Experiments

 An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal relationship in

which an independent variable (IV) is manipulated and is expected
to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable (DV).

 There are three types of experiments:

o Laboratory experiments: A research method in which there is

an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a causal
relationship and is conducted in a setting which is not the
usual environment for the participant with regard to the
behaviour they are performing.

o Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which is the

normal environment for the participant with regard to the
behaviour they are performing. The researcher has control
over a few variables, but it difficult to control all variables.

o Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a causal

relationship in which the IV cannot be directly manipulated by
the experimenter. Instead, they study the effect of an existing
difference or change. This is not a true experiment as the
experimenter cannot manipulate the levels of the IV.

 Laboratory experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

High levels of standardization hence it can be replicated Artificial Environment hence it

easily to test for reliability lacks ecological validity

High levels of control hence researches can be more Participants may show demand
confident that the IV is directly affecting the DV characteristics

Strengths Weaknesses

Realistic setting hence high ecological Situational variables are difficult to control so
validity it is tough know if the IV is affecting the DV

Limited demand characteristics so Issues in breaking ethics since the participants

behaviour is more likely to be natural and do not know that they’re taking part in a study
valid

 Field experiments:
  Natural experiments:

Strengths Weaknesses

High ecological validity because the IV Difficult to know whether the IV caused an effect
is naturally occurring on the DV

Valid representation of a person’s Difficult to replicate to test for reliability as the

behaviour event is naturally occurring

 Each experiment consists of an experimental and control condition.

 An experimental condition is one or more of the situations in an

experiment which represent the different levels of the IV and are
compared, either with one another or with the control condition.

 A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent. This is

compared to the experimental condition(s).

Self-Reports

 Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires and

interviews.

 Questionnaires are a research method that involves asking

questions, mainly written, to gain information from the participants.

 There are four types of questionnaires:

o Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant likes or

dislikes something.

o Rating scales: questions that require the participant to

represent their answer on the numerical scale provided to
them.

o Open questions: questions which allow the participant to give

detailed answers without any restrictions.

o Closed questions: questions which allow the participant to

respond using a few, stated responses without the opportunity
to expand on their answers.

 Interviews are a research method using verbal questions asked

directly to the participants.

 There are three types of interviews:

 o Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order which
may be scripted. Consistency might also be required in the
interviewer’s posture, voice, etc., and hence these are highly
standardized.

o Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of questions,

however, the interviewer could add more questions if required
to clarify or get details on any previous answers.

o Unstructured: an interview in which most questions depend on

the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be provided
that need to be covered for the interview.

o Strengths Weaknesses

Questionnai Participants are more likely to give Participants may give socially
res truthful answers as it does not involve desirable answers
talking to someone face to face

A large sample can answer the Too many closed questions may
questionnaire in a short time span force an answer that does not
which should increase the reflect the participant’s opinion
representativeness and generalizability
of the findings

Interviews Lots of open questions will make Participants may be less likely to
participants reveal reasons as give truthful answers as they are
to why they behave in a particular way face to face with the interviewer
or have a particular opinion or because of social- desirability

Case Studies

 A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a person, family

or institute, that produced in-depth data specific to that instance.

Strengths Weaknesses

As researchers are focused on one As the research is focused on one person, the case is
individual, they can collect rich, in- unique which makes generalisations difficult
depth data which adds validity to
the findings

High ecological validity as Attachments may be formed between researcher

Strengths Weaknesses

participants are studied in their and participant which may reduce objectivity of data
everyday lives collected and analysis of it. This could reduce the
validity of the findings.

Observations

 A research method that involves watching human or animal

behaviour.

 An observer can be overt/covert or they can be participant/non-

participant observers.

 Overt observers are when the participants know who the researcher
is and that they are being observed. A covert observer could be
present in the group of participants observing them but they do not
know who it is.

 A participant observer is one who watches from the perspective of

being part of the social setting of the participants. A non-participant
observer does not become involved in the situation being studied.

 An observation can be structured/unstructured or

naturalistic/controlled.

 A structured observation is a study in which the observer records

only a limited range of behaviours. An unstructured observation is
one in which the observer records a range of behaviours, which is
usually confined to a pilot study to refine the behavioural
categories.

 A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by watching the

participants’ behaviour in their normal environment without
interference from the researcher in either social or physical
environment. A controlled observation is one which is conducted by
watching the participants’ behaviour in a situation in which the
social or physical environment has been manipulated by the
researcher.

 General:

Strengths Weaknesses

If participants are unaware of the If the participants are aware of the observation, they
observation taking place - may not act ‘naturally’ but show more socially desirable
Strengths Weaknesses

increases ecological validity behaviour. This can reduce the validity of the findings

As behaviours are ‘counted’, It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is

data can be analysed naturalistic as many variables cannot be controlled
statistically with minimal bias which reduces the reliability

 Participant observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

High ecological validity as the participants are There are ethical problems of
observed in a real-life setting informed consent

As the observers become involved with the group, The presence of an outsider can
they are more likely to understand the motives change the behaviours of the group
and reasons for behaviours which increases the members. This lowers the validity of
validity of the findings the findings

 Non-participant observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

Participants behaviour will not be It can be difficult to make detailed observations

affected by observation because the and to produce qualitative data that allows
observer is out of sight understandings as to why the behaviours are
occurring

Researchers’ observations are more

likely to be objective as they are
detaching from the people they are
observing

 Structured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

The behavioural checklist allows The sampling of observed behaviour tends to be

objective quantitative data to be restricted and does not give an idea of the
collected which can then be analysed
Strengths Weaknesses

statistically reasons as to why the behaviours are occurring

 Unstructured observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

They can generate in-depth, rich Observers may easily be drawn to eye
quantitative data that can help explain catching behaviours and hence may not fully
why behaviours are occurring represent all the behaviours

 Naturalistic observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

As participants are unaware that they are Very little control over extraneous
being watched, they should behave more variables which makes it difficult to draw
naturally, removing the chances of demand a cause and effect relationship
characteristics

High ecological validity as the observation Replication may be difficult as there

takes place in a natural setting cannot be a totally standardised
procedure, hence making it difficult to
test for reliability

 Controlled observation:

Strengths Weaknesses

As the set-up is controlled, the observers can be An artificial situation can easily
more confident about what is causing the behaviours influence participants’ behaviour

Less chance of extraneous variables affecting Low ecological validity as the

participants’ behaviour setting is artificial

Correlations

 A research method which looks for a causal relationship between

two measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a
change in the other, although, the changes cannot be assumed to
 be causal. None of the variables are manipulated, they are only
measured.

 A positive correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one

variable accompanies an increase in the other.

 A negative correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one

variable accompanies a decrease in the other.

Strengths Weaknesses

The researchers easily establish a Issues of causality because there could be a third
cause and effect relationship variable affecting the changes

Correlations do not require any Correlations are restricted to research that are
manipulation so can be used where quantitative and so they cannot be used to
experiments are unethical or measure why behaviours are occurring
impractical

 No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite trend occurs

and the two mentioned variables do not appear to be related to
each other.

Hypotheses and Aims

 An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is generally

expressed in terms of what the study intends to show. It is written
before the experiment is carried out and does not predict the
outcomes.

 A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a difference between

levels of the IV in an experiment or a relationship between variables
in a correlation.

 An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which predicts

the difference or relationship between the variables in a particular
investigation.

 There are three types of hypothesis.

o A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting

the direction of a relationship between variables.

o A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a statement

predicting only that one variable will be related to the other,
not the direction of the relationship.
 o A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that any
difference or correlation in the results is due to chance.

Variables

 Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in an

experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions
and is expected to be responsible for changes in the DV.

 Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment which is

measured and is expected to change under the influence of the IV.

 Operationalization is the definition of variables so that they can be

accurately manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated.

Experimental Design

 This is the way in which participants are allocated to the different

levels of the IV.

 An independent measures design is an experimental design in

which a different group of participants is used for each IV level. If
the IV is naturally occurring, the researcher must use it.

 A repeated measures design is an experimental design in which

participants perform at every IV level. It cannot be used if the IV is
naturally occurring. It also uses counterbalancing (ABBA design).

 A matched pairs design is an experimental design in which

participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is similar in important
ways to the study, and one member performs at a different level of
the IV.

 Independent measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses

As participants take art on only one condition, they There may be participant variables
are less likely to guess the aim of the study, hence affecting the DV rather than the IV
reducing the effects of demand characteristics

There are no order effects that can reduce the validity More participants are required for
of the findings this type of design as compared to
repeated measures

 Repeated measures design:

Strengths Weaknesses

Eliminates any participant There is a chance of demand characteristics as

variables as all of them take part participants may work out the aim or change their
in all conditions behaviour.

Fewer participants are needed as Order effects can affect the findings of the study and
compared to independent reduce its validity. This could be overcome using
Strengths
measures Weaknesses
counterbalancing.

Matching participants as closely Trying to match participants’ similar traits is very time-
as possible on measurable traits consuming.
may help control for individual
differences affecting the results.

This design is better suited when Trying to match people exactly is impossible as there
a repeated measures design may will always be individual differences from one person to
not work due to an order effect another. Therefore, the study may lack internal validity
that may affect results. if these differences affect the IV rather than the
experimental condition.

The sample may be smaller as trying to find a large

sample of people matching similar traits may be
difficult. This may mean the findings may lack external
validity.

 Matched pairs design:

Controlling of Variables

 It is essential to control variables to be certain about the findings of

a study.

 An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts randomly,

affecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or systematically, affecting
only one level of the IV (called a confounding variable), so can
obscure the effect of the IV, making the results difficult to interpret.

 A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by an aspect

of the environment.

 Participant variables are another confounding variable caused by

the individual differences of participants.
  Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous variables
constant. These are required to ensure that the results of the study
are reliable.

Types of Data

 There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.

 Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the quality

of a psychological characteristic.

Strengths Weaknesses

In-depth, detailed accounts given in the words of Interpretation of data could be

participants are collected. It can be argued that subjective as these are words rather
using qualitative data is not reductionist than numbers

As the data comes directly from the participant, There may be researcher bias - the
we can understand why the participant thinks, researcher may only select data that
feels or acts in a particular way fits into the hypothesis or aim of the
study

 Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity of a

psychological measure.

Strengths Weaknesses

As the data are numerical, it allows easier As the data are numerical, they miss out on
comparison and statistical analysis to take why participants chose the answers that
place. they did

Numerical data are objective and scientific, Using quantitative data can be seen as
so there is a minimal chance of psychologists reductionist as it involves researchers
miscalculating the data and drawing invalid reducing complex ideas and behaviours to
conclusions. a number or percentage.

Sampling of Participants

 A population is a group sharing one or more characteristics from

which a sample is drawn.

 A sample is a group of people selected to represent the population

in a study.
  The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the
participants for a study from the population. There are three types
of sampling techniques.

o Opportunity sampling is when the participants are chosen

because they are available at the time and place where the
research is taking place.

o Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when participants are

invited to participate in studies via advertisements or emails.

o Random sampling is when all population members are

allocated numbers, and a fixed amount of these are chosen
unbiasedly, for example, by picking out numbers from a hat.

o Strengths Weaknesses

Opportunit Large numbers of participants can be Researchers are unlikely to gain a

y Sampling obtained relatively quickly and easily wide variety of participants to allow
because researchers use people who for generalisation
are around

Volunteer Participants are more likely to Researchers are unlikely to gain a

Sampling participate if they have already wide variety of participants to allow
volunteered so the drop-out rate for generalisation because
should be lower, making participants will only be of a certain
generalisations stronger type

Random Researchers can generalise the target Obtaining details of the TP to use to
Sampling population (TP) with more confidence draw the sample may be difficult - a
representative sample cannot be
guaranteed

Researchers may gain a ‘perfect

sample’ but still have the problem
that participants will not take

Validity

 Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what they

claim to be testing.
  Internal validity is how well an experiment controls confounding
variables. This allows the researcher to be more confident about the
causal relationship.

 Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one situation

would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether
the situation represents the real world effectively and whether the
task is relevant to real life.

 Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents the real-

world situation.

 Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a measure

appears to test what it claims to.

 Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a measure

that has previously been validated.

 Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a study

apply to other settings and populations.

 Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that give

away the aims. This could cause participants to change their
behaviour and hence reduce the validity of the study.

 Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an

individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent
between different researchers. This would increase the validity of
the study.

 Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s

feelings, beliefs or experiences and may differ between researchers.
Since this is not consistent, it may reduce the validity of the study.

Reliability

 This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is

consistent.

 Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are standardised

so that each participant experiences the same thing.

 External reliability is the extent to which the results of a procedure

can be replicated from one time to another, gaining consistent
results.

 Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two

researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same
records from the same raw data.
  There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the split-half
method and the test-retest method.

 The split-half method involves the results of the first half of the
questionnaire or interview to be the same as the results of second
half when the questions are the same in both halves but presented
in different a manner.

 The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency of a test

or task by using it twice and then comparing the results of each
time to check how similar they are.

Data Analysis

 Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to

determine the typical or average score from a data set. This
includes the mean, median and mode.

 Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and

dividing them by the number of scores in the data set.

 Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked in order

(ascending order).

 Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.

 Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or

spread within a data set. This includes the range and the standard
deviation.

 The range is between the most significant and negligible values with
an addition 1.

 Standard deviation calculates the average difference between each

score and the data set's mean.

 The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical variable

about the mean, median and mode. It forms a bell-shaped curve
and is symmetrical.

 Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories and total
or average scores. There are gaps between the columns as the data
is not related linearly.

 A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.

 A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational

analysis.

Ethical Guidelines
Introduction

 Ethical Issues: Problems in research that raise concerns about the

welfare of participants

 Ethical Guidelines: Pieces of advice that guide psychologists to

consider the welfare of participants and broader society

Ethical Guidelines in Relation to Human Participants

 Based on the British Psychological Society’s (BPS) Code of

Human Research Ethics (2014)

 Privacy: An ethical guideline related to avoiding the invasion of the

participant’s personal physical space

 Debriefing: An ethical procedure giving all participants a full

explanation of the aims and potential consequences of the study at
the end so that they live in the same psychological state that they
arrived in

 Protection: Participants should not be exposed to any greater

physical or psychological risk than they would expect in their day-to-
day life

 Informed consent: An ethical guideline stating that participants

should know enough about a study to decide whether they want to
agree to participate

 Right to withdraw: An ethical guideline relating to ensuring that

participants know that they can remove themselves and their data
from the study at any time.

 Deception: An ethical guideline is that participants should not be

deliberately misinformed about the aim or procedure of the study. If
unavoidable, the study should be planned to minimise the distress
risk, and participants should be thoroughly debriefed.

 Confidentiality: An ethical guideline stating that participants’ results

and personal information should be kept safely and not released to
anyone outside the study

Ethical Guidelines in Relation to Animal Participants

 Based on the British Psychological Society’s guidelines for

Psychologists working with animals (2012)

 Replacement: Researchers should consider replacing animal

experiments with videos or computer simulations.
  Species and strain: Psychologists should choose a species that is
scientifically and ethically suitable for the intended use. Knowledge
of the animal’s previous experience is also essential.

 Numbers: According to the Animal Scientific Procedures Act (1986),

psychologists should always use the smallest number of animals
that still accomplish the research aims and goals. These could be
calculated via a pilot study and statistical programs.

 Procedures: Psychologists should consider research that enriches

rather than harms. Procedures that may cause discomfort, injury,
stress, etc., need a Project Licence, which can be gained after a
cost-benefit analysis.

 Pain and distress: Research causing physiological or psychological

pain or distress should be avoided. Whatever procedure is used, any
adverse effects on animals must be recognised and assessed, and
immediate action taken wherever necessary.

 Housing: Isolation & crowding should be avoided. Caging should

recreate aspects of the natural environment that are important to
the welfare of the animal and must take into account the social
behaviour of the species.

 Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli: The researcher should

consider the animal’s usual eating and drinking habits and
metabolic requirements. When using deprivation and aversive
stimuli, the researcher should ensure that there is no alternative
way of motivating the animal that is consistent with the aims of the
experiment and that the levels of deprivation are no greater than
that needed to achieve the experiment's goals.

 Anaesthesia, Analgesia & Euthanasia: Animals should be protected

from pain relating to surgery and euthanized if suffering lasting
pain. Procedures that are likely to cause pain and discomfort should
be performed only on animals that have been adequately
anaesthetised, and analgesics should be used before and after such
procedures to minimise pain and distress whenever possible.

Issues and Debates

The Application of Psychology to Everyday Life

 The practical use of a theory, or the findings of a study to help

improve processes or people’s lives, for example, in terms of
 bettering physical or mental health, safety, production at work or
sales by a company.

 Conducting useful research:

Strengths Weaknesses

It can be used to Studies might be unethical to gain more valid results

improve human
behaviour

Studies need to be high in ecological validity to be of more use to

society, but this can be quite difficult if they are conducted in a
laboratory.

Individual and Situational Explanations

Strengths Weaknesses

If we find out which behaviours are on It is not always easy to separate individual and
which side of the debate, that can help situational factors
to explain human behaviour

If there is an interaction between both Studies might be unethical to gain more valid
sides, then that is useful, too results

Studies need high ecological validity to be of

more use to this debate, but this can be difficult
if it is a laboratory experiment.

 The extent to which a person’s beliefs or behaviours are controlled

by factors, such as their personality or physiology, unique to them
(individual explanation) or by factors in the setting, such as the
people or place (situational explanation).

Nature versus Nurture

 Nature refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings or thinking

results from innate genetic factors.
  Nurture refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings or thinking
results from environmental influences such as learning or other
people.

Strengths Weaknesses

If we find out which behaviours are on which It is not always easy to separate out
side of the debate, that can help to explain what is nature and what is nurture
human behaviour more clearly

If there is an interaction between both sides, If behaviour is seen to be purely down

then that is useful, too to nature (genetics), this can be very
socially sensitive

Studies might be unethical to gain more

valid results.

The Use of Children in Psychological Research

 Giving consent is important for children under 16 & a risk

assessment must take place

 Refer to Ethical guidelines for human participants (Chapter 2 card 2)

The Use of Animals in Psychological Research

 Refer to Ethical guidelines for animal participants (Chapter 2 card 3)