STUDY GUIDE – Food Security

I. Core Concepts
A. Food Security (as defined by Food and Agriculture Organization)
"Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to
sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet dietary needs for a healthy and active life."

Top Provinces for Rice Production

Rank Province Region Notes
1 Nueva Ecija Central Luzon Often the #1 rice-producing province
2 Isabela Cagayan Valley Largest in Region II
3 Iloilo Western Visayas Major rice and corn area
4 Pangasinan Ilocos Region Contributes significantly in dry season
5 North Cotabato SOCCSKSARGEN Leading in Mindanao

Key Dimensions:
1. Availability
o Sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis.
2. Access
o Having resources to obtain nutritious food (economic and physical).
3. Utilization
o Proper biological use of food, requiring a diet with sufficient energy and nutrients, clean
water, and adequate sanitation.
4. Stability
o Consistency of availability, access, and utilization over time.

III. Key Terminologies: Food Security

Term Definition
The right of people to define their own food systems, prioritizing local production
Food Sovereignty
and control.
Sustainable Farming practices that protect the environment, public health, and animal welfare
Agriculture while producing sufficient food.
Nutrition Security Not just access to food, but access to nutritious food that meets dietary needs.
An integrated approach that applies ecological principles to agricultural systems
Agroecology
for sustainable food production.
Food Self-
A country or region’s ability to meet its food needs from domestic production.
Sufficiency
The ability of a food system to withstand and recover from shocks (e.g., climate
Food Resilience
change, pandemics).

IV. Key Terminologies: Food Insecurity

Term Definition
A condition in which people lack reliable access to a sufficient quantity of
Food Insecurity
affordable, nutritious food.
Term Definition
Chronic Food Long-term or persistent inability to meet food needs. Often linked to poverty,
Insecurity poor infrastructure, or conflict.
Acute Food Short-term or sudden disruption of food access, often due to crisis (e.g., drought,
Insecurity conflict).
The discomfort or weakness caused by lack of food; a physical sensation of food
Hunger
insecurity.
Condition resulting from eating a diet in which nutrients are either not enough
Malnutrition
or too much (includes undernutrition and obesity).
Stunting Low height-for-age in children due to chronic malnutrition.
Wasting Low weight-for-height; usually a result of acute malnutrition.
A state where food intake is insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements
Undernourishment
over a period.
An extreme form of food insecurity characterized by widespread hunger, death,
Famine
and economic collapse of food systems.

V. Institutions and Tools Related to Food Security

Term Definition
UN agency focused on defeating hunger and improving food
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)
systems globally.
WFP (World Food Programme) UN agency providing food assistance in emergencies.
Tool that measures and tracks hunger at global, regional, and
Global Hunger Index (GHI)
national levels.
Integrated Food Security Phase A scale used to classify the severity of food insecurity in
Classification (IPC) different areas.

VI. Cross-cutting Concepts

Term Definition
Climate-Smart Farming methods that help adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate
Agriculture change.
Food Loss vs. Food Waste
• Food Loss: Loss during production, post-harvest, and processing.
• Food Waste: Food discarded by consumers or retailers. |
| Right to Food | The human right to have regular, permanent, and unrestricted access to
adequate food. |
| Food System | The entire network from production, processing, distribution, consumption, to
disposal of food. |

VII. Conclusion
• Understanding these terms is essential for developing sustainable, equitable, and resilient food
systems.
• They provide a framework for analyzing and addressing hunger, malnutrition, and agricultural
sustainability.
VIII. Philippine Efforts to Combat Food Insecurity

A. National Policies and Frameworks

Program / Law Description
A national blueprint that includes targets for agricultural
Philippine Development Plan (PDP)
productivity, food access, and rural development.
Republic Act No. 11037 – Masustansyang Institutionalizes a national feeding program for
Pagkain para sa Batang Pilipino Act (2018) undernourished children in public schools.
Republic Act No. 10068 – Organic Agriculture Promotes sustainable farming to increase healthy food
Act of 2010 availability and reduce environmental degradation.
Republic Act No. 8435 – Agriculture and Provides funding, training, and support to modernize
Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA) and improve food production systems.
Republic Act No. 11337 – Innovative Startup Supports agri-tech and food innovation start-ups aimed
Act at improving food supply chains and access.

B. Key Government Agencies and Their Initiatives

1. Department of Agriculture (DA)
• Ahon Lahat, Pagkaing Sapat (ALPAS) Kontra COVID-19 Program
o Emergency food production initiative during the pandemic.
• Plant, Plant, Plant Program
o Promotes backyard and community gardening, increased local food production.
• National Rice Program & RCEF (Rice Competitiveness Enhancement Fund)
o Improve rice yield and reduce dependency on imports.
• High-Value Crops Development Program (HVCDP)
o Support for farmers growing fruits, vegetables, and spices.
2. National Nutrition Council (NNC)
• Coordinates the Philippine Plan of Action for Nutrition (PPAN).
o Focuses on reducing child stunting, wasting, and undernutrition.
• Promotes nutrition-sensitive agriculture and food distribution.
3. Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)
• Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps)
o Conditional cash transfers to poor households, linked to nutrition and education
requirements.
• Provides food packs and emergency assistance during disasters.

C. Local Government Unit (LGU) Initiatives

• Community gardens and feeding programs
• Ordinances supporting food sufficiency and food waste reduction
• Partnerships with NGOs and cooperatives for food distribution

D. Multi-sectoral and NGO Partnerships

• Gawad Kalinga’s “Barangay Walang Iwanan” Program
o Community-based food production and livelihood training.
• Philippine Partnership for Sustainable Agriculture (PPSA)
o Public-private platform to scale up sustainable agriculture and market access.
 • Collaborations with World Food Programme, FAO, and UNICEF for emergency food relief and
school feeding programs.

E. Urban Agriculture Efforts

• Promotion of container gardening, hydroponics, and rooftop farming in Metro Manila and other
urban areas.
• Department of Agriculture’s Urban Agriculture Program distributes seeds and starter kits to city
dwellers.

F. Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Farming Projects

• Adaptation and Mitigation Initiatives in Agriculture (AMIA)
o Assists farmers in climate-risk areas with adaptive technologies and support.
• Promotion of climate-smart agriculture and early warning systems for food supply disruptions.

G. Food Fortification and Nutrition Programs

• Fortification of rice, salt, flour, and oil to reduce micronutrient deficiencies.
• Micronutrient supplementation for children and pregnant women.
Study Guide: Farming Practices

I. Definition of Farming Practices

Farming Practices refer to the methods and techniques used in cultivating crops and raising livestock.
These practices can impact soil health, water quality, biodiversity, and climate.

II. Types of Farming Practices

1. Traditional Farming
• Manual labor, low input
• Local knowledge-based (e.g., shifting cultivation, rice terraces)
• Often low yield but sustainable for small populations
2. Conventional/Industrial Farming
• Monocropping (one crop over a large area)
• High use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
• Mechanization and large-scale production
• Can lead to soil degradation and pollution
3. Organic Farming
• Avoids synthetic chemicals
• Uses compost, crop rotation, and natural pest control
• Certified by organic standards (e.g., RA 10068 in the Philippines)
4. Sustainable Farming
• Focuses on environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity
• Examples: agroecology, conservation tillage
5. Integrated Farming
• Combining crops, livestock, fish, etc., on the same land
• Recycles nutrients and reduces waste
6. Precision Agriculture
• Uses technology like drones, GPS, and data analysis
• Aims to optimize inputs (water, fertilizer) for efficiency
7. Urban and Vertical Farming
• Growing food in cities using containers, rooftops, or stacked layers (vertical farms)
• Reduces food miles and utilizes small spaces

III. Key Concepts in Sustainable Farming

Concept Description
Changing the type of crop grown in a field each season to improve
Crop Rotation
soil health.
Cover Crops Planted to prevent erosion and add nutrients (e.g., legumes).
Composting Decomposed organic material added to soil for nutrients.
Integrated Pest Management Using biological and mechanical methods before chemicals to
(IPM) manage pests.
Growing crops with trees to enhance biodiversity and prevent
Agroforestry
erosion.

IV. Environmental Impacts of Poor Farming Practices

 • Soil degradation (erosion, salinization)
• Water pollution (runoff from fertilizers and pesticides)
• Air pollution (methane from livestock, burning residues)
• Loss of biodiversity (monocropping, deforestation)
• Climate change (greenhouse gas emissions)

V. Legal Frameworks (Philippine Context)

Law Purpose
RA 10068 (Organic Agriculture Act) Promotes organic and eco-friendly farming.
RA 8435 (AFMA) Supports modernization of agriculture and fisheries.
RA 9275 (Clean Water Act) Prevents agricultural runoff into water bodies.
PD 705 (Forestry Code) Restricts farming in forest lands to prevent deforestation.
Study Guide: Earth Resources

I. Definition
Earth Resources are the natural materials and processes that originate from the Earth and are used by
humans for survival, development, and economic growth.
These include:
• Minerals
• Water
• Soil
• Air
• Forests
• Fossil fuels
• Renewable energy sources

II. Classification of Earth Resources

A. Based on Renewability
Type Description Examples
Renewable Can be naturally replenished within a Solar energy, wind, water (hydropower),
Resources human lifetime. forests, biomass
Non-renewable Exist in finite amounts or take millions Coal, oil, natural gas, metallic minerals
Resources of years to form. (gold, copper)

B. Based on Origin
Type Description Examples
Originating from living organisms Forests, animals, fossil fuels (from dead
Biotic Resources
(organic). organisms)
Abiotic
From non-living sources (inorganic). Water, soil, air, minerals, sunlight
Resources

C. Based on Stage of Development

Type Description
Actual Resources Resources currently being used.
Potential Resources Resources known to exist but not yet used.
Reserves Resources that can be used in the future with current technology.
Stock Resources that exist but can't be used due to lack of technology.

III. Major Categories of Earth Resources

1. Mineral Resources
• Metallic: iron, copper, gold, aluminum
• Non-metallic: salt, clay, sand, phosphate
• Extraction: mining
2. Water Resources
• Surface water: rivers, lakes
• Groundwater: aquifers
 • Issues: overuse, pollution, drought
3. Soil Resources
• Essential for agriculture
• Types: loam, clay, sandy, silt
• Threats: erosion, salinization, nutrient depletion
4. Forest Resources
• Timber, fuelwood, biodiversity
• Benefits: carbon storage, habitat, watershed protection
• Threats: deforestation, illegal logging
5. Fossil Fuels
• Coal, oil, and natural gas
• Non-renewable energy sources
• Major source of greenhouse gases
6. Renewable Energy Resources
• Solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, biomass
• Cleaner alternatives to fossil fuels

IV. Issues Related to Earth Resource Use

Issue Description
Overexploitation Using resources faster than they can regenerate
Pollution Contamination of air, water, or soil due to resource extraction/use
Climate Change Caused by fossil fuel use and deforestation
Loss of Biodiversity Due to habitat destruction and pollution
Resource Depletion Permanent loss of non-renewable resources

V. Conservation and Sustainable Use

1. Conservation Practices
• Reforestation and afforestation
• Efficient water use (e.g., drip irrigation)
• Recycling and reducing consumption
• Using clean and renewable energy
2. Sustainable Resource Management
• Principle: Use resources to meet present needs without compromising future generations
• Examples: agroforestry, integrated water resource management, ecotourism
3. Laws and Policies (Philippines Context)
• RA 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
• RA 9275 – Clean Water Act
• RA 8749 – Clean Air Act
• RA 7942 – Philippine Mining Act
• Executive Order 26 – National Greening Program

Study Guide: Resource Extraction and Its Effects

I. What is Resource Extraction?
Resource extraction refers to the process of removing natural resources from the Earth for human use.
These resources include:
• Minerals (gold, copper, coal)
• Oil and natural gas
• Forests (logging)
• Water (large-scale groundwater extraction)
• Marine resources (fish, salt, oil)
• Soil (for agriculture or development)

II. Types of Resource Extraction

Type Description Examples
Mining Extraction of minerals from the Earth Gold, coal, copper
Logging Cutting down trees for timber or pulp Rainforests, plantations
Oil & Gas Drilling Extraction of fossil fuels from underground Offshore drilling, fracking
Water Extraction Withdrawing water for human use Wells, dams, irrigation
Fishing & Aquaculture Harvesting marine resources Commercial fishing, fish farms

III. Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction

1. Deforestation
• Loss of biodiversity and habitats
• Soil erosion and landslides
• Carbon emissions contributing to climate change
2. Water Pollution
• Mining and oil spills contaminate rivers and groundwater
• Harmful to both humans and aquatic life
• Example: Mercury pollution from small-scale gold mining
3. Air Pollution
• Emissions from mining equipment and burning fossil fuels
• Dust and toxic gases affect nearby communities
4. Soil Degradation
• Over-mining or over-farming strips soil of nutrients
• Leads to desertification or unusable land
5. Climate Change
• Fossil fuel extraction and use release greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane)
• Deforestation reduces carbon sinks
6. Biodiversity Loss
• Habitats destroyed through land clearing
• Hunting and noise from extraction disrupt ecosystems
7. Ocean and Marine Degradation
• Overfishing disrupts marine food chains
• Oil spills harm coral reefs and fish populations

IV. Social and Economic Effects

Positive Effects:
• Job creation in rural and industrial areas
• National income from exports (e.g., gold, oil)
• Infrastructure development (roads, power)
Negative Effects:
• Displacement of indigenous peoples and farmers
• Human rights violations (e.g., unsafe mining conditions)
• Resource conflicts and community disputes
• Unequal wealth distribution (benefits often go to corporations)

V. Case Examples in the Philippines

1. Mining in Palawan and Mindanao
• Environmental destruction of forests and rivers
• Protests from local communities and indigenous groups
2. Logging in Sierra Madre
• Contributes to landslides and floods
• Illegal logging persists despite regulations
3. Small-Scale Gold Mining (SSGM)
• Often unregulated
• Mercury contamination in rivers
4. Overfishing in Visayas Region
• Depleting fish stocks and coral reef destruction
• Government-imposed fishing bans (closed seasons)

VI. Laws and Policies (Philippines)

Law / Policy Purpose
Regulates mining operations and environmental
RA 7942 – Philippine Mining Act of 1995
protection
RA 7586 – NIPAS Act Protects natural parks and reserves from exploitation
RA 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste
Addresses pollution and waste from extraction
Management Act
Moratorium on new mining permits to reform the mining
Executive Order 79 (2012)
sector
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) required before
DENR Regulations
extraction
Study Guide: Geological Hazards

I. What Are Geological Hazards?

Geological hazards (also called geohazards) are natural events caused by geological processes that pose
threats to human life, property, and the environment.
They are often sudden and can cause massive destruction if not properly managed or predicted.

II. Types of Geological Hazards

1. Earthquakes
• Sudden shaking of the Earth's surface due to movement of tectonic plates.
• Measured using the Richter Scale or Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw).
• Can lead to secondary hazards: tsunamis, landslides, and ground liquefaction.
2. Volcanic Eruptions
• Occur when magma, gases, and ash escape from a volcano.
• Types: explosive eruptions, lava flows, ashfall, pyroclastic flows.
• Affects air travel, agriculture, climate, and human health.
3. Landslides
• The downward movement of rock, soil, or debris on a slope.
• Triggered by rain, earthquakes, deforestation, or mining.
• Can bury houses, roads, and agricultural land.
4. Tsunamis
• Series of large sea waves caused by undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
• Can flood coastal communities with little warning.
• Massive loss of life and infrastructure.
5. Sinkholes
• Sudden collapse of the ground due to the dissolution of limestone or underground erosion.
• Can swallow roads, homes, or vehicles.
6. Ground Subsidence
• Gradual sinking or sudden collapse of the Earth's surface due to underground material
movement.
• Common in areas with excessive groundwater extraction or mining.

III. Causes of Geological Hazards

Cause Description
Tectonic Plate Movement Causes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building.
Volcanism Movement of magma leads to eruptions.
Weathering and Erosion Weakens slopes, triggering landslides.
Human Activity Deforestation, mining, or improper land use can increase risks.

🇵🇭 IV. Geological Hazards in the Philippines

The Philippines is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, making it prone to:
• Frequent earthquakes
• Active volcanoes (e.g., Mayon, Taal, Pinatubo)
• Tsunamis (e.g., Mindoro tsunami 1994)
• Landslides (e.g., Leyte 2006)
• Sinkholes in karst areas (Bohol, Palawan)
 V. Effects of Geological Hazards
Category Impact
Human Injury, death, displacement
Economic Damage to homes, businesses, infrastructure
Environmental Changes in landscape, loss of biodiversity
Social Trauma, poverty, loss of community

VI. Mitigation and Preparedness

Before a Hazard
• Hazard mapping: Identify risk-prone areas.
• Building codes: Structures must be earthquake- or landslide-resistant.
• Land-use planning: Avoid building on fault lines or unstable slopes.
• Early warning systems: For tsunamis and volcanic activity.
During a Hazard
• Drop, Cover, and Hold during earthquakes.
• Evacuation plans for volcanoes and tsunamis.
• Stay away from landslide-prone slopes during heavy rain.
After a Hazard
• Search and rescue
• Relief and recovery operations
• Rebuilding with resilience in mind

Geohazards in the Philippines

I. What are Geo-hazards?

Geo-hazards (or geological hazards) are natural events caused by the Earth’s physical processes that can
lead to loss of life, property damage, and environmental degradation.
They include:
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
• Ground subsidence
• Sinkholes

II. Why is the Philippines Prone to Geohazards?

The Philippines is considered a disaster-prone country because of its:
• Location on the Pacific Ring of Fire
• Presence of active faults and volcanoes
• Mountainous terrain and unstable slopes
• Frequent typhoons (which trigger secondary geohazards like landslides)

III. Common Geohazards in the Philippines

Geohazard Description Examples
Sudden shaking of the ground caused by 1990 Luzon Earthquake, 2019
Earthquakes
tectonic movement. Mindanao Earthquake
Emission of magma, gas, and ash from Mt. Pinatubo (1991), Taal Volcano
Volcanic Eruptions
volcanoes. (2020)
Movement of rock, soil, and debris down
Landslides 2006 Guinsaugon Landslide in Leyte
a slope.
Sea waves caused by undersea quakes or
Tsunamis 1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami
eruptions.
Sinkholes & Ground
Sudden ground collapse or slow sinking. Sinkholes in Bohol and Palawan
Subsidence

IV. Legal Basis for Geohazard Management in the Philippines

The Philippine government has enacted several laws and policies to address geohazards through
prevention, preparedness, and response.

1. Republic Act No. 10121 – Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010
• Establishes a comprehensive DRRM system.
• Focuses on risk reduction, preparedness, response, and recovery.
• Empowers local government units (LGUs) and barangays to implement community-based DRR.
• Created the NDRRMC (National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council).

2. Republic Act No. 9729 – Climate Change Act of 2009

• Integrates climate change adaptation into government policies.
• Created the Climate Change Commission.
• Recognizes the link between climate change and geohazards (e.g., climate-induced landslides).

3. Republic Act No. 7160 – Local Government Code of 1991

• Empowers LGUs to develop their own Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plans
(DRRMPs).
• Mandates the use of local resources for geohazard mapping, planning, and preparedness.

4. Presidential Decree No. 1566 (1978)

• Original framework for national disaster management (before RA 10121).
• Basis for earlier disaster preparedness systems.
• Now mostly superseded by RA 10121.

5. Republic Act No. 11038 – Expanded National Integrated Protected Areas System (ENIPAS) Act of
2018
• Protects areas prone to geohazards (e.g., volcanic areas, fault zones).
• Limits harmful activities in protected areas (e.g., mining, logging).

V. Government Programs & Agencies

Agency Role
PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology Monitors earthquakes and volcanoes; provides early
and Seismology) warnings and hazard maps
Conducts geohazard mapping (landslide, flood, ground
MGB (Mines and Geosciences Bureau)
movement)
NDRRMC Leads national disaster management and coordination
Provides scientific and technical support (e.g., fault line
DOST
studies)
DENR Regulates land use in geohazard-prone areas

VI. National Initiatives

Geohazard Mapping and Assessment Program
• Led by MGB-DENR
• Produces hazard maps for floods, landslides, ground subsidence
• Helps LGUs in land use planning and relocation efforts
Project NOAH (now under UP Resilience Institute)
• Provides real-time hazard monitoring tools
• Uses GIS, satellite imagery, and weather models
Ready Project (UNDP + PHIVOLCS + OCD)
• Supports community-based disaster preparedness using local hazard data

VII. Key Terms to Remember

Term Definition
Fault Line A fracture in the Earth’s crust where earthquakes can occur.
Liquefaction When soil behaves like liquid during strong shaking.
Hazard Map A visual tool that identifies areas at risk of natural hazards.
Risk Reduction Minimizing the potential damage caused by a hazard.
Preparedness Planning and training before a disaster strikes.
Study Guide: The Atmosphere and Its Processes

I. What is the Atmosphere?

The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It is essential for:
• Supporting life
• Protecting the Earth from harmful solar radiation
• Regulating temperature
• Enabling weather and climate systems

II. Layers of the Atmosphere

Altitude
Layer Characteristics
Range
Weather occurs here; contains most of the air mass; temperature
Troposphere 0–12 km
decreases with altitude.
Contains the ozone layer; temperature increases with altitude due to UV
Stratosphere 12–50 km
absorption.
Mesosphere 50–85 km Coldest layer; burns up meteors.
Thermosphere 85–600 km Hottest layer; auroras occur; very thin air.
Exosphere 600+ km Outermost layer; merges with space.
Mnemonic to Remember: "The Smart Man Takes Exams"
(Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere)

III. Atmospheric Processes

These are natural processes occurring within the atmosphere that influence weather, climate, and air
movement.

1. Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere

• Radiation – Transfer of heat from the Sun through space (e.g., sunlight).
• Conduction – Transfer of heat through contact (e.g., Earth's surface warming the air).
• Convection – Heat transfer by the movement of fluids/gases (e.g., warm air rising, cool air
sinking).

2. Weather Processes
• Evaporation – Water changes from liquid to vapor due to heat.
• Condensation – Water vapor cools and becomes liquid (cloud formation).
• Precipitation – Water falls as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
• Wind Formation – Caused by unequal heating of Earth’s surface; air moves from high pressure
to low pressure.

3. Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature

• Atmospheric Pressure decreases with altitude.
• Temperature varies with altitude depending on the layer.

4. Coriolis Effect
• Caused by Earth's rotation.
• Deflects moving air and water:
 o Right in the Northern Hemisphere
o Left in the Southern Hemisphere
• Responsible for the rotation of large weather systems like typhoons and cyclones.

5. Greenhouse Effect
• Natural process that warms the Earth’s surface.
• Gases like CO₂, CH₄, water vapor, and N₂O trap heat.
• Essential for life, but excessive greenhouse gases lead to global warming.

6. Atmospheric Circulation
• Large-scale movement of air that redistributes heat from the equator to the poles.
• Creates global wind patterns:
o Trade winds
o Westerlies
o Polar easterlies

IV. Weather vs. Climate

Feature Weather Climate
Definition Short-term atmospheric conditions Long-term average of weather over time
Duration Hours to days 30 years or more
Examples Rain today, cloudy tomorrow Tropical, temperate, arid climates

V. Weather Phenomena
Phenomenon Description
Storms Severe disturbances in atmosphere (e.g., thunderstorms, typhoons)
Typhoons Intense tropical cyclones in the NW Pacific (e.g., Philippines)
El Niño / La Niña Ocean-atmosphere patterns affecting global climate
Cold fronts / Warm fronts Boundaries between air masses causing rain and storms

VI. Human Impact on the Atmosphere

Activity Impact
Burning fossil fuels Increases greenhouse gases (CO₂) → global warming
Deforestation Less CO₂ absorbed → worsens climate change
Pollution Acid rain, smog, respiratory problems
CFCs Ozone layer depletion (now banned under the Montreal Protocol)

VII. Legal and Environmental Efforts

Law / Agreement Purpose
Clean Air Act (RA 8749) – Philippines Regulates air pollutants and emissions
Paris Agreement (2015) Global agreement to reduce carbon emissions
Montreal Protocol (1987) Phased out ozone-depleting substances (CFCs)
Study Guide: Patterns of Weather

I. What is Weather?
Weather refers to the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a specific place and time. It includes:
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Wind
• Air pressure
• Precipitation (rain, snow, etc.)
• Cloud cover
Weather is short-term and can change quickly.

II. What are Weather Patterns?

Weather patterns are the recurring, predictable combinations of weather conditions over days or
weeks. They are influenced by:
• The movement of air masses
• Global wind patterns
• Ocean currents
• The Earth’s rotation and tilt

III. Common Weather Patterns

Pattern Description Example
Sunny/Clear
Little or no cloud cover, high visibility Summer days in dry regions
Skies
Cloudy/Overcast Sky covered by clouds, less sunlight Before rainstorms
Rainy Moist air leads to precipitation Monsoon season in Southeast Asia
Stormy Includes thunder, lightning, wind, heavy rain Thunderstorms or typhoons
Windy Fast-moving air due to pressure differences Common in coastal or open areas
Low temperatures, often in high-altitude or
Cool/Cold December–February in Luzon
temperate zones
March–May (dry season in the
Hot High temperatures and possibly high humidity
Philippines)

IV. Factors That Affect Weather Patterns

Factor Description
Air Masses Large bodies of air with uniform temperature and humidity
Fronts Boundaries between air masses (cold/warm fronts) that bring changes in weather
Humidity Amount of moisture in the air; high humidity can lead to rain
Wind Moves weather systems; caused by differences in air pressure
Cloud Formation Occurs when warm, moist air rises and cools
Topography Mountains and elevation affect rainfall and wind patterns
Bodies of Water Oceans and lakes regulate nearby climate and weather
 V. Global Weather Patterns
Pattern Description
Trade Winds Blow from east to west near the equator
Westerlies Blow from west to east in temperate zones
El Niño Warming of Pacific Ocean; causes droughts, floods, and irregular rain patterns
La Niña Cooling of Pacific Ocean; often brings opposite effects of El Niño

VI. Seasonal Weather Patterns in the Philippines

Season Months Weather Characteristics
Dry Season (Tag-init) March to May Hot and dry; less rainfall
Wet Season (Tag-ulan) June to November Frequent rain; thunderstorms; typhoons
Cool Dry Season December to February Cool winds from Amihan (northeast monsoon)

VII. Weather vs. Climate

Feature Weather Climate
Time Frame Short-term (hours to days) Long-term (30 years or more)
Example Rain tomorrow Tropical climate in the Philippines

VIII. Tools for Observing Weather Patterns

Tool Use
Thermometer Measures temperature
Barometer Measures air pressure
Anemometer Measures wind speed
Rain Gauge Measures rainfall
Hygrometer Measures humidity
Weather Satellite & Radar Tracks storms, cloud movements
Climate Change

I. What is Climate Change?

Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in the Earth’s climate, especially shifts in
temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns.
• It can be caused by natural factors or human activities.
• The current climate change trend is mostly due to human activities, leading to global warming.

II. Causes of Climate Change

Cause Description Examples
Changes due to volcanic eruptions, solar Volcanic ash cooling atmosphere
Natural Causes
radiation variations, Earth’s orbit changes temporarily
Human Causes Emissions of greenhouse gases from burning Carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane
(Anthropogenic) fossil fuels and deforestation (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O)

III. Greenhouse Effect

• Greenhouse gases trap heat in Earth’s atmosphere, keeping the planet warm enough to sustain
life.
• Human activities have increased these gases, leading to more heat trapped — this causes
global warming.
Main Greenhouse Gases Sources
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) Fossil fuel burning, deforestation
Methane (CH₄) Agriculture (livestock), landfills
Nitrous oxide (N₂O) Fertilizers, industrial processes
Fluorinated gases Industrial chemicals

IV. Effects of Climate Change

Effect Explanation Example
Rising Temperatures Global average temperatures increase Heatwaves, warmer oceans
Melting Ice Caps &
Loss of ice in poles and mountains Sea-level rise
Glaciers
Threat to low-lying areas and
Sea-Level Rise Coastal flooding and erosion
islands
More frequent and intense storms, Stronger typhoons, prolonged dry
Extreme Weather
droughts, floods spells
Coral bleaching, species
Loss of Biodiversity Habitats destroyed or altered
extinction
Food insecurity in vulnerable
Agricultural Impact Crop yields affected
regions

V. Climate Change in the Philippines

• The Philippines is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its geography.
• Experiences more intense typhoons, flooding, and droughts.
• Coastal communities face threats from sea-level rise.
 • Agricultural productivity is affected, impacting food security.

VI. Legal and Policy Responses

Law / Policy Description
Republic Act 9729 (Climate Change Act of Framework for climate change adaptation and
2009) mitigation
Philippine Climate Change Commission Coordinates climate policies and programs
Paris Agreement (2015) Global pact to limit global warming below 2°C

VII. Mitigation and Adaptation

Strategy Description Example
Reduce or prevent emission of greenhouse
Mitigation Use renewable energy, reforestation
gases
Adjust to actual or expected climate Build flood defenses, develop drought-resistant
Adaptation
impacts crops

Study Guide: Air Pollution

I. What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances (pollutants) in the air that can negatively affect:
• Human health
• Animal life
• Plants
• The environment

II. Types of Air Pollutants

Pollutant Source Effects
Dust, smoke, vehicle emissions,
Particulate Matter (PM) Respiratory problems, lung diseases
construction
Incomplete combustion of fossil Reduces oxygen in blood, can cause
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
fuels (cars, factories) death
Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂) Burning coal and oil Causes acid rain, respiratory issues
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Vehicle emissions, power plants Contributes to smog and acid rain
Secondary pollutant formed by
Ozone (O₃) Causes respiratory problems
reactions in sunlight
Volatile Organic Causes eye, nose, throat irritation;
Paints, solvents, gasoline
Compounds (VOCs) some are carcinogenic
Affects nervous system, especially in
Lead Industrial processes, old gasoline
children

III. Sources of Air Pollution

• Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, dust storms
• Human (Anthropogenic) Sources:
 o Vehicle emissions
o Industrial factories and power plants
o Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
o Agricultural activities (pesticides, fertilizers)
o Waste burning

IV. Effects of Air Pollution

Area Affected Effects
Human Health Asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer, heart disease
Environment Acid rain damages forests, lakes; harms wildlife
Climate Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming
Visibility Smog and haze reduce visibility

V. Laws and Regulations in the Philippines

Law Description
Clean Air Act (Republic Act 8749) Regulates air pollutant emissions and promotes clean air programs
Philippine Clean Air Program Implements pollution control measures and awareness
Local Ordinances Some cities ban open burning and regulate vehicle emissions

VI. Ways to Reduce Air Pollution

Action Description
Use public transportation or carpool Reduces vehicle emissions
Promote renewable energy sources Solar, wind, hydro power instead of fossil fuels
Implement industrial regulations Proper filters, cleaner production methods
Avoid open burning of waste Prevents release of toxic gases
Plant trees and green spaces Absorb CO₂ and pollutants
Use energy-efficient appliances Reduces pollution from power plants

Effects of Air Pollution

1. Human Health Effects

• Respiratory Problems:
o Asthma attacks
o Chronic bronchitis
o Emphysema
• Cardiovascular Diseases:
o Increased risk of heart attacks and strokes
• Lung Cancer:
o Prolonged exposure to pollutants like particulate matter and benzene
• Irritation:
o Eyes, nose, throat irritation
• Developmental Effects:
o Children and elderly are more vulnerable
o Can cause low birth weight and developmental delays
2. Environmental Effects
• Acid Rain:
o Caused by sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
o Damages forests, crops, and freshwater bodies
• Damage to Vegetation:
o Reduced growth and yield of crops
o Leaf damage and weakening of trees
• Harm to Wildlife:
o Toxic effects on animals, especially aquatic life
• Reduction in Visibility:
o Smog and haze reduce sunlight and impair vision

3. Climate Effects
• Global Warming:
o Greenhouse gases like CO₂ and methane trap heat
o Leads to rising global temperatures
• Ozone Layer Depletion:
o Certain pollutants damage the ozone, increasing UV radiation reaching Earth

4. Economic Effects
• Healthcare Costs:
o Increased spending due to pollution-related diseases
• Loss of Productivity:
o Illness-related absenteeism and reduced worker efficiency
• Damage to Crops and Forests:
o Economic losses in agriculture and forestry sectors