Evolution
Key Definitions
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● volution:Change in a population's genetic characteristicsover time.
● Population:A group of individuals of the same speciesinterbreeding in a shared
environment. Evolution acts on populations, not individuals.
● Fitness:A measure of reproductive success, definedas the number of offspring that
survive to reproduce. It relates to survival but is not equivalent.
● Natural Selection:The process where individuals bettersuited to their environment
tend to survive and reproduce, passing on advantageous traits.
● Artificial Selection:Human-directed breeding of organismsto promote desired traits.
● Genetic Drift:Random changes in allele frequencieswithin a population, independent
of natural selection.
● Adaptation:A heritable trait that improves an organism'sability to survive and
reproduce in its environment.
● Speciation:The formation of new and distinct speciesvia evolutionary processes
(macroevolution), different from microevolution, which is change within a population.
● Principle of Allocation:Organisms have limited resourcesto allocate among life
functions, so energy devoted to one function limits what is available for others,
explaining evolutionary trade-offs.
Historical Figures and Contributions
● J ean-Baptiste Lamarck:Proposed inheritance of acquiredcharacteristics through use
and disuse of traits.
● James Hutton:Emphasized slow geological processes,contributing to the
understanding that Earth is very old.
● Charles Lyell:Affirmed that everyday natural causesshape geology; supported the idea
of an ancient Earth.
● Thomas Malthus:Highlighted the problems of overpopulationand competition for
resources.
● Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace:Independentlyproposed natural selection
as a mechanism driving evolution.
Main Mechanisms of Evolution
1. Natural Selection
atural selection is the process where individuals with traits better suited to their environment
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tend to survive and reproduce more successfully, causing those advantageous traits to increase
in frequency over generations.
● ore individuals are produced than can survive.
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● Variation exists within populations.
● Variations affect individuals’ suitability to the environment.
● Individuals with beneficial traits leave more offspring.
● Fitness is measured by reproductive success, not survival alone.
● Environmental conditions determine which traits are advantageous and these can
change over time.
Natural Selection Example: Galápagos Finches
hen available seed types changed, finches with beak shapes most suited to the food source
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had higher survival and reproductive success. This heritable beak shape adaptation shifted the
population over generations.
2. Artificial Selection
umans selectively breed individuals exhibiting desired traits, thereby driving evolutionary
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change faster and often purposefully.
3. Genetic Drift
enetic drift is random fluctuation in allele frequencies in a population, unrelated to a trait's
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advantage or disadvantage.
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● opulation Bottleneck:A drastic reduction in populationsize reduces genetic diversity.
● Founder Effect:A new population started by a smallgroup carries only a subset of the
original population's genetic variation.
Types of Natural Selection
Type Description Effect on Trait Example
Distribution
tabilizing
S Individuals with esists changes,
R uman birth weight: very low or
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Selection intermediate traits have maintaining very high weights have lower
the highest fitness; average trait value. survival rates.
xtremes selected
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against.
irectional
D ne extreme trait value T
O he average trait iraffes evolving longer necks
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Selection is favored. value shifts toward for accessing food.
that extreme.
isruptive
D oth extreme trait
B opulation can split F
P ield mice matching either light
Selection values favored; into distinct groups grass or dark soil survive better
intermediate traits with extreme traits. than intermediate-colored mice,
disfavored. which are more visible to
predators.
Sexual Selection
exual selection is evolution driven by reproductive success advantages rather than survival
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alone. It typically involves:
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● ompetition:Members of the same sex compete for accessto mates.
● Mate Choice:Members of one sex select mates basedon traits such as bright plumage
or courtship behaviors.
raits resulting from sexual selection often act as signals of fitness, even if they carry survival
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costs.
Examples Supporting Evolutionary Mechanisms
● C heetahs:Faster individuals have higher success huntingThompson’s gazelles,
illustrating directional selection.
● Whales:Extremely small whales are vulnerable to predators,while very large whales
are more often hunted for resources, suggesting stabilizing selection against both
extremes.
vidence Supporting Evolutionary Theory and Common
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Ancestry
1. Fossil Record
● P rovides an incomplete but chronological record of life, showing progression from simple
to more complex organisms over time.
● Helps reconstruct ancient anatomies, supporting evolutionary change across geological
epochs.
2. Morphology
xamines similarities and differences in organism structures as evidence for common ancestry
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or convergent evolution.
● H omologous Structures:Similar anatomical featuresinherited from a common
ancestor but possibly modified (e.g. limb bones in mammals).
● Analogous Structures:Similar function and appearanceevolved independently in
unrelated groups due to similar environmental pressures (e.g. wings of birds vs bats).
● Vestigial Structures:Reduced or obsolete structuresshowing evolutionary remnants
(e.g. pelvic bones in whales).
3. Embryology
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● elated species show similar developmental stages, reflecting shared ancestry.
● For example, all chordates share similar embryo features early in development which
may later diverge or be lost.
4. Genetics
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● enetic similarity among related species strongly supports common descent.
● Shared genetic quirks, such as DNA inversions, are best explained by common ancestry.
● Modern genetic analysis clarifies evolutionary relationships and lineage divergence.
5. Biogeography
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● istribution of species across geographic regions supports evolutionary predictions.
● Closely related species tend to be geographically near each other; more distant relatives
are geographically separated.
● Examples include distinctions between “Old World” and “New World” primates
correlating with their respective ranges.