-loop voltage gain:
It is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage measured with a small
proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with feedback applied).
The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain.
It is given by: AV(CL) = VOUT / VIN
Value of AV(CL) is very much less than value of AV(OL).
3. Input resistance:
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to
input current expressed in ohms.
Ideal value is ∞ and practical value ranges from 2MΩ to 1012 Ω
It is given by: RIN = VIN / IIN
4. Output resistance
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit
output voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.
Ideal value is 0 Ω and practical values range from less than 10Ω to around 100Ω.
It is given by: ROUT = VOUT(OC) / IOUT(OC)
5. Input offset voltage:
An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0V difference is
applied to its inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some
small voltage present at the output.
The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier input in order
to make the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying large amounts of negative feedback.
Ideal value is 0V and typical values range from 1mV to 15mV.
6. Full-power bandwidth:
The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at
which the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-
frequency (d.c.) value.
Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz
7. Slew rate: Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time, when a
rectangular step input voltage is applied. It is the rate of change of output voltage with
time in response to a perfect step-function input.
Hence: SR = ΔVOUT / Δt, where ΔVOUT is the change in output voltage and Δt is the
corresponding interval of time.
1.1.2 Operational amplifier characteristics
Characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:
1. The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
2. The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
3. The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
4. Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
5. Slew rate should be as large as possible.
6. Input offset should be as small as possible.
Comparison of amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices is given below:
1.1.3 Operational amplifier configurations
1) Inverting operational Amplifier : Input signal VIN is applied to the inverting
terminal of the amplifier and output VOUT is inverted version (180o phase shift) of input
VIN.
2) Non-inverting operational Amplifier: Input signal VIN is applied to the non-inverting
terminal of the amplifier & output VOUT is non-inverted version (0o phase shift) of input
VIN.
3) Differential amplifiers: Differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two input
voltage signals of V1 and V2.
1.1.4 Operational amplifier circuits
1. Voltage followers: Output voltage VOUT follows the input voltage VIN so the circuit is
named as op-amp voltage follower. The output is connected directly back to the (-) inverting
input so that the feedback is 100% and VIN is exactly equal to VOUT.
This amplifier has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance and a very
high output resistance. This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for
matching a high-impedance circuit to a low-impedance circuit.
2. Differentiator amplifier
Differentiator produces an output voltage VOUT that is proportional to the rate of change of
the input voltage VIN. An op-amp differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a
capacitor C in series with the input voltage VIN and a feedback resistor R is connected
between VOUT and inverting (-) input.
If input is a square wave to a differentiator, output is pulses.
3. Integrator Amplifier: Integrator produces output voltage VOUT that is proportional to
the integral of the input voltage VIN. An op-amp integrator is an inverting amplifier,
which uses a resistor R in series with the input voltage Vin and a capacitor C is
connected between VOUT and inverting (-) input as feedback.
If input is a square wave, output of an integrator is a triangular (inverted) wave.
4. Comparator: A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.27(a). A
voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines
which is the larger of the two. The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will
rise to the maximum possible value whenever the voltage present at the non-inverting
input exceeds that present at the inverting input. Conversely, the output voltage produced by
the operational amplifier will fall to the minimum possible value whenever the voltage
present at the inverting input exceeds that present at the non-inverting input. Typical
input and output waveforms for a comparator are shown in Fig. 1.27(b).
5. Summing amplifiers: A summing amplifier using an operational amplifier is shown
in Fig. 1.28(a). This circuit produces an output that is the sum of its two input voltages.
However, since the operational amplifier is connected in inverting mode, the output
voltage is given by: VOUT = – (V1 + V2)where V1 and V2 are the input voltages.
Typical input and output waveforms for a summing amplifier are shown in Fig. 1.28(b). A
typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input signals to produce an output voltage that is
the sum of the two.
1.2 Oscillators
Negative feedback can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of a stage which has a
precisely controlled gain. Similarly, positive feedback can be applied to an oscillator, where
the output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input.
1.2.1 Positive Feedback
Fig. 1.29 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied. The
amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a further 180°.
Thus the overall phase shift is 0°.
The Overall Gain is given by: G = Vout / Vin
By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, Vin’ = Vin + Vout β
Thus, Vin = Vin’ - Vout β
The internal gain of amplifier is given by: Av = Vout / Vin’ or Vout = Av x Vin’
1.2.2 Conditions for Oscillations
The conditions for oscillation are:
(a) The feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-phase
with the signal at the input);
(b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must
be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective feedback
network).
Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an amplifier with sufficient gain to
overcome the losses of the network that provide positive feedback.
1.2.3 Ladder network oscillator
A number of circuits can be used to provide 180° phase shift, one of the simplest being a
three stage C-R ladder network.
A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig.
1.30. TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with R1 and R2
providing base bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter stabilization. The total phase
shift provided by the C–R ladder network is 180° at the frequency of oscillation. The
transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of
360° or 0°.
The frequency of oscillation of this circuit shown is given by: f = 1 / (2πRC√6 )
For oscillations to occur, |β| > 1/29
That means, the loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must
provide a gain of at least 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate.
1.2.4 Wien bridge oscillator
An alternative approach to providing the phase shift required is the use of a Wien bridge
network (Fig. 9.3). Like the C–R ladder, this network provides a phase shift which varies
with frequency. The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is taken from C and
D. At one particular frequency, the phase shift produced by the network will be exactly zero
(i.e. the input and output signals will be in-phase). If we connect the network to an
amplifier producing 0° phase shift which has sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the
Wien bridge, oscillation will result. The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain
is given by:
oscillation
In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2,
hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.
Particular frequency at which the values of the
resistance and the capacitive reactance will
become equal, produces maximum output voltage is
1.2.5 Multivibrators
Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms consisting
of one or more rectangular pulses. Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
(a) Astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses ( also referred to as
free- running multivibrators);
(b) Monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable
state and are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);
(c) Bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control
signal to change from one state to another.
1.2.6 Single-stage astable oscillator
A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a square wave output built using just one
operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 1.31. The circuit employs positive feedback with the
output fed back to the non-inverting input via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.
When power is turned ON, output VO normally swings either to +Vcc or to -Vcc.
Assume: i) C is initially uncharged ii) VO = +VCC
The upper threshold voltage (the maximum +ve value at the inverting input) will be given
by:
The lower threshold voltage (the maximum -ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:
Capacitor C charges through R and the voltage VC rise exponentially. As voltage across the
capacitor is just greater than VUT, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC.
Capacitor C will then start to discharge through R and the voltage VC, fall exponentially. As
voltage across the capacitor is slightly lesser than VLT, the output voltage will rise rapidly to
+VCC. This cycle will continue indefinitely.
1.2.7 Crystal Controlled Oscillator
To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the
frequency determining device to produce high frequency stability in oscillators. Such
oscillators are called as crystal oscillators.
The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces. This
phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect. The frequency of oscillation is determined
by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental mode over a frequency range
extending from 100 kHz to around 20MHz.