Chapter – Five

Complex Geologic Maps and Profile-sections

5.1 Components and steps in analysis of geologic maps
➢ Components of Geological maps
❖The basic Components of geological maps are lithological units,
contacts, geological structures, bedding structures ,topographic
contour, hydrographic features and cultural features.
➢ Lithological units:- Each lithological unit is indicated on geologic
maps by polygonal areas with distinctive fill colors and patterns.
➢Contacts: The boundary lines between the map unit polygons
represent the surface traces of geologic contacts.
❖Solid line represents an exposed contact.
❖ Dashed line indicates an obscured (approximately located) contact.
❖Dotted line shows a contact covered by surficial sediments.

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➢ Geological structures: -
▪ Mappable geological structures such as folds and faults are shown by line
symbols on geologic maps. Different symbols are used for different varieties
of folds (anticlines and synclines) and faults (normal, reverse, thrust, and strike
slip).
▪ Measurements of the attitude of rock layers or other outcrop- scale structures
can be shown on large-scale maps by special point symbols.
▪ The symbol indicates the type of structure and its orientation and numerical
label show the measured attitude.
➢ Steps in analysis of Geologic maps
1) Realize the scale of the map
2) Identify the rock units and structural features (primary and secondary
geological structures) on the map based on the legends.
3) Prepare cross-section to understand stratigraphy successions and structural
features.
4) Recognize the nature of the rocks either horizontal or inclined from
bedding structures or the relationship between contact lines and
topographic contours.

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5.2 Intersection of geologic contact

❖Geological contact is the place where two different geological units are
found next to each other. The geological contact can represent on the
map by different lines.
❖There are four main types of geological contacts. these are
1) Depositional contact
2) Unconformities contact
3) Structural contact
4) Igneous intrusive contact
1. Depositional contact(sharp vs gradual )
❖Sedimentary or volcanic rocks are deposited in stratigraphic succession .
❖Conformable Contact: no evidence of erosion or break in stratigraphic
succession (i.e. each successive layer becomes sequentially younger in
age).
2. Unconformities: Successive layers show evidence for significant
erosion or non-deposition (i.e. there is a significant break in the
stratigraphic record = "missing time").

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❖Types of unconformities
1. Angular unconformity :-is the older strata dip at an angle different from
that of the younger beds.
• This is the most visually distinct type on a map. Younger, often less
deformed, overlying sedimentary layers are deposited on top of older,
tilted, or folded layers.
• The map pattern shows the contacts of the lower, older units being abruptly
truncated by the line of the unconformity. The orientation (strike and dip)
of the rocks above the line will be different from the rocks below it.
2. Nonconformity where the break separates older metamorphic or igneous
rocks from younger sedimentary rocks.
• On a map, you will see a boundary where layered sedimentary units overly
large areas of massive, non-layered igneous or metamorphic rock.
• Evidence of weathering (like a paleosol or pebbles of the basement rock in
the base of the sedimentary layer) helps confirm it is an unconformity and
not an intrusive contact.
1) Disconformities are breaks in the rock record where the strata on both
sides of the unconformity are essentially parallel.
2) Para conformity: is a type of unconformity in which strata are parallel
there is no apparent erosion and the unconformity surface resembles a
simple bedding plane
• Disconformities and paraconformity are challenging to identify solely
from the map pattern because the rock layers above and below the break
are parallel.
• The unconformity surface itself follows the bedding planes.
• Identification relies heavily on the map's legend and stratigraphic
column, which will show a significant gap in time or missing fossil
evidence between the adjacent parallel units.
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3. Structural contact
❑Fault Contacts: structural discontinuity between rock and/or bedding
planes.
4. Igneous Intrusive Contacts
❑Intrusive Contacts: igneous rocks cross-cut younger sedimentary beds.
➢ Dikes
➢ Sills
➢ Stocks
➢ Batholiths
5.3 Effects of faults on outcrops
5.3.1Faults
❖Fault is the planar crack with relative displacement ,it the advanced of
joint & it is the result of extension& compression stress .
❖Faults are generally classified into four based on the orientation of the
slip .

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These are :-
1. Dip slip faults (Normal faults vs Reverse fault )
2. Strike slip faults (dextral vs sinistral)
3. Oblique slip faults (Sinistral normal ,dextral normal, Dextral normal ,
dextral reverse).
4. Rotational faults.
➢ Dip-slip faults :-is the movement of block is parallel to the dip of the
fault plane.
➢ Strike slip faults:-is the movement of block is parallel to the horizontal
to the strike of the fault plane.
➢ Oblique-slip faults :- the movement of block is the combination of dip
slip & strike slip.
➢ Rotational faults:- the movement of block is curved

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❖Normal fault :-the hanging wall has moved down ward relative to the
footwall. It is the result of tensile stress.
❖The typical characteristics of normal fault
➢ Omission of the stratigraphic sections.
❖Reverse fault ;-the hanging wall has moved up ward relative to the
footwall. It is the result of compression stress.
❖The typical characteristics of normal fault
➢ Repeation of the stratigraphic sections.
❖Right lateral (dextral)- fault block across the fault from the observer
moves to the right.
❖Left lateral (sinistral)- fault block across the fault from the observer
moves to the left.
❖Separation - The amount of apparent offset of a faulted surface,
measured in specified direction. There are strike separation, dip
separation, and net separation.

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❖Heave: -The horizontal component of dip separation measured
perpendicular to strike of the fault.
❖Throw:-The vertical component measured in vertical plane containing
the dip.
❖Fault plane:- Surface that the movement has taken place within the fault.
❖Slip:- Describes the movement parallel to the fault plane.
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Map Representation and Symbols Faults typically appear as thick
solid lines on maps.
Various symbols are used to provide additional information:
• General Fault: A simple thick line where movement is known or inferred.
• Normal Fault: Marked with a short perpendicular line (hachure) or a
solid circle on the hanging wall side (the block that moved down). These
result from extensional stress.
• Reverse/Thrust Fault: Indicated by triangles (sawteeth) on the hanging
wall side (the block that moved up). The triangles point in the direction
of dip of the fault plane (the direction the upper block moved). These
result from compressional stress.
• Strike-Slip Fault: Depicted by arrows parallel to the fault line, showing
the direction of horizontal movement (left-lateral or right-lateral).
• Oblique-Slip Fault: A combination of dip-slip and strike-slip motion,
often marked with both dip symbols and strike-slip arrows.
• Inferred/Concealed Faults: Represented by dashed or dotted lines,
indicating uncertainty in the fault's exact location or that it is hidden
beneath surface deposits
• Interpreting Faults from Map:
• Truncation of Units: Faults cut across pre-existing rock layers. The
map pattern will show abrupt terminations of rock unit boundaries
against the fault trace.
• Offset/Displacement: The same rock unit may be found at different
locations or elevations on either side of the fault, indicating the
direction and magnitude of movement.
• Repetition or Omission of Strata:
• Normal faults typically cause a section of the rock sequence to
be omitted or thinned in a vertical cross-section view.
• Reverse faults often cause repetition of rock units on the map,
as older units are thrust over younger ones.
• Topographic Expression:
• Large active faults may form distinct linear scarps, valleys, or
offset streams visible on the topographic base map.
• Low-angle faults (thrusts) tend to follow topographic contours,
much like horizontal bedding.
• Juxtaposition of Ages: A clear indicator of a fault is the placement of
very old rocks directly next to very young rocks, which would not
occur under normal, undisturbed stratigraphic succession.
5.4 . Interpretation of folded strata
❖Folds are the result of compressive forces, in the earth’s crust. it involves
a shortening or contraction of the area.
❖The layers of rock are capable of being crumpled or buckled .
❖Folds:- are wave like structures that result from deformation of bedding,
foliation, or other originally planar surfaces in rocks.
❖Folds :-are expressions of a ductile type of deformation that produced
more gradual and more continuous changes in a rock layer.
❖Scale of fold:-
1) Microscopic
2) Mesoscopic
3) Megascopic (macroscopic)

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 FOLD ANATOMY
❖Hinge line- is the line joining points of greatest curvature on a folded
surface.
❖Fold limb- the straighter or least curved segment of a fold.
❖Inflection point- is a point on a folded surface that separates concave
curvature in one direction from convex curvature in the opposite
direction.
❖Fold axis- is the line that is moved parallel to itself to generate the folded
surface/ an imaginary line along the fold hinge
❖Axial surface/ Axial plane (if the surface is planar) - a plane that passes
through the hinge lines of successive layers.
❖Median surface- a surface defined by joining adjacent inflection points.
❖Fold amplitude- the height measured from the point to the median
surface.
❖Fold wavelength- the distance between adjacent hinge lines.
❖Fold crest- the highest point of a fold.
❖Fold trough- the lowest point of a fold.
❖Inter limb angle- the smallest angle between two limbs.
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❖An anticline fold is formed when the strata or beds are bent down wards.
❖A syncline fold is formed from the strata being bent up wards.
❖Monoclines:- one limb of the fold dipping in one direction.

❖ Fold classification:
– the attitude of their hinge lines
– the attitude of their axial surfaces
– their interlimb angle
– dip isogons
– fold amplitude and shapes
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• Horizontal Folds: Exhibit outcrop patterns that are broadly parallel and
wrap around an imaginary line (the axial trace). The pattern widens in
areas of low relief and narrows in areas of high relief, following
topographic contours.
• Plunging Folds: The fold axis is inclined. The outcrop patterns form
characteristic V- or U-shapes that close in the direction of the plunge.
• Plunging Anticlines: The 'V' points in the direction of plunge, and
rock layers dip away from the axial trace. The oldest rocks are found
in the center of the V.
• Plunging Synclines: The 'V' points opposite to the direction of
plunge, and rock layers dip towards the axial trace. The youngest
rocks are found in the center of the V.
• Domes and Basins: These are non-linear folds with circular or oval map
patterns. Domes have rock layers dipping away from a central point
(oldest rocks in the center), while basins have layers dipping toward a
central point (youngest rocks in the center).
• Overturned and Recumbent Folds: These have highly asymmetrical
limbs, where one limb has been tilted past the vertical point. On a map,
this may appear as normal stratigraphic order on one side of the axial
trace and inverted order on the other
• Interpreting Folds on a Map Geologists use the following to interpret
folds:
• Strike and Dip Symbols: These provide the primary data for
determining the 3D orientation of folded layers. The dip direction
indicates which way the rock layer is inclined, which is crucial for
identifying an anticline (dips away from the centre) versus a syncline
(dips toward the centre).
• Axial Traces: Geologists draw lines on the map to show the location
of the hinge line (the line of maximum curvature) of the fold. Special
symbols are used along this line to indicate whether it's an anticline
or a syncline and the direction of plunge.
• Stratigraphic Order: By cross-referencing map patterns with the
map's stratigraphic column, the relative ages of the rock layers can
be determined. This confirms the identity of the structure; anticlines
always have older rocks in their core, and synclines have younger
rocks in their core.
• Interference Patterns: When an area is folded multiple times by
different tectonic events, complex "dome-and-basin" or "arrowhead"
interference patterns emerge on the map. Analysing these patterns
helps establish the sequence of deformation events.
➢ Appearance of folded strata on a geologic map
➢ Symmetrical folds
Outcrop patterns

Parallel

Loop
 5.5 Description and interpretation of complex Geological
Maps

5.5.1 Map Architecture & Information Sources

5.5.2 Lithostratigraphic Representation
5.5.3 Structural Overprinting & Map Traces
5.5.4 Topographic Control on Map Patterns
5.5.1 Map Architecture & Information Sources

• Description of Map Architecture

• The architecture of a complex geological map typically includes
the following elements outside the main-coloured map area:
• Title and Publication Information: The name of the map, the
geological survey or organization that produced it (e.g.,
USGS), the date of publication, and report number.
• Legend: This is the key to the map, defining the colours,
patterns, and symbols used to represent different rock units,
their lithology, and ages.
• Stratigraphic Column: A vertical column showing the
sequence of rock formations in chronological order, with the
oldest at the bottom and youngest at the top. It often includes
information on thickness and general lithology.
• Scale and North Arrow, Cross-Sections and Topographic Base
• Marginalia/Ancillary Data: This may include grid references,
location diagrams, a reliability diagram (showing areas of
good exposure versus covered areas), and sometimes inset
maps of specific areas.
Interpretation Using Information Sources
• Interpreting a complex geological map using its architecture and sources
involves a systematic approach:
• Establish Context and Purpose: Use the title and publication
information to understand the map's area, the agency responsible,
and its primary purpose (e.g., engineering, resource exploration, or
general mapping).
• Understand the "Language" of the Map: The legend and stratigraphic
column are essential for translating the colours and symbols into
actual rock types and their relative ages. This allows the interpreter
to differentiate between a sandstone unit and a granite intrusion, for
example.
• Visualize the Subsurface: The cross-sections provide the author's
interpretation of the 3D structure. Interpreters use these as a guide to
mentally construct or draw their own cross-sections to verify the
interpretations and ensure consistency across the map area.
• Assess Data Reliability: The reliability diagram or marginal notes
indicate where data was collected (e.g., field surveys, aerial
photographs, or boreholes) and where the geology is inferred due to
poor exposure or cover. This helps an interpreter judge the
confidence in their own interpretations in different areas of the map.
• Integrate all Data: Effective interpretation involves integrating all
these sources—surface observations (map patterns), 3D visualization
(cross-sections), and contextual information (legend, sources)—to
reconstruct the complete geological history and structure of the area.
5.5.2 Lithostratigraphic Representation

• Understand the legend and map symbols

• Rock types: Different colours, patterns, or symbols represent
different rock types and formations. A legend provides a key to what
each symbol means, often with a standard abbreviation system (e.g.,
a letter for the geologic period followed by letters for the formation).
• Structural features: Symbols are used to denote other important
geological features, such as faults, anticlines, synclines, and mineral
veins.
• Orientation: Strike and dip symbols indicate the orientation of
bedding planes, which is crucial for understanding the three-
dimensional structure of the rock layers.
• Analyse the map's patterns and relationships
• Stratigraphy: Pay attention to the order of the rock layers. The Law
of Superposition states that in a sequence of undisturbed
sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks are at the bottom.
• Structural complexity: Simple, horizontal layers suggest minimal
deformation, while complex maps with contorted layers, faults, and
overturned beds indicate significant tectonic activity. The pattern of
how rock units are exposed at the surface, especially in relation to
topography, reveals the complexity of the underlying structure.
• Map-to-cross-section: Use the map to create a geological
cross-section by transferring the location of geological
structures from the map to a profile line.
• Use the strike and dip symbols to sketch the orientation of
the structures accurately.
• Draw the topography as it intersects the geological structures
on the surface.
• Use dashed or dotted lines to infer the position of structures
that have been eroded away or lie below the current surface.
 5.5.3 Description of Structural Overprinting
• Structural overprinting is the process where a later geological event or
structure superimposes characteristics on a rock that partially obscures or
modifies earlier characteristics. On a map, this appears as one set of map
traces (e.g., folds or faults) being cut across, deformed, or otherwise affected
by a younger set of traces.
• Interpretation of Map Traces
• Interpretation relies on analysing the map patterns (traces) in
conjunction with other map data, such as strike and dip symbols,
stratigraphic columns, and cross-sections. The key steps for
interpretation are:
• Identify Different Structural Events (D1, D2, etc.): Look for distinct
sets of structural features, such as folds with different orientations,
different generations of faults, or foliations, which indicate separate
deformation events.
• Apply Cross-Cutting Relationships: This fundamental principle states
that the feature that cuts across another is younger.
• Faults cutting folds: If a fault trace cuts across the axial plane or limbs
of a fold, the fold is older than the fault.
 • Folds refolding earlier folds: This is a classic indicator of
overprinting, resulting in complex interference patterns (e.g., "dome-
and-basin" or "egg-carton" shapes). The axial planes and hinges of
the older folds will be folded by the younger event.
• Intrusions/Plutons: If a granite pluton cuts across existing folds or
faults, the intrusion is younger than those structures.
• Analyse Map Traces (Outcrop Patterns):
• "V" Rule: Observe how dipping layers interact with topography
(e.g., valleys and ridges) to determine dip direction and angle.
Changes in the consistency of these patterns can indicate a change in
underlying structure due to overprinting.
• Abrupt changes in strike and dip: Areas of high variability in strike
and dip measurements (often highlighted by statistical tools in
advanced mapping) can indicate fold hinges or zones of intense
deformation, which might be related to a second phase of
deformation reworking earlier structures.
• Truncation of units: Where a fault meets rock units, the units are
often truncated, providing evidence of movement and timing relative
to the deposition of those units.
• Utilize Map Symbols and Data: Refer to the map's legend and
explanation to understand all the symbols used. Strike and dip symbols
are critical for visualizing the 3D orientation of the layers and structures,
which helps in constructing accurate cross-sections and understanding
overprinting in the subsurface.
• Construct Serial Cross-Sections: Drawing multiple cross-sections across
the map area helps visualize the 3D geometry of the structures and
confirm the relationships observed on the 2D map. Consistent
interpretation across sections builds confidence in the determined
geological history.
• By systematically applying these principles, one can describe the
different generations of structures and interpret the sequence of tectonic
events that shaped the complex geology of an area.
• 5.5.4 Topographic Control
• The influence of topography on geological map patterns can be
described as follows:
• Contour Line Parallelism: Horizontal or near-horizontal rock
layers will have contacts (boundaries) that run parallel to the
topographic contour lines. The map pattern will essentially
mimic the topography.
• Straight Traces: Vertical rock layers will form straight-line
traces on a map, regardless of the changes in topography. The
outcrop pattern is not affected by hills and valleys.
• Curvilinear Traces (V-shapes): Dipping layers that intersect
irregular topography, such as a valley or ridge, produce a V-
shaped outcrop pattern. The shape and direction of the 'V' are
controlled by the dip of the layer relative to the slope of the
land.
• Truncation/Cross-cutting: Where faults or unconformities cut
across existing topography and structure, they create distinct,
often linear, boundaries that may truncate other patterns. Low-
angle faults also tend to follow topographic contours.
 Interpretation of Map Patterns
• Interpretation of these patterns helps determine the 3D structure of the
subsurface. Key interpretative techniques include:
• Applying the "Rule of V's": This is the most important interpretive rule.
• For layers dipping at an angle steeper than the valley slope, the 'V'
on the map will point in the direction of the dip of the layer.
• For layers dipping at an angle shallower than the valley slope, the 'V'
will point upstream (opposite the dip direction).
• For horizontal layers, the 'V' points directly upstream and the
outcrop line is parallel to the contour lines.
• Using Structure Contours: By connecting points of equal elevation along
a specific geological surface (e.g., the top of a coal seam), you can draw
"structure contours".
• Structure contours facilitate precise three-dimensional geological
interpretation by revealing that lines parallel to a layer's strike indicate dip
angle via their spacing (closer spacing signifies a steeper dip) and by
allowing direct comparison with topographic contours to visualize
subsurface orientation.