Chapter 9

Fluids

This chapter will analyze the statics and dynamics of fluids — a form of
matter that has yet to be considered. Due to the immense complexity of this
field, our analysis in fluid dynamics will only be limited to the special case
of steady, incompressible and energy-conserving flow.

9.1 Properties of a Fluid

The defining feature of a fluid is its vulnerability to deformations. An ideal
fluid with no viscosity deforms under the influence of forces1 parallel to its
surface — known as shear forces — until it takes on a certain form such that
there are no longer any shear forces on it. This occurs both when the fluid is
static and when it is flowing. Therefore, forces on a steady-state fluid must
be perpendicular to its surface.
Since a conservative force is the negative gradient of its associated poten-
tial energy, the surface of a fluid at equilibrium under the sole influence of
conservative forces must be equipotential. Therefore, if we neglect the e!ects
of viscosity and surface tension of real fluids and model the Earth as a uni-
form sphere (assumed to be non-rotating as well), the surface of a beaker of
water should really be a spherical cap if we zoom in close enough.

9.1.1 Pressure

Instead of forces, it is convenient to define the pressure P due to a fluid on

a surface. The pressure on a surface due to a force is the magnitude of the

1
Note that this does not refer to a net force aggregated over all surfaces but the sheer
existence of a net force at a single point on a surface.

469
470 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

normal component of force per unit area on it, i.e.

dF
P =
. (9.1)
dA
We shall now understand why pressure is defined as a scalar, instead of a
vector.

Isotropy of Pressure

The pressure at each point in a fluid is isotropic (i.e. identical in all direc-
tions). Consider an infinitesimal wedge from its side view in the xz-plane
(Fig. 9.1). The cross-section of the wedge is uniform along the y-direction.

Figure 9.1: Side-view of infinitesimal wedge

Let the lengths of the edges of the wedge along the corresponding axes be
dx, dy and dz respectively. Note that even though pressure only tells us about
the normal component of force at each surface, this problem is still completely
determined by the fact that the fluid cannot withstand any shear forces (so
there are no shear forces). Applying Newton’s second law to the z-direction
while considering the forces due to pressure and the weight of the element,
dx
pz dxdy − pn · dy cos θ − ρdV g = ρdV a,
cos θ
where ρ is the density of the fluid and a is the acceleration of the fluid
element in the z direction. dV is the volume of the infinitesimal volume
element, dV = 12 dxdydz. Taking the limits dx → 0, dy → 0 and dz → 0,
pz = pn .
Applying a similar process to the x direction would yield
px = pn .
Therefore,
px = pz = pn = p,
 Fluids 471

for some constant p. Since we did not define a particular value of θ, we can
vary it while ensuring that the wedge encloses a point of concern, to conclude
that the pressure along a neighbourhood in the xz-plane about that point
is some constant p. Next, to prove that the pressure is p in all planes in
the neighborhood of a particular point, consider another infinitesimal fluid
element as shown below.

Figure 9.2: Infinitesimal wedge

One can easily show that pn1 = pn2 = p. Then, by varying φ while
enclosing a point of concern, we can conclude that the pressure is p along all
planes in the vicinity of that point and is hence isotropic. Due to its isotropy,
pressure is defined to be a scalar as a particular direction does not need to
be assigned to it.

9.2 Fluid Statics

As usual, if a fluid is in static equilibrium, there must be no net external
force on each element of the fluid. In a stationary container where the only
forces on each fluid element are its weight, the normal force due to the
container and the force due to its surrounding pressure, the pressure varies
with depth throughout the fluid. We first show that the pressure at all points
of the same horizontal level must be identical. Consider an infinitesimal cube
element with edge lengths dx, dy and dz (Fig. 9.3).
Balancing the forces on the cube along the x and y directions, we conclude
that the pressure must be constant throughout the entire xy-plane, as long
as the fluid is still continuous. Now, consider the forces on the cube in the
vertical direction.
dp · dA = −ρdAdzg
dp
= −ρg.
dz
472 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Figure 9.3: Infinitesimal cube

If ρ is uniform,
p = pref − ρgz, (9.2)
for a continuous vertical column of fluid. pref is the pressure at coordinates
z = 0. This equation is also applicable to moving fluids whose elements are
not accelerating vertically. The combination of the previous two properties
implies that the pressure of a continuous fluid in static equilibrium is always
pref − ρgz, regardless of how oddly shaped the container may be.

Figure 9.4: Fluid in container

Consider the container in the figure above. The pressure at the top is
pref and we wish to determine the pressure p at point Q. We know that
p1 = pref + ρgz1 ,
p = p2 + ρgz2
from the previous result. Furthermore, we know that
p1 = p2
as these points are at the same vertical level. Thus,
p = pref + ρg(z1 + z2 ) = pref + ρgz.
 Fluids 473

9.2.1 Archimedes’ Principle

Due to the variation in pressure, a body partially or fully submerged in a

stationary fluid experiences an upward force called the upthrust or buoy-
ant force. Archimedes’ Principle states that a body experiences an upthrust
equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Note that this upthrust acts
at the center of gravity2 of the displaced fluid (also known as the center of
buoyancy) and is directed vertically upwards.
Fupthrust = mdis g = ρf luid Vdis g. (9.3)
An intuitive and arguably, most insightful, proof of Archimedes’ Principle is
that the fluid surrounding the object does not “know” whether the fluid, that
was originally present, has been removed or is still there. Thus, the remaining
fluid will exert the same force as before on whatever entity occupies the space
where part of the fluid originally was. For the displaced fluid to remain at rest
previously, the upthrust must have balanced its weight and passed through
its center of gravity (for torque balance). Thus, the submerged object expe-
riences a force upwards whose magnitude is commensurate with the weight
of the displaced fluid, acting on the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
Note that this argument works for general gravitational fields since we did
not assume the gravitational field to be uniform.
Problem: A stationary cylinder of mass m and base area A is partially
submerged in a fluid of uniform density ρ, with its cylindrical axis aligned
with the vertical. Supposing that the cylinder is given a slight vertical dis-
placement, determine the angular frequency of small oscillations.
Let x be the length of the cylinder that is currently submerged in the
fluid. Then the equation of motion of the cylinder is
mẍ = mg − ρAxg.
m
Using the substitution u = x − ρA ,

ρAg
ü = − u.
m
Thus, the angular frequency is
!
ρAg
ω= .
m
2
The center of gravity of an extended body is the point at which its weight appears to
act at. It is generally di!erent from the center of mass but is equal to the center of mass
when the body is placed in a uniform gravitational field.
474 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

9.2.2 Moving Containers

When a container is undergoing a certain form of motion, there must be no

relative motion between the fluid it contains and itself at equilibrium (and
also between adjacent fluid elements). This is due to the viscosity of the
fluid in realistic situations which acts to oppose the relative motion between
a fluid element and a neighboring surface, in a manner analogous to friction.
In light of this necessity for the fluid to move in tandem with the container,
the variation in fluid pressure must be consistent with the motion of the
fluid. This also a!ects the shape of the surface of the fluid as pressure is
proportional to the depth of a fluid. Consider the rotating container below
as an example.
Problem: Calculate the height h of the equilibrium liquid level in a cylin-
der of liquid, rotating at a constant angular velocity ω, as a function
of radial distance r from the axis of rotation, which is the cylindrical
axis. The incompressible liquid has a uniform density ρ, and h at r = 0
is h0 .

Figure 9.5: Rotating fluid

We consider an infinitesimal element of liquid with mass dm = ρrdrdθdh

at the bottom of the cylinder, in cylindrical coordinates. We note that the net
force due to the di!erences in pressure must provide the centripetal force in
order for this element to rotate at angular velocity ω. Considering the forces
in the radial direction,

prdhdθ − (p + dp)rdhdθ = −dmrω 2 = −ρr 2 ω 2 drdθdh

dp
= ρrω 2 .
dr
 Fluids 475

Since p = ρgh,
dh rω 2
=
dr g
! h ! r 2
rω
dh = dr
h0 0 g
r2ω2
h = h0 + ,
2g
where h0 is the height of the fluid level along the cylindrical axis. It is inter-
esting to note that this means that the surface of the water is a paraboloid.
Actually, this problem can be easily solved by introducing a notion known as
the centrifugal potential and imposing the condition that the water surface
must be equipotential at equilibrium (see Chapter 11 Problem 8).

9.3 Surface Tension

Surface tension results from the discrepancy in the cohesive interactions
between molecules of a liquid near its interface with another medium and
between those within the liquid. Consider a liquid that is coexisting with
its vapor state3 while assuming that the interactions between the liquid and
vapor phases are negligible.
In a homogeneous liquid, the generally attractive4 interactions between
a particular molecule and all other molecules ascribe a negative potential
energy to that particular molecule — known as the binding energy. The
negative of the binding energy is then the external work needed to remove
a molecule from the liquid to infinity. It happens that the potential energy
associated with a pair of molecules decreases rapidly with their internuclear
distance such that the potential energy of a single molecule is largely due to
its immediate neighbours. With these observations, we can create a simple
microscopic depiction of the origin of a concept known as surface energy.
Referring to Fig. 9.6, a liquid molecule near the interface has roughly half
as many neighboring liquid molecules to interact with, as compared to one

3
Note that even if we isolated a liquid in vacuum, part of it will always evaporate to
form a thin vapor film over the liquid surface.
4
Note that the interactions are highly repulsive in the regime of short internuclear dis-
tances such that, although two isolated molecules will actually be attracted from far away,
when they get close enough, there will be a certain separation where the net force between
them is zero.
476 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Figure 9.6: Molecules in a liquid

in the interior of the liquid. Then, if the binding energy of a molecule within
the liquid is E (which is a negative value), the binding energy of a surface
molecule is only E2 . This “missing” negative energy ( E2 per surface molecule)
can then be supplemented to the surface of a liquid as an additional positive
potential energy, known as the surface energy. Moreover, this model also
suggests that the surface energy should be proportional to the area of the
surface, as a larger surface naturally contains more surface molecules.
In light of the above discussion, we can define a quantity known as the
surface tension γ to describe the surface energy U stored per unit area of
the surface of a liquid.

dU
γ= . (9.4)
dA
At an interface between two homogeneous fluids, the surface tension does
not depend on how much a surface has already been stretched. Since γ is
constant, the surface energy of a liquid can be calculated as

U = γA. (9.5)

As the surface energy is positive, a liquid surface will naturally attempt

to reduce its surface area to minimize its total potential energy (while
taking into account other factors such as gravitational potential energy).
Next, another equivalent perspective is that the surface tension is the
external work required in increasing the area of the liquid surface by a
unit area by moving molecules from the interior (where they have a more
negative binding energy) to the surface (where they have a less negative
 Fluids 477

binding energy).
dWext
γ= . (9.6)
dA
Now, where there is energy, we would expect there to be a force as well. To
this end of developing a force perspective of surface tension, consider the
following instructive set-up.
A liquid film is surrounded by a “U-shaped” frame and one of its ends is
pierced by a thin metal wire of length l that is pulled by a force F , such that
the wire moves at a constant velocity. Notice that since the wire does not
accelerate, F must balance the force due to surface tension on the wire —
implying that we only have to determine F to find the force associated with
surface tension.

Figure 9.7: Liquid film

To solve for F , we can apply the principle of virtual work5 to the wire.
Suppose that the wire is displaced rightwards by a virtual displacement δx.
The work done by the external force on the wire would be F δx while the
work done by the liquid film would be the negative change in surface energy,
−2γdA = −2γlδx. The factor of two arises from the fact that there are two
liquid-vapor interfaces — one on top of the liquid and one below. Since the
wire is in equilibrium, the principle of virtual work asserts that the sum of
virtual works yields zero so that
F δx − 2γlδx = 0
=⇒ F = 2γl.
Therefore, the liquid film tugs at the wire with a force 2γl leftwards.
Since there are two liquid-air interfaces, we can ascribe a surface tension
force of γl to each interface. Now, observe that if we scale the length of
the wire by a factor k, the surface tension force due to each interface will

5
Alternatively, we can apply Eq. (9.6).
478 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

also be scaled by k. Therefore, a horizontal strip of liquid with vertical

length dl would exert a force γdl on the wire. Since each interface of
the original set-up can be viewed as the composition of myriad horizon-
tal strips of liquid that are identical, and whose total exerted force is γl,
the meaning of γ must be the force per unit length of a line along a liquid
surface!
A paramount observation at this juncture is that γ must not only be
the force per unit length at the end near the wire but it must also be the
force per unit length for all lines along the entire liquid interface. That is,
a form of internal tension must exist on the entire liquid surface to ensure
that all sections remain at equilibrium (similar to how an internal tension
T = F must exist within a rigid rod when its ends are pulled by an external
force F ).
As hinted by the previous set-up, we propose the following alternative
view of surface tension. For an arbitrary liquid-vapor interface S, draw a line
L along it which divides it into two regions (Fig. 9.8).

Figure 9.8: Force due to infinitesimal line segment

The contribution to the force between the regions due to an infinitesimal

line segment dl along the interface is
dF = γdl × n̂,
where n̂ is the normal vector of the interface at that line segment. The
above is the force that the region, corresponding to the direction of dF ,
exerts on the other region along the segment. For example, since dF points
towards the right for the infinitesimal segment depicted above, it is the force
exerted by the right region on the left region along the segment dl. Note that
the direction of n̂ is arbitrary, but it is a good habit to define a consistent
direction (such as outwards). Finally, it is crucial to observe that dF is
parallel to the interface (perpendicular to both dl and n̂) so in a certain
 Fluids 479

sense, the surface tension is a “one-dimensional pressure” that acts on any

line along the surface of a liquid.
The total force exerted by the right region on the left is correspondingly
!
F = γdl × n̂, (9.7)
L

where the integral is performed over the line L. The proof of this follows
the previous procedure exactly. We can imagine cutting the liquid into two
regions along L and exerting an external force F ext = −F on the left region
to balance the force due to the right region. Applying the principle of vir-
tual work to the left region when its entire boundary line with the right
region stretches by an arbitrary displacement δx (while maintaining the
same shape), the virtual work done by the external force is F ext · δx while
the virtual work done performed by the right region is negative of the change
in surface energy of the right region. Since the change in surface area of
the right region due to the displacement of an infinitesimal line segment dl
by δx is −δx · (dl × n̂), the total increase in surface energy of the right
region is
!
− γδx · (dl × n̂).
L

Applying the principle of virtual work,

! !
F ext · δx = − γδx · (dl × n̂) = δx · − γ(dl × n̂).
L L

Since this is valid for all δx, we must have

!
F ext = − γdl × n̂
L
!
=⇒ F = γdl × n̂.
L

Excess Pressure in a Spherical Droplet

Surface tension causes a pressure discontinuity at a curved interface of a

liquid at equilibrium. To start o!, let us consider a spherical liquid droplet
that has equilibrated in weightlessness. We wish to find the di!erence in
pressure between the interior and the exterior of the drop, p1 − p0 , given the
surface tension γ and the radius of the drop r.
Method 1: Force We cut the sphere into two hemispheres. Considering
the right hemisphere, we see that the force due to the di!erence between the
480 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Figure 9.9: Liquid droplet

internal pressure and external pressure p1 − p0 tends to push it to the right.

On the other hand, the surface tension (represented by arrows in the right of
Fig. 9.9) balances that by pulling it to the left, towards the other hemisphere.
In fact, evaluating the cross-product of the integrand in Eq. (9.7) along the
perimeter of the equatorial circle would show that the surface tension force
on the right hemisphere due to each line segment along the equatorial circle is
exactly leftwards. Since the perimeter of the equatorial circle is 2πr, the net
surface tension force on the right hemisphere is γ2πr. On the other hand,
the force due to the pressure di!erence is simply6 the pressure di!erence
multiplied by the area of the equatorial circle πr 2 . Thus, for the hemisphere
to remain stationary,

(p1 − p0 )πr 2 = 2πrγ

2γ
∆p = p1 − p0 = .
r
Method 2: Virtual Work We shall apply the principle of virtual work
to the molecules near the spherical surface. Suppose the sphere expands by
a radius δr. Then, the virtual work done by the pressure on the surface
molecules would be

δWP = ∆p4πr 2 δr.

6
To be completely rigorous, the force on an infinitesimal surface element dA (directed
outwards) on the right hemisphere is pdA where p is the net pressure. Since there should
only be a net force rightwards, we can simply take the rightwards component (defined
to be aligned with the positive x-direction) of this, !!pdA · î, and integrate
!! over the entire
hemisphere to compute the net force. This becomes hemi pdA · î = p hemi dA · î. For an
infinitesimal area dA that subtends an angle θ with î, the integrand evaluates!!to dA cos θ
which is simply the area of its projection onto the equatorial plane! Therefore, hemi dA· î
is simply the area of the projection of the hemisphere onto the equatorial plane which is
just the area of the equatorial circle, πr 2 . The net force is accordingly p · πr 2 .
 Fluids 481

The virtual work performed by surface tension can be computed as the

negative change in surface energy. The increase in the area of the liquid
surface can be calculated as follows. The surface area of a sphere is

A = 4πr 2
=⇒ δA = 8πrδr.

Thus, from the definition of surface tension,

δWST = −δUST = −γδA = −8πrγδr.

By the principle of virtual work, if the surface molecules were at equilibrium,

the sum of all forms of virtual work must yield zero.

δWP + δWST = 0 =⇒ !p4πr 2 δr = 8πrγδr

2γ
!p = p1 − p0 = .
r
We see that the internal pressure of a liquid drop is in fact larger than the
external pressure. As a word of caution, the last technicality in consider-
ing surface tension would be the number of interfaces. For example, if the
liquid droplet in the above problem were to be replaced by a soap bubble,
then
4γ
!p = p1 − p0 = ,
r
as there are now in fact, two liquid-vapor interfaces — the soap bubble is
a hollow sphere with a liquid surface. Thus, there is a vapor-liquid-vapor
transition from the outside to the inside of the soap bubble.

Problem: Referring to Fig. 9.10, two soap bubbles coalesce to become two
spheres of radii r1 and r2 that are connected by a common soap interface that
takes the form of the surface of a spherical cap with radius r3 at equilibrium.
Determine r3 .

Figure 9.10: Coalesced bubbles (the case r2 < r1 is depicted above)

482 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Let the external pressure be p0 . The pressures within the two soap
bubbles at equilibrium are then
4γ
p1 = p0 + ,
r1
4γ
p2 = p0 + .
r2
Furthermore, the di!erence in the interior pressures of the soap bubbles must
also be related to the radius of the spherical interface, i.e.
4γ 4γ
|p1 − p2 | = |r2 − r1 | =
r1 r2 r3
r1 r2
=⇒ r3 = .
|r2 − r1 |
The interface is concave with respect to the smaller sphere which has a larger
interior pressure.

Young-Laplace Equation

For a general curved surface with a single interface at equilibrium, the

Young-Laplace equation states that the di!erence in the internal and exter-
nal pressures across the interface at a particular point P is
! "
1 1
∆p = γ + , (9.8)
r1 r2
where r1 and r2 are the radii of curvature, which will be defined in the proof
below, along two curves perpendicular at P, which are both located along
the interface. The concave side of the interface has a larger pressure. One
can easily check that by substituting r1 = r2 = r for a sphere, the above
equation reduces to what we have derived earlier.

Proof: Define two perpendicular directions along the relevant curved

interface at a certain point P on the interface (these directions are per-
pendicular to the normal at P). Next, consider an infinitesimal rectangular
surface element, centered about P, with side lengths dl1 and dl2 along those
perpendicular directions.
Now, switch to the side view of this surface element where the side dl2
is on this page and the side dl1 is into the page (Fig. 9.11). In the first
approximation, a curve in the vicinity of an arbitrary point P is locally
approximated by a tangent line at P. However, this approximation is not
 Fluids 483

Figure 9.11: Side view

accurate enough in this context, as approximating dl2 as a straight line

would cause the surface tension forces on the sides of length dl1 to nullify
each other. We need a better approximation that better reflects the curved
nature of this interface. To this end, we can approximate dl2 locally by an
arc of an appropriate circle that passes through P. Such a circle is known as
an osculating circle7 and its radius r is known as the radius of curvature of
the curve at P. If the radius of curvature of dl2 is r2 , the angle subtended
by the surface tension forces along the sides with length dl1 and the hori-
dl2 dl2 γdl1 dl2
zontal is θ ≈ 2r 2
. The net force due to these forces is 2 · γdl1 · 2r 2
= r2
downwards, thereby contributing to a downwards pressure rγ2 on the surface
element.
Applying the same argument to the forces along the sides with length dl2 ,
the total pressure due to surface tension on this infinitesimal surface element
is γ( r11 + r12 ) downwards8 — indicating that the pressure on the bottom must
be larger than that on top by this amount to balance the pressure due to
surface tension. We have hence proven our claim.
As an aside, observe that there are infinitely many pairs of perpendicular
directions along the interface at P — such that r1 and r2 can be the radii
of curvature along an arbitrary pair of curves along the interface that are
perpendicular at P. However, we often choose r1 and r2 as a specific pair
known as the principal radii of curvature which are defined as the maximum
and minimum radii of curvature along all possible curves passing through P.
It can be proven mathematically that these are the only extrema and that the
directions of these curves, known as the principal directions, are mutually
perpendicular at P. One can also derive the principal radii of curvature
from the equation describing the surface, but we shall not delve further into

7
Refer to any book on di!erential geometry to understand how the osculating circle of
a point on a curve can be found.
8
Note that even though we have drawn the surface to be concave with respect to the
bottom, one can substitute a negative radius of curvature if the surface is convex with
respect to the bottom.
484 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

the mathematical details as the radii of curvature of the surfaces that we

encounter are usually obvious.

Problem: Determine the pressure discontinuity across a cylindrical interface

of radius r and surface tension γ at equilibrium.
Consider a point P on the interface. Notice that the azimuthal and axial
(parallel to the axis of the cylinder) directions are perpendicular at P with
radii of curvature r and infinity — the latter because the center of a circle
that approximates a straight line must be located at infinity.9 Applying the
Young-Laplace equation,
γ
!p = .
r

Solid-Liquid-Air Interface

Similar to the case of a liquid, we can define a surface energy for a solid
surface in a vacuum and associate a surface tension γsv with the solid-vacuum
interface.
When a liquid droplet is placed on a solid plate, there are really three
interfaces — namely, the liquid-vapor, solid-vapor and solid-liquid interfaces.
The former two can be described by the liquid-vacuum and solid-vacuum
surface tensions γlv and γsv as we assume that the vapor does not interact
with the other phases.
Things become more murky when we study the solid-liquid interface.
We still ascribe a surface tension γsl to it but its meaning is subtly differ-
ent. It represents the surface energy per unit area stored in the solid-liquid
interface but it is not the external work required to increase the solid-liquid
interface by a unit area by bringing molecules from the interior of the liquid
to the solid-liquid interface. This becomes clear when we understand the
origin of γsl . To create a solid-liquid interface, we can join a solid-vacuum
interface and a liquid-vacuum interface which have surface energy densities
γsv and γlv respectively. However, in this process, the attractive interac-
tions between the solid and liquid molecules — which are known as adhesive
interactions — are no longer negligible (unlike solid-vapor and liquid-vapor
interactions). These adhesive interactions contribute to a negative poten-
tial energy as the solid-vacuum and liquid-vacuum interfaces are brought
closer together — implying that the surface energy density γsl stored in the

9
This is to ensure that an infinitesimal arc around P is straight.
 Fluids 485

solid-liquid interface formed is

γsl = γsv + γlv − Asl ,
where Asl is the external work per unit area required to separate the solid-
liquid interface and revert to the solid-vacuum and liquid-vacuum interfaces.
On the other hand, the external work needed to increase the solid-liquid
interface by a unit area by bringing molecules within the liquid to the inter-
face is10 γlv − Asl = γsl − γsv . In other words, the discrepancy between the
surface energy density and the external work done per unit area arises from
the adhesive interactions between the liquid and solid molecules, in addition
to the cohesive interactions between molecules of the same kind.
The interplay of these cohesive and adhesive interactions determines how
a liquid droplet responds when it is placed on a solid plate. In describing
the shape of the droplet, the contact angle is defined as the angle sub-
tended between the solid surface and the gradient of the fluid surface at
the contact point on the solid-liquid interface. It is conventionally measured
through the liquid and denotes the direction of the surface tension force (we
mean along the liquid-vapour interface when we refer to just surface ten-
sion) on the liquid molecules near the contact point, due to the rest of the
liquid (Fig. 9.12).

Figure 9.12: Contact angles on hydrophilic (left) and hydrophobic (right) surfaces

We can actually theoretically predict the equilibrium contact angle for a

droplet placed on a plate. Since the droplet should be rotationally symmetric
due to the infinite nature of the plane, a single cross-section is representative
of the entire droplet. Consequently, consider the region in the vicinity of the
contact point in a cross-section of a liquid droplet at equilibrium.
In Fig. 9.13, θ is the equilibrium contact angle. Suppose that we dis-
place the contact point by a virtual distance δx outwards (towards the

10
γlv is the external work (per unit area) required to extract the interior liquid molecules
towards the interface if the exterior medium is vacuum. If the neighboring medium is
instead a solid which engenders an attractive force on the molecules as they are brought
in, we must subtract γlv by Asl when computing the potential energy associated with the
molecules, to account for the negative work done by the external force in overcoming these
attractive interactions that tend to pull these molecules towards the solid.
486 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Figure 9.13: Displacement of contact point

vapor) while the shape of the liquid-vapor interface is roughly maintained

due to the minuscule value of δx. The solid-vapor interface decreases by δx
in length while the solid-liquid interface increases by δx in length. Mean-
while, the liquid-vapor interface increases by δx cos θ in length. Therefore,
in order for the sum of changes in potential energies to be zero (as the
sum of all virtual works, due only to conservative forces in this case, must
be zero),

γsl δx + γlv cos θδx − γsv δx = 0

γsv − γsl
=⇒ cos θ = ,
γlv
which is known as Young’s equation. Now, we shall present an alternative
derivation of this relationship from the perspective of forces. Firstly, we shall
dismiss a common erroneous proof that is usually stated as follows.

Figure 9.14: Surface tensions at contact point (incorrect argument)

Balancing the three forms of surface tension at the contact point along
the horizontal direction in Fig. 9.14, we obtain

γsv = γsl + γlv cos θ

γsv − γsl
=⇒ cos θ = .
γlv
Now, there are many fallacies in this argument. Firstly, we cannot balance
the forces at the contact point as it is just a mathematical point that does not
contain any real particles. Secondly, even if we consider the region of particles
close to the contact point, what type of particles are we encompassing in our
system? For instance, γsv refers to the cohesive forces on solid molecules
 Fluids 487

while γlv refers to the cohesive forces on liquid molecules! Thirdly, why is
the vertical component of forces unbalanced?

Figure 9.15: Forces on wedge (correct argument)

To rectify these loopholes, it is best to explicitly define the system that

we consider from the start. We choose the liquid molecules near the contact
point, which take the form of the wedge above, as our system. The forces on
this system are the cohesive forces due to the rest of the liquid, described
by the liquid-vacuum/vapor surface tension γlv on the hypotenuse and the
base, and the force due to the solid (the interactions between the liquid and
vapour are negligible). The force on this system in the plane of the plate,
due to the solid, is easy to compute as we have already proven that the
work per unit area due to the solid-liquid adhesion is Asl = γsv + γlv − γsl .
Therefore, the adhesive force per unit length on our system in the horizontal
direction must be Asl outwards (towards increasing interfacial area). Note
that all surface tension forces are due to the infinitesimal segment along the
interface pointing into the page.
Referring to Fig. 9.14, the cohesive surface tension force per unit length
γlv along the liquid-vapor interface on the molecules in the vicinity of the
contact point is drawn correctly. However, the γsv and γsl forces per unit
length should instead be reflected as a Asl = γsv + γlv − γsl force per unit
length rightwards, produced by the solid, and a γlv force per unit length
leftwards by the rest of the fluid due to the surface tension on the solid-
liquid interface.
Finally, to correct the seemingly-unbalanced vertical component of γsv ,
we note that we have only computed the force on our system due to the
solid in the plane of the plate. There are still11 forces of adhesion between
the liquid and solid molecules near the interface which balance the upwards
component of γlv . The correct diagram is thus Fig. 9.15. Having clarified

11
By considering infinitesimal elements in the interior of the fluid, one can easily show
that this normal component of adhesive forces γlv sin θ is strictly localized to the three-
phase line.
488 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

these facts, we can now safely write

γsv − γsl = γlv cos θ
γsv − γsl
=⇒ cos θ = .
γlv
Furthermore, we can see that the force per unit length exerted by the solid
on the liquid, in the plane of the solid-liquid interface, is in fact
Asl = γsv + γlv − γsl = γlv (1 + cos θ).
There is a moral to be told here. It is often advised to adopt a thermodynamic
approach (finding changes in energy and applying the principle of virtual
work) instead of a mechanical one when dealing with surface tension. The
latter is much more subtle and is thus error-prone, especially when we are
confused about the system that we are referring to.
Now, there are a few regimes of interest that determine the response of
the liquid droplet (refer back to Fig. 9.12). Firstly, if 0 < γsv −γsl ≤ γlv , then
0 ≤ θ < π2 . The surface is said to be mostly wetting (hydrophilic) and the
liquid droplet equilibrates with an acute contact angle. On the other hand,
if 0 < γsl − γsv < γlv , we find that π2 < θ < π and the surface is described as
mostly non-wetting (hydrophobic). The droplet equilibrates with an obtuse
contact angle. If 0 < γlv < γsv − γsl , there are no solutions for θ. Instead, an
equilibrium does not exist as the outwards force due to the solid is so strong
that the liquid is dragged further into the vapor region — spreading the liquid
over the entire solid surface. In an apt manner, the surface is said to be com-
pletely wetting. Similarly, if 0 < γlv < γsl − γsv , the inwards force due to the
solid is so strong that the droplet is dragged into the liquid-region and is thus
contracted. In fact, it is more energetically favorable to introduce vapor films
between portions of the liquid such that the liquid is actually collected into
copious spherical pearls. Such a surface is said to be completely non-wetting.

Capillary Action

The most vivid manifestation of the various surface tensions is the phe-
nomenon of capillary action. When a tube with a small cross-section is placed
in a container of liquid, the liquid is “sucked” into the tube and rises above
the liquid level in the container.
Suppose that the tube is a cylinder of small radius r and that the equilib-
rium height of the liquid in the vertical column is h above the liquid level in
the container (we neglect the volume of the meniscus). The liquid has density
ρ. We shall present three arguments to determine h in terms of the liquid-
vacuum surface tension, that we will just write as γ, and the contact angle θ.
 Fluids 489

Figure 9.16: Capillary action

Firstly, suppose that the height of the liquid within the tube increases
by δh. Since the height of the solid-liquid interface is increased by δh while
that of the solid-vapor interface is decreased by δh, the change in surface
energy is (γsl − γsv )2πrδh where 2πr is the perimeter of the cross-sectional
circle of the tube. There is no change in surface energy associated with the
liquid-vapor interface since its shape does not change. Meanwhile, there is
also a change in gravitational potential energy as δh height of liquid (which
corresponds to ρπr 2 δh of mass) is e!ectively transferred from the bottom of
the tube to an altitude h — indicating an increase in gravitational potential
energy by ρπr 2 ghδh. Equating the sum of the changes in potential energies
to zero, by the principle of virtual work,
(γsl − γsv )2πrδh + ρπr 2 ghδh = 0
2(γsv − γsl ) 2γ cos θ
h= = ,
ρrg ρrg
where we have applied Young’s equation in the last step. Note that Young’s
equation is still valid even if gravity is now parallel to the surface of the
plate, as the weight of the liquid molecules in the vicinity of a contact point
is negligible compared to the other forces they experience.
Moving on to the second method, we can impose the condition that the
liquid pressure must be uniform throughout a vertical level at hydrostatic
equilibrium. Let p0 be the atmospheric pressure. As r is small, the meniscus
can be treated as a spherical cap with radius R = cosr θ (see Fig. 9.16).
Therefore, the pressure in the liquid directly below the meniscus is p0 − 2γ cos
r
θ

by the Young-Laplace relationship. Since the pressure at the water level

inside the open container must be p0 , we have
2γ cos θ
p0 − + ρgh = p0
r
2γ cos θ
h= .
ρrg
490 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Finally, we can also solve this problem by analyzing the forces on the portion
of water in the tube above the water level in the container. Firstly, we know
from the previous section that the force per unit length that the tube exerts
on the liquid at the three-phase interface, along the surface of the tube
(towards the vapor), is Asl = γ(1 + cos θ). Therefore, the upwards force
exerted by the tube on the liquid is 2πrγ(1 + cos θ). Next, there is also a
downwards force due to surface tension on the bottom boundary circle of
this system, 2πrγ, that is exerted by the water beneath it. Observing that
there is no pressure di!erence between the top and bottom ends of this water
column, the net e!ect of these forces must balance the weight of the water
in our system.
2γπr cos θ = ρπr 2 gh
2γ cos θ
h= .
ρrg
Evidently, the height of the liquid column increases with a smaller tube,
ceteris paribus. Finally, also note that this result is valid for both acute and
obtuse contact angles even though we drew the acute case in the diagram.
The liquid level in the tube will be lower than the liquid level in the container
if the contact angle is obtuse.

Problem: Determine the depth H of a meniscus (i.e. the height of the

highest level minus the height of the lowest level) in a cylindrical tube with
an arbitrary radius that contains a liquid of density ρ, surface tension γ and
contact angle θ. You can no longer assume that the shape of the meniscus
is a spherical cap in this case, but you may assume that the slope of the
meniscus is small everywhere. With your result, justify why we could ignore
the volume of the meniscus for small tube radii previously.

Figure 9.17: Half of meniscus in cross-section

Again, since the tube is axially-symmetric, we can consider a single

cross-section with half of the meniscus. Assuming that the contact angle is
acute, the highest liquid level should occur at the interface with the tube
while the lowest liquid level should occur at the center of the meniscus.
 Fluids 491

In fact, the center of the meniscus must be completely flat — else there is
no chance for the surface tension on the molecules near the center to be
balanced in the vertical direction. This flatness implies that the pressure in
the liquid, directly below the meniscus, is the atmospheric pressure p0 by
the Young-Laplace equation (with infinite radii of curvature). Therefore, the
hydrostatic pressure at a point on the wall of the tube must be p0 − ρgz,
where z is the point’s height above the center of the meniscus.
Now, we can determine the depth H of the meniscus by balancing the
horizontal forces on the half of the meniscus depicted on the previous page.
Firstly, the liquid experiences a uniform atmospheric pressure p0 from its
right — resulting in a net leftwards force per unit length p0 H in this cross-
section (we can take the force to be purely horizontal because the slope is
small). Next, since the liquid exerts a hydrostatic pressure on the wall, it
must also experience a pressure due to the wall. As the hydrostatic pressure
varies linearly with depth, we can simply take the average of the hydrostatic
pressure multiplied by the depth of the liquid to compute the net force per
ρgH 2
unit length on the liquid. This amounts to (p0 − ρgH2 ) · H = p0 H − 2 force
per unit length on the liquid rightwards. Besides the two pressures on the
liquid, there are also the surface tension at the center of the meniscus which
delivers a rightwards force per unit length γ, and the horizontal (normal)
attractive force per unit length exerted by the tube on the liquid at the
three-phase interface, γ sin θ, as discussed previously (to balance the normal
component of surface tension due to the rest of the fluid). Balancing the
forces in the horizontal direction while taking rightwards to be positive,

ρgH 2
p0 H − − p0 H + γ − γ sin θ = 0
2
!
2γ(1 − sin θ)
H= ,
ρg

which is surprisingly, independent of the tube radius. One can use a similar
procedure to show that the above is also valid for obtuse contact angles (the
center of the meniscus is now higher than the liquid level near the tube).
Comparing H with
" the expression for h derived previously, we observe that
γ
H " h if r " ρg (we are now able to quantify what we mean by a small
"
γ
tube radius)! In fact, the expression ρg is defined as the capillary length
Lc , which is a characteristic length scale for the interface between two media,
so we can say that our answer for h is valid when r " Lc .
492 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Floating Objects

In the previous section, we studied the forces on a liquid due to a solid —

we will focus on the reverse in this section. There are three main e!ects that
the presence of a liquid induces on the solid. Firstly, there is an upthrust
on a submerged or partially submerged body that is generated due to the
varying pressure in water with height. Secondly, the liquid molecules along
the three-phase interface also exert the reaction pair to the adhesive forces
due to the solid. This results in forces per unit length γ(1 + cos θ) tangen-
tial to the solid surface (pointing towards the liquid) and γ sin θ normal to
the solid surface (also pointing towards the liquid) on the solid, where θ is
the contact angle. Finally, there is generally an additional “curvature pres-
sure”, superimposed on the normal pressure variation with height, due to
the local curvature of the solid-liquid interface. The origin of this is sim-
ple — as we have accounted for the adhesive interactions, the remaining
e!ect of the solid is akin to vacuum. If the solid-liquid interface is concave
with respect to the solid, the solid has to exert an additional Laplace pressure
to keep the liquid molecules near the interface in equilibrium (via a normal
force). The liquid molecules then exert the reaction pair to this normal force
which e!ectively constitutes an additional curvature pressure.12 Therefore,
the curvature pressure on the solid is positive (acting towards the solid) if
the solid-liquid interface is convex with respect to the liquid. The converse
statement holds for the opposite shape of the interface.
The combination of the two latter factors can actually help non-wetting
solid objects, such as water beetles, to float on a less-dense liquid! Let us
consider the simplest example of a sphere floating on water.

Figure 9.18: Floating sphere

In the figure above, a sphere of radius r is floating with an angle of con-

tact θ. φ is the angular coordinate of the three-phase (solid, liquid, vapor)

12
Another perspective is that the Laplace pressure enhances the pressure in the liquid,
beyond the usual linear variation with depth which is associated with the upthrust.
 Fluids 493

intersection in a cross-section and corresponds to the location where the

reaction to the adhesive forces act (γ(1 + cos θ) tangentially and γ sin θ nor-
mally with respect to the sphere as shown above). Now, the curvature of the
sphere leads to a uniform curvature pressure 2γ r along the entire solid-liquid
interface (depicted by the dashed arrows). This amounts to an upwards force
of magnitude 2γ 2 2 2
r · πr sin φ = 2γπr sin φ (pressure multiplied by the area of
the three-phase boundary circle which has radius r sin φ). Observe that this
is equivalent to saying that the net e!ect of the curvature pressure is to intro-
duce a tangential (relative to the sphere) surface tension force γ on the circle
at the three-phase interface (pointing upwards) as it will act on a perime-
ter 2πr sin φ for a total upwards force of γ · 2πr sin φ · sin φ = 2γπr sin2 φ
(multiply by sin φ to extract the vertical component).
Now, let’s combine the e!ects of the curvature pressure and the adhesive
forces to obtain forces per unit length γ cos θ tangential to the sphere and
γ sin θ normal to the sphere, both pointing towards the liquid, along the
three-phase interface. This implies that the net e!ect is simply a force per
unit length γ along the three-phase intersection, tangential to the liquid
surface (white arrow)! With this remarkable result, we can compute the
force due to this net e!ect as
! " ! "
3π 3π
F = γ · 2πr sin θ · sin − θ − φ = 2γπr sin θ sin −θ−φ ,
4 4
where we multiply by sin( 3π4 − θ − φ) to retrieve the upwards component.
The total force balance for the sphere is thus
! "
3π
mg = Fupthrust + 2γπr sin θ sin −θ−φ ,
4
where m is the mass of the sphere and Fupthrust is the upthrust that it expe-
riences. The combination of the e!ects associated with surface tension and
upthrust helps the sphere to stay afloat. Now, you may wonder if the pres-
ence of adhesive interactions and curvature pressure invalidates the previous
proof of Archimedes’ Principle which relied on the fluid’s inability to dis-
tinguish the entity that it exerts a force on. To ease your worries, observe
that no such forces exist on a line of molecules when the entity is in fact an
identical portion of fluid — implying that the previous proof is still valid.
Thus, the expression for the upthrust still remains the same but one has to
account for the additional e!ects due to the other factors.
Finally, the above result is in fact completely general. For an object of
an arbitrary shape, the net vertical force due to adhesive interactions and
curvature pressure is akin to introducing a force per unit length γ at the
three-phase interface, along the surface of the fluid! Therefore, if we place
494 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

a thin cylinder of mass m, length l and negligible radius in a liquid with

surface tension γ and contact angle of π radians, the force balance equation
is 2γl = mg (the upthrust is negligible). However, be wary that no such
short-cut exists for the components of force along the plane perpendicular
to the vertical — one has to account for the adhesive forces and curvature
pressure manually.

9.4 Fluid Dynamics

The flow of a fluid can be divided into several categories. A uniform flow is
one where the flow characteristics — such as pressure and flow velocity —
are identical at all points. A steady flow is one whose flow characteristics do
not vary over time but is not necessarily uniform. Lastly, an incompressible
flow occurs when the density of the fluid is identical everywhere.
This section will analyze steady and incompressible one-dimensional flows
of fluids. In our set-ups, cross-sections are assumed to be small such that the
flow characteristics — such as velocity — are uniform about a cross-section.
We shall start with a few definitions. A streamline is a line that is tangential
to the instantaneous flow velocity at all points along the streamline (akin to
an electric field line) and reflects the trajectory of a fluid particle lying on
that streamline if the flow is steady. Now, consider the set of all streamlines
that pass through a closed loop (such as the left loop in the figure below).
Such a collection of streamlines is known as a streamtube (e.g. the tube that
looks like a pipe in the figure below). Since streamlines cannot cross (as that
would imply two directions of flow velocity at the points of intersection), fluid
particles can only flow along the cross-section of a streamtube and cannot
escape by cutting across the surface of a streamtube.

The Mass Continuity Equation

Figure 9.19: Narrow streamtube (the above is not a physical pipe)

 Fluids 495

In a steady-state system, the total mass within a section of fluid must be

invariant over time. Therefore, if we define ρ1 , A1 , v1 to be the mass density,
cross-sectional area and flow velocity at one section of a narrow streamtube
(narrow such that these properties are uniform over a cross-section) and ρ2 ,
A2 , v2 to be those at another section (Fig. 9.19), we have
ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 . (9.9)
The expression ρAv is the mass flux, which is the rate of mass flow through
a cross-section. This must be equal at all sections of the streamtube as
whatever goes in must come out at the same rate. If this were not the case,
mass would be accumulated along the flow and the flow would no longer be
steady. Furthermore, in the case of incompressible flow, ρ1 = ρ2 . Then,
Av = Q (9.10)
for a constant Q which is known as the volume flow rate.
Bernoulli’s Equation

For an incompressible, steady and energy-conserving one-dimensional fluid

flow, Bernoulli’s principle states that for two points along a streamline or a
narrow streamtube,
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2 , (9.11)
2 2
where P is the pressure at a point along the fluid flow, v is the flow velocity
at that point and h is its height with respect to a certain reference point. The
dimensions of the cross-sections of the streamtube of concern are assumed to
be negligible compared to their heights, such that the gravitational potential
energies of all mass elements on a particular cross-section are assumed to be
identical.

Proof: Consider the evolution of the portion of fluid enclosed between the
two cross-sections in Fig. 9.19 after a time interval dt. ρQdt mass of fluid
would have advanced a distance v1 dt from the left cross-section and v2 dt
from the right cross-section. Thus, the work done by the pressure at the two
ends is
W = (P1 − P2 )Qdt.
Furthermore, the velocity of ρQdt mass of fluid e!ectively changes from v1
to v2 . Therefore, the change in kinetic energy is
1 1
∆T = ρQv22 dt − ρQv12 dt.
2 2
496 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Finally, the change in gravitational potential energy is evidently

!U = ρgQdt(h2 − h1 ).
By the work-energy theorem,
Wnoncon = !(T + U ),
where Wnoncon = (P1 − P2 )Qdt in this case. Canceling the Qdt terms,
1 1
P1 − P2 = ρv22 − ρv12 + ρgh2 − ρgh1
2 2
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2 .
2 2
Problem: An open cylindrical container of height h0 and cross-sectional
area A1 is initially filled with water. There is a tap at the bottom of the con-
tainer with cross-sectional area A2 and negligible height. Assuming energy-
conserving flow, find the height of the water level h(t) as a function of time.

Figure 9.20: Water tap

Let u be the velocity of the water level and let v be the velocity of the
water flushing through the tap, both defined to be positive downwards. By
Bernoulli’s equation,
1 2 1
u + gh = v 2 ,
2 2
where we have canceled the atmospheric pressure terms on both sides. Fur-
thermore, the rate of volume flow outwards is A2 v. Thus,
dV
= −A2 v.
dt
Since V = A1 h and u = − dh
dt ,

A1
A1 u = A2 v =⇒ v = u
A2
 Fluids 497

which is e!ectively the mass continuity equation. Substituting this expression

for v into the first equation,
1 2 1 A21 u2
u + gh =
2 2 A22
! 2 "
A1
2 − 1 u2 = 2gh.
A2

Substituting u = − dh
dt ,
#
dh 2gA22 h
=− .
dt A21 − A22
Separating variables and integrating,
$ $ #
h t
1 2gA22
√ dh = − dt
h0 h 0 A21 − A22
#
√ % 2gA22
2 h − 2 h0 = − t
A21 − A22
& # )2
% gA2
h= h0 − ' 2 2 2( t ,
2 A1 − A2
*
2(A21 −A22 )h0
which is only valid for t ≤ gA22
. Note that this result is definitely
inaccurate in the regime where h is small as the water surface may begin to
shrink in radius (in addition to a decreasing fluid level) — introducing new
complications.

Systems with a Small Aperture

In the case of containers with small apertures, the fluid inside the container
can be taken to be approximately static, such that its squared speed in the
application of Bernoulli’s principle can be neglected (as it is second-order).
However, the velocity of the ejected fluid and the velocity of the fluid inside
the container when applying the continuity equation (which is first-order)
are non-negligible.

Problem: A hollow cylinder of base area A and length l is initially filled

with a fluid of mass density ρ. It lies with its cylindrical axis along the plane
of a horizontal table. Then, a massless piston is pushed with a constant force
498 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

F at one of the ends of the fluid. If a small aperture of area A0 ! A is made

at the other end of the cylinder, determine the time required to empty the
cylinder. Neglect atmospheric pressure.
Applying Bernoulli’s principle to the end of the fluid that is touching the
piston and the point directly outside the aperture,
1 2
P = ρv ,
2
where P = FA is the pressure of the fluid at the end with the piston and v
is the velocity of the ejected fluid (the velocity of the fluid in the cylinder is
negligible). Thus, the volume flow rate is
!
2F
Q = A0 v = A0 .
ρA
The time required to empty the container is then
√
Al Al ρA
t= = √ .
Q A0 2F
 Fluids 499

Problems
Pressure and Surface Tension

1. Accelerating Tube*

Consider the tube below with a constant horizontal cross-section — the

length of the bends can be neglected. The ends are initially uncapped and
the water level is even as the tube is stationary. The tube is capped and
accelerated. If the lengths of the left and right air columns are h and 2h
initially and 32 h and 32 h afterwards, determine the acceleration of the tube.
Assume that the ideal gases undergo an isothermal process. Denote ρ as the
density of water and p0 as atmospheric pressure.

2. Falling Drop*

Assume that raindrops√ are spherical with a constant density ρ. Suppose that
3
a raindrop of radius 7R falls from a height h and coalesces instantaneously
with a raindrop of radius R. If the surface tension of a raindrop is γ and its
specific heat capacity is c, determine the temperature rise immediately after
the collision.

3. Colliding Soap Bubbles**

The surface tension of soap bubbles in vacuum is γ. Now, two spherical soap
bubbles are in equilibrium with respective radii ra and rb in an environment
where the external pressure is zero. The two soap bubbles then coalesce
to form a spherical soap bubble of equilibrium radius rc , without any heat
transfer between it and the environment. If the initial temperatures of the
soap bubbles are both some unknown temperature T , show that the final
equilibrium temperature of the combined soap bubble is also T . Determine
rc .

4. Balloon**

A spherical balloon of total mass m, radius R and surface tension γ is

tossed at a wall. The balloon then undergoes a small deformation of the
500 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

form shown in the figure below (a portion is flattened). However, the part
that has yet to collide with the wall is still rigid. If the balloon remains
mostly spherical such that the pressure inside is uniform and unchanged,
show that the motion of the balloon is simple-harmonic. Thus, determine
the time between the initial collision and the rebound. (Estonian-Finnish
Olympiad)

5. Capillary Forces between Parallel Plates**

A thin film of water with surface tension γ and contact angle θ rests between
two large parallel plates. The diameter of the circular liquid-solid interface
on a disk is D while the distance between the plates is d ! D. Neglecting
gravity, determine the force experienced by each of the plates.

6. Accelerating Cylinder**

A stationary cylinder of radius R contains a fluid of uniform density

of height l. Now, the cylinder is given a constant leftwards acceleration
a. If the resultant equilibrium shape of the fluid is the cylindrical seg-
ment shown below, determine the height l! of the cylinder, obtained by
truncating the excess portion of the cylindrical segment. What is the
maximum value of a for which the fluid covers the entire base of the
cylinder?
 Fluids 501

7. Ball in Hole**

A circular hole of radius r at the bottom of a tank of water with density

ρ (the lid is open) is sealed by a sphere of radius R > r and mass m. The
water level in the tank is reduced to a certain height h, at which point the
ball starts to rise out of the hole. Determine h while assuming that the water
level in the tank is still above the top of the ball at the juncture where it
just begins to rise.

Buoyancy

8. Melting Ice*

An ice cube floats on water. Describe qualitatively the changes in the height
of the fluid level when the ice melts in the 3 following cases: (1) A metal
bead is embedded inside the ice cube. (2) A solid, whose density is less than
that of water, is embedded. (3) The ice cube traps oil which is immiscible
with water.

9. Rock in Bowl*

A rock of mass mr and density ρr is placed into a bowl of mass mb . This

system is then floated in a beaker of water with density ρw and cross-sectional
area A — causing the water level to rise by height h1 . Subsequently, the rock
is removed from the bowl and dropped into the beaker such that the final
water level is still higher than the original water level by h2 . Determine
h1 − h2 .

10. Moving Ants*

A group of ants are now trapped in an inverted, massless equilateral triangle

of side length l and width w. The equilateral triangle is completely sub-
merged in a fluid of density ρ. Determine the largest mass of ants that can
rest at the top of the equilateral triangle such that the system is in stable
equilibrium.

11. Oscillation Between Two Fluids**

Suppose that a cylinder of mass m, cross-sectional area A and length l is in a

state of equilibrium at the interface of two immiscible fluids. The cylindrical
axis is along the vertical. If the densities of the top and bottom fluids are
ρ1 and ρ2 respectively, show that the system can undergo simple-harmonic
502 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

motion under certain conditions. Determine the angular frequency in such

situations.

Fluid Dynamics

In the following questions, assume steady, incompressible and energy-

conserving flow unless stated otherwise. Also assume that the flow char-
acteristics are uniform about a cross-section by default.

12. Spraying Water*

An uncapped container with a large cross-sectional area currently holds

water of height H above the ground. Determine the height h at which a
small hole should be made such that the ejected water attains the greatest
horizontal range on the ground.
Next, suppose that we poke many small holes on the container along the
same vertical line, at various heights. The envelope of the water trajectories
is defined as follows. For every vertical height level, we can find the point on a
trajectory which is the furthest horizontal distance away from the container,
at that height level. The envelope is then formed by the locus of such points.
Determine the shape of the envelope while assuming that the water level in
the container does not vary by much.

13. Venturi-meter*

Consider the set-up below. Water flows from the left to right. If the heights of
the water levels of the two tubes are h1 and h2 respectively and if the cross-
sectional areas immediately below these pipes are A1 and A2 , determine the
volume flow rate in the pipe.

14. Pitot Tube*

A vessel is currently carrying some air of constant density ρa . The air is

traveling towards the right at a velocity v. Now, a pitot tube is inserted
as shown in the figure on the next page such that the gas in the tube is
stationary. If the fluid in the pitot tube has density ρl ! ρa and the di!erence
in fluid levels is ∆h, determine v.
 Fluids 503

15. Filling a Tank**

After a tap above an empty rectangular tank has been opened, the tank is
filled with water at a constant rate in time T1 . After the tap has been closed,
poking a small hole at the bottom of the tank empties it in another duration
of time T2 . If the tap above the tank is now opened again, for what ratios of
T1
T2 will the tank overflow?

16. Sucking Water**

A tube of height h and length l is spinning in a beaker of water of density

ρ at a constant angular velocity ω. If a small aperture of area A is punctured
at the top-right end of the tube, determine the velocity of the emitted fluid
at the aperture in the rotating frame of the tube and lab frame. Determine
the external power required to maintain such a system.

17. Transmitting Water**

Two uncapped containers are placed on a level ground, right next to each
other. The cross-sectional areas of the containers are A1 and A2 respectively
which are both large. Initially, the containers carry water of constant density
ρ. The water level of the first container is x0 higher than that of the second.
Now, a hole of area A (A ! A1 and A ! A2 ) is poked at the bottoms of
both containers such that water flows from one container to another through
the hole. Determine the time required for this system to equilibrate.
504 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

18. Curving Water**

A massive pipe rests on a horizontal table. In the pipe, a fluid of constant

density ρ flows from left to right with an angle of deflection θ, as shown in
the figure below. Suppose that the areas of the left and right ends are A1
and A2 respectively with corresponding pressures of P1 and P2 . Determine
the force exerted on this portion of fluid by the pipe.

19. Hydraulic Jump**

A fluid of density ρ undergoes steady, incompressible flow with an average

flow velocity v1 at the left end of the figure, towards the right end. It under-
goes a hydraulic jump from an initial height h1 to a final height h2 . If the
system has a width w directed into the page and is uniform about this width,
determine h2 by the impulse-momentum theorem. Note that energy is not
conserved and the flow characteristics are not uniform about a cross-section.
Neglect atmospheric pressure.
 Fluids 505

Solutions
1. Accelerating Tube*

The initial pressures of the gases, immediately after the ends are capped, are
p0 , the atmospheric pressure. As the volumes of the left and right columns
increased by a factor of 32 and decreased by a factor of 34 respectively, the
final pressure in the left and right columns are 23 p0 and 43 p0 . Now, con-
sider the horizontal portion of the tube which has a constant cross-sectional
area A. The net force on this portion is the di!erence in pressure at its ends,
multiplied by A.
! " ! "
4 2 2
F = p0 + ρgh − p0 A = p0 + ρgh A
3 3 3

leftwards, where ρgh is the pressure di!erence due to the di!erence in liquid
levels ( 12 h as compared to 32 h). This must be equal to the mass of the middle
portion, multiplied by the acceleration a, so that

F = ρAla.

Then,

2p0 + 3ρgh
a=
3ρl

leftwards.

2. Falling Drop*

Let the masses of the raindrops be 7m and m respectively. The velocity of

√
the first drop before the collision is v = 2gh. The velocity after the collision
is given by the conservation of momentum to be

7
v! = v.
8
The loss in kinetic energy is

1 1 7
∆T = (7m + m)v !2 − · 7mv 2 = − mv 2 .
2 2 16
There is also a change in surface energy due to the change in the total surface
area of the bubbles when they coalesce. The final radius of the drop is, by
506 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

the conservation of mass,

!
R! =
3
7R3 + R3 = 2R.
Therefore, the change in surface energy is
√ √
!U = 4πγ(R!2 − 49R2 − R2 ) = 4πγ(3 − 49)R2 .
3 3

The heat evolved is

!Q = −!T − !U.
The change is temperature is then
√
!Q 7gh 3γ( 3 49 − 3)
!t = = + .
8mc 64c 8ρcR

3. Colliding Soap Bubbles**

Referring to the section regarding the pressure discontinuity across a spher-

ical interface, the initial pressures inside the soap bubbles are, respectively,
4γ
pa = ,
ra
4γ
pb =
rb
where we remember that there are two interfaces for a soap bubble. There-
fore, by the ideal gas law, the number of moles of gas in the soap bubbles is
3
4γ 4πra
pa Va · 3 16γπra2
na = = ra = ,
RT RT 3RT
16γπrb2
nb = .
3RT
Let the final equilibrium temperature of the combined soap bubble be T ! .
Then, for the total number of moles to be constant,
16γπra2 16γπrb2 16γπrc2
+ =
3RT 3RT 3RT !
ra2 + rb2 r2
= c! .
T T
Furthermore, by the conservation of energy, the sum of the internal energy
of the gases and the surface energy must be a constant.
3 3
(na + nb )RT + γ4π(ra2 + rb2 ) = (na + nb )RT ! + γ4πrc2 .
2 2
 Fluids 507

Substituting the expressions for na and nb and rearranging,

γ8π 2
(ra + rb2 )(T ! − T ) = γ4π(ra2 + rb2 − rc2 ).
T
′
Substituting rc2 = (ra2 + rb2 ) TT yields

(ra2 + rb2 )(T ! − T ) = 0

=⇒ T ! = T.
ra2 +rb2 rc2
Substituting T ! = T into the equation T = T′ ,
!
rc = ra2 + rb2 .

4. Balloon**

Let the horizontal length of the deformation be h. Then, the radius r of the
circular cross-section which is in contact with the wall is
"
r = h(2R − h)

by the intersecting chords theorem. The excess pressure in the balloon,

relative to the atmosphere, is
2γ
!p = .
R
The force by the balloon on the wall is !pπr 2 . The force by the wall on
the balloon is of the same magnitude but is opposite in direction. Thus, the
equation of motion of the balloon is
2γ
mḧ = −!pπr 2 = − πh(2R − h).
R
Discarding the second-order term in h as h is small,
4πγ
ḧ = − h,
m
which is simple-harmonic. The time between the collision and rebound is
half the period, and
#
T π π πm
= =! = .
2 ω 4πγ 4γ
m
508 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

5. Capillary Forces between Parallel Plates**

When d ! D, the shape of the liquid-air interface in a cross-section is

d
a spherical cap of radius R = 2 cos θ . Therefore, the pressure within the
water is
2γ cos θ
p = p0 + ,
d
by the Young-Laplace equation (the inverse of the other radius of curvature
is negligible as compared to 1d since d ! D). The excess pressure hence
exerts a force
πD 2 γπD 2 cos θ
F = (p − p0 ) · = ,
4 2d
on each of the plates, tending to bring them together. Note that the curvature
pressure on a plate is zero due to its flatness. Actually, we should also include
the adhesive forces which are associated with a force per unit length γ sin θ
along the three-phase interface, normal to each plate. This amounts to a
total force γ sin θ · πD = γπD sin θ on each plate in the normal direction —
negligible when compared to F as d ! D.

6. Accelerating Cylinder**

Define the positive x-axis to be directed leftwards and the origin to be at the
right end of the cylindrical container. Consider an infinitesimal box element
at coordinates (x, y, z). Considering the forces in the x-direction,

[p(x) − p(x + dx)]dA = ρdAdxa

dp
=⇒ = −ρa.
dx
We have written p as a function of x only, as the pressure must be indepen-
dent of y and z for the forces on a fluid element to be balanced along those
directions. Next, we also know that at the base of the cylinder, p = p0 + ρgh
where h is the height of the vertical fluid column above the point of concern.
Thus,

dp dh
= ρg
dx dx
dh a
=− .
dx g
 Fluids 509

This is the slope of the surface of the cylindrical segment.13 The length of
segment AB is thus 2Ra !
g . To calculate CD = l , we first compute the volume
of the top of the cylindrical segment (which is shaped like a wedge). Notice
that two of these form a cylinder of height 2Ra g and radius R. Thus, its
volume is
πR3 a
.
g
The remaining volume is

2 πR3 a
πR l − .
g
Therefore,
Ra
l! = l − .
g
lg
If a > R, the fluid can no longer cover the entire base of the cylinder.

7. Ball in Hole**

Generally, the ball experiences an upthrust, a normal force due to the bottom
of the tank and its weight. When the upthrust alone is enough to balance
its weight, the ball rises out of the hole.
In order to compute the upthrust due to the immersed portion of the
sphere, first remove the portion of the sphere that is not immersed as that
is irrelevant. If the bottom circle, produced by this truncation, were to be
covered with a continuous section of water, the upthrust on the sphere would
be ρgV where V is the volume of the sphere immersed in water. However,
instead of water of pressure p0 + ρgh (where p0 is the atmospheric pressure),
the truncated sphere only experiences a force on its bottom circle due to
the atmosphere which only has pressure p0 . Therefore, the total upthrust
experienced by the original sphere must be

F = ρgV − ρgh · πr 2 ,

as we have to deduct the contribution from the missing pressure. V can be

computed via simple integration. Consider a circle of radius R centered at

13
Alternatively, we could have derived this from the fact that the liquid surface must be
perpendicular to the e!ective gravity.
510 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

the origin of the xy-plane.

x2 + y 2 = R 2
!
=⇒ y = ± R2 − x2 .

Observe that we can obtain the volume of the immersed portion of the√ sphere
(a truncated sphere) by rotating the parts of this circle from x = − R2 − r 2
to x = R about the x-axis for π radians. Therefore,
" R
V =π √ y 2 dx
− R2 −r 2
" R
=π √ (R2 − x2 )dx
− R2 −r 2
# $ %&R
2 x3
= π R x− √
3 − R2 −r 2

π' 3 2 2
!
2 2
(
= 2R + (2R + r ) R − r .
3
We require

mg = ρgV − ρgh · πr 2
V m 2R3 2R2 + r 2 ! 2 m
=⇒ h = 2
− 2
= 2
+ 2
R − r2 − .
πr ρπr 3r 3r ρπr 2

8. Melting Ice*

Let mi and mo denote the mass of the ice and the object inside the ice,
respectively. Then,

mi + mo = ρw Vdis ,

where ρw is the density of water and Vdis is the volume of fluid displaced.
Rearranging,
mi mo
Vdis = + .
ρw ρw
In all cases, let the density of the object be ρo .
 Fluids 511

In the first case, the bead is denser and will thus fall to the bottom after
the ice melts. Then, the volume “released” from the melting of the ice cube is
mi mo
+ ,
ρw ρo

which is evidently smaller than Vdis as ρo > ρw . The first term is the volume
of the water due to the ice melting and the second term is the volume of
the bead. Therefore, the additional volume is unable to fill up the displaced
volume — implying that the fluid level drops.
In the second case, ρo < ρw . Then, the object will float while displacing
a new volume of water

! mo
Vdis =
ρw

after the ice has melted.

The volume released is that of water due to the ice, m ρi . Since this exactly
i

compensates for the change in the volume of water displaced, the fluid level
remains the same.
In the last case, the oil will not displace any water, as it will float on top
of it. Therefore, the volume released is
mi mo
+ > Vdis ,
ρw ρo

as ρo < ρw . Therefore, the fluid level (which includes the oil) rises.

9. Rock in Bowl*

h1 comes from the volume displaced by the bowl-cum-rock system.

mr + mb
h1 = .
ρw A

Meanwhile, h2 originates from the volume of the rock and the volume dis-
placed by the bowl.
mr mb
h2 = +
ρr A ρw A
! "
mr 1 1
h1 − h2 = − .
A ρw ρr
512 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

10. Moving Ants*

The total mass of the ants can be calculated from Archimedes’ Principle.
√
3 2
m= ρl w.
4
For the wedge to be in stable equilibrium, the center of mass of the system
must be lower than the center of buoyancy so that the torque due to the
upthrust after a slight rotation of the wedge can help to correct the deviation
of the wedge from the vertical. The center of buoyancy is located at the center
of mass of the displaced fluid which is two-thirds of the vertical height, away
from the bottom vertex. In the optimal configuration, suppose that mass m1
is at the top edge. Then, m − m1 mass must be at the bottom vertex for
the configuration to be optimal. In the boundary case where the center of
buoyancy and the center of mass of the system coincide,
2
m1 = m.
3
Thus, the maximum is
√
3 2
m1 = ρl w.
6
11. Oscillation between Two Fluids**

Define the y-axis to be the vertical axis and define the origin to be at the
interface between the two fluids. Now, define y as the coordinate of the
bottom of the cylinder (immersed in the bottom fluid), positive below
the origin. Then, the length of the cylinder immersed in the top fluid is
l − y. The equation of motion of the cylinder is
mÿ = mg − ρ1 (l − y)Ag − ρ2 yAg
! "
ρ1 Al (ρ2 − ρ1 )Ag
ÿ = 1 − g− y.
m m
m−ρ1 Al
Using the substitution u = y − A(ρ2 −ρ1 ) ,

(ρ2 − ρ1 )Ag
ü = − u.
m
Thus if ρ2 > ρ1 , the cylinder undergoes simple harmonic motion with angular
frequency
#
(ρ2 − ρ1 )Ag
ω=
m
 Fluids 513

m−ρ1 Al
about an equilibrium y = A(ρ 2 −ρ1 )
. Else, if ρ1 = ρ2 , the cylinder is in a
neutral equilibrium. Finally, if ρ2 < ρ1 , the cylinder is in an unstable equi-
librium.

12. Spraying Water*

Since the container is large, the velocity of the water in the container is
essentially zero. Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the points adjacent to the
hole inside and outside of the container,
1
[p0 + ρg(H − h)] + ρgh = p0 + ρgh + ρv 2 .
2
The term in brackets on the left-hand side is the pressure inside the container
that is adjacent to the hole while the second term is its gravitational potential
energy term. Solving, the fluid velocity immediately outside the hole is
!
v = 2g(H − h).
The ejected fluid then undergoes projectile motion. The time required for
the water to reach the ground can be computed via the equation
1
h = gt2
2
"
2h
t= .
g
The range is then
" # $
! H2 H 2
R = vt = 2 h(H − h) = 2 − h− .
4 2
H
Evidently, the range attains its maximum value of 2 when
H
h= .
2
For the second part, the trajectory of a section of water that is released from
the hole at height h is described by the equations
1
y = h − gt2 ,
2
!
x = vt = 2g(h − h)t,
where y is the height above the base of the container, x is the horizontal
distance from the container and t is the time elapsed from the release of the
514 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

water from the hole. We can rewrite the above as

x2
y =h−
4(H − h)
4h2 − 4(y + H)h + 4Hy + x2 = 0.

Suppose that we want to solve for h for a given point (x, y) along a trajectory.
A solution exists for h only if the discriminant of the above is greater or equal
to zero, hence

16(y + H)2 − 64Hy − 16x2 ≥ 0

=⇒ (H − y)2 ≥ x2 .

Since H > y, the above requires

H − y ≥ x.

Therefore, for a given value of y, the maximum horizontal distance of a point

on a trajectory from the container is

x = H − y.

Thus, the envelope takes the form of a straight line delineated by the equation
y = H − x.

13. Venturi-meter*

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the bottoms of the first and second tubes,
1 1
p0 + ρgh1 + ρv12 = p0 + ρgh2 + ρv22 .
2 2
For steady flow,

A1 v1 = A2 v2 = Q,

where Q is the volume flow rate.

! "
1 1 1
ρg(h2 − h1 ) = ρQ2 − .
2 A21 A22
Then,
#
A1 A2 2g(h2 − h1 )
Q= # .
A22 − A21
 Fluids 515

14. Pitot Tube*

Let the pressure of the incoming gas inside the vessel be P . At the tip of the
pitot tube, the air is stationary. Thus, the pressure at this tip (inside the
pitot tube) is
1
P ! = P + ρa v 2
2
by Bernoulli’s principle. Furthermore, we can calculate P ! by considering the
di!erence in the heights of the fluid levels.

P ! = P + ρl g∆h,

where the pressure di!erence due to the di!erent heights of air columns in
the tubes have been neglected. Comparing these expressions,
!
2ρl g∆h
v= .
ρa

15. Filling a Tank**

Let h0 and At be the maximum height and cross-sectional area of the tank
respectively. The volume rate of water flowing out of the tap is
h0 At
W = .
T1
Now, let us analyze the second scenario where a hole of area Ah is made
on the bottom of the tank. When the water level in the tank is at height
√
h(t), the flow speed of water gushing out of the hole is 2gh by Bernoulli’s
principle. Therefore,
dh "
At = −Ah 2gh.
dt
Separating variables,
# # T2
0
1 Ah "
√ dh = − 2gdt
h0 h 0 At
" Ah "
2 h0 = 2gT2
At
2h0 A2t
T22 = .
gA2h
516 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

Proceeding with the final set-up, the di!erential equation describing the
instantaneous height in the tank is
dh !
At = W − Ah 2gh.
dt
Observe that the height in the tank will only stop increasing at
W2 A2t h20
h= = .
2gA2h 2gA2h T12
This must be larger than h0 for the tank to overflow, so
A2t h20
> h0
2gA2h T12
T22
>1
4T12
T1 1
< .
T2 2

16. Sucking Water**

The water inside the tube is essentially stationary relative to the tube, as
the aperture is small. Let the pressure at the top end of the tube be p2 (this
is near the hole but still inside the tube). Consider an infinitesimal volume
element that is between radial distances r and r+dr from the central portion
of the tube. Then, it experiences pressures p and p + dp on its faces, both of
area dA. The net force due to pressure must produce the required centripetal
force. Thus,

dpdA = ρdrdArω 2
" p2 " l
dp = ρrω 2 dr
p1 0

ρl2 ω 2
p2 = p1 + ,
2
where p1 is the pressure in the bend of the tube. Furthermore,

p1 = p0 − ρgh,

where p0 is the atmospheric pressure. Thus,

ρl2 ω 2
p2 = p0 − ρgh + .
2
 Fluids 517

Now, consider the situation in the rotating frame. By applying Bernoulli’s

principle to the inside of the top end of the tube and immediately outside
the hole,
1
p2 = p0 + ρl2 v 2 ,
2
where v is the emitted velocity in the rotating frame.
!
v = l2 ω 2 − 2gh.
The velocity in the lab frame is thus
! !
vlab = v 2 + l2 ω 2 = 2l2 ω 2 − 2gh,
as there is an additional tangential velocity lω due to the rotation of the
tube. To compute the power required, we first calculate the volume flow rate
which is
!
Q = Av = A l2 ω 2 − 2gh.
Note that this is not Avlab . In a time interval dt, Qdt amount of fluid moves
through the entire tube. The external power is only responsible for the addi-
tional kinetic energy of the water associated with its tangential velocity
due to the rotation. This additional kinetic energy is essentially that of the
ejected fluid.
1 1 !2 2
P = ρQl ω = ρA l ω − 2ghl2 ω 2 .
2 2
2 2
17. Transmitting Water**

Apply Bernoulli’s equation to the fluid level of the first container and the
immediate vicinity of the hole in the second container. Since the cross-
sectional area of the first container is large as compared to the hole, the
flow velocity in the first container can be neglected.
1
p0 + ρgh1 = p0 + ρgh2 + ρv 2 ,
2
where h1 and h2 are the heights of the water level in the respective containers
and v is the flow velocity into the second container through the hole.
!
v = 2g(h1 − h2 ).
The volume flux is
! dh1 dh2
Av = A 2g(h1 − h2 ) = −A1 = A2 ,
dt dt
518 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

as the total volume must be conserved. Then,

d(h2 − h1 ) !
A1 A2 = (A1 + A2 )Av = (A1 + A2 )A 2g(h1 − h2 ).
dt
Using the substitution x = h1 − h2 ,
(A1 + A2 )A !
ẋ = − 2gx.
A1 A2
Separating variables and integrating,
" 0 " t
1 (A1 + A2 )A !
√ dx = − 2gdt
x0 x 0 A 1 A2
#
2x0 A1 A2
t= .
g (A1 + A2 )A

18. Curving Water**

Let the velocities of the fluid at the left and right ends be u and v respec-
tively. The net force on the portion of fluid is the rate of change of momen-
tum. Let Q be the volume flow rate. In time dt, the net change in momentum
of the entire portion of water is ρQdt(v −u). Essentially, the velocity of ρQdt
mass of water changes from u to v. If the x and y-axes are defined to be pos-
itive rightwards and upwards respectively, the components of the net force
in the corresponding directions are
Ftot,x = ρQ(v cos θ − u),
Ftot,y = ρQv sin θ.
Since Q = A1 u = A2 v,
$ %
2 1 1
Ftot,x = ρQ cos θ − ,
A2 A1
ρQ2 sin θ
Ftot,y = .
A2
Furthermore, from Bernoulli’s equation,
1 1
p1 + ρu2 = p2 + ρv 2 ,
2 2
where the terms regarding the heights of the fluid levels have been canceled
since the pipe lies on a horizontal table.
2(p1 − p2 )A21 A22
2
ρQ = .
A21 − A22
 Fluids 519

Substituting this into the equations for the net force components,

2(p1 − p2 )A1 A2 (A1 cos θ − A2 )

Ftot,x = ,
A21 − A22
2(p1 − p2 )A21 A2 sin θ
Ftot,y = .
A21 − A22

The force on the fluid due to the walls is the net force subtracted by the
force due to the pressure at the two ends.

p1 (2A21 A2 cos θ − A1 A22 − A31 )

Fwall,x = Ftot,x − p1 A1 + p2 A2 cos θ =
A21 − A22
p2 (A21 A2 cos θ − 2A1 A22 + A32 cos θ)
− ,
A21 − A22
A2 sin θ(2p1 A21 − p2 A21 − p2 A22 )
Fwall,y = Ftot,y + p2 A2 sin θ = .
A21 − A22

19. Hydraulic Jump**

We first calculate the force due to pressure at both ends of the flow. We first
consider the left end. The pressure at a height h below the surface level is
ρgh. Thus, the total force on the left end is

! h1
1
Flef t = ρghwdh = ρgwh21 .
0 2

Similarly, the force on the right end is

1
Fright = − ρgwh22 .
2

Next, we compute the change in momentum of the section of fluid between

the two ends after a time interval dt. Let the volume flow rate be

Q = h1 wv1 = h2 wv2 ,

where v2 is the average flow velocity at the right end. In time dt, the velocity
of ρQdt mass of fluid e!ectively changes from v1 to v2 , on average. Thus, the
520 Competitive Physics: Mechanics and Waves

change in momentum in time dt is

! "
ρQ2 1 1 ρQ2 (h1 − h2 )
dp = ρQdt(v2 − v1 ) = − dt = dt.
w h2 h1 wh1 h2
By the impulse-momentum theorem,
(Flef t + Fright )dt = dp
1 2 2 ρQ2 (h1 − h2 )
=⇒ ρgw(h1 − h2 ) =
2 wh1 h2
! "
2Q2
(h1 − h2 ) h1 + h2 − = 0.
gw2 h1 h2
Discarding the trivial solution h2 = h1 and rearranging the expression in the
brackets on the right,
2Q2
h22 + h1 h2 − = 0.
gw2 h1
Solving this quadratic equation and substituting Q = h1 wv1 yields
#
h1 h21 2h1 v12
h2 = − + + ,
2 4 g
where we have rejected the negative solution which is physically incorrect.