1.

Discuss with your instructor the meaning of the motto: "Take nothing but  Boots
pictures and leave nothing but footprints."
Cold Weather Clothing Remember to dress in layers. This will allow you to control
"Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints" is pretty self-explanatory. It your temperature better. In cold weather, you do not want to sweat, because that
means you do not disturb nature while you are out enjoying it. If you see a pretty will soak your clothing and chill you. If you find yourself working up a sweat, remove a
rock, leave it there for someone else to enjoy. If you eat a piece of candy on the trail, layer of clothing, or open a zipper. Rely on wool rather than on cotton, because wool
don't toss the wrapper — take it with you. stays warm even when wet. There is a popular saying among experienced
outdoorsmen that "Cotton kills." This is because when cotton gets wet, it steals the
There are a few exception to both these rules. If you see trash, by all means, take it. body's heat which can lead to hypothermia and death. Your outer layer should be
Throw it in the trash when you get to a proper trash receptacle. Also be aware that wind-proof, as this greatly increases the warmth of your clothing. Here is a list:
footprints are not always harmless. Many tundra plants that take years to grow can
be destroyed by a single footprint. Stay on the trail.  Thermal Underwear
 Light shirts (polyester or some other synthetic)
One of the most important ways people leave their mark on the land is by building a  Heavy Shirts
campfire. For "no trace" camping, bring a camp stove. Unfortunately, the campfire is  Wool Sweater
one of the primary attractions for many people, so it is not easy to follow this advice.  Wind Breaker
If your campsite has a fire ring or an existing fire pit, use that. If it does not and you  Fleece Pants (synthetic)
must have a campfire, lay a small tarp on the ground and cover it with six to eight  Nylon Pants (as the outside layer) or snow pants
inches of mineral sand. Mineral sand is sand containing no organic material, and can  Overcoat
be found on a beach or where a large tree has fallen over and raised a rootwad. The  Wool Socks
sand must be piled deep so the heat does not affect the tarp beneath. Stop putting  Boots
new fuel on the fire well before you are ready to put it out, and push in the ends of  Warm Hat
sticks that have not yet burned. Allow them to burn down to white ash. When you are
ready to leave, douse the fire well, and spread the ashes over a wide area. Return the Sleepwear For comfortable sleeping and for modesty on overnight trips, bring
sand to the place where you found it and pack up your tarp. pajamas or a sweat suit. In many places where it is warm during the day it gets cold at
night, so be prepared.
2. Know the essentials of proper clothing, shoes, and rain gear to use in
backpacking. Rain Gear Be ready for bad weather on your backpacking trip by bringing along a
poncho and rain pants. In a pinch, you can use a garbage bag as a raincoat by cutting
Warm Weather Clothing a hole in th bottom, turning it over, and poking your head through the hole. A slit
along each seam on the side will make arm holes. It will not cover your head like that,
Keep in mind that the weather can change suddenly though. Just because it is warm but it will keep the rest of you dry.
when you begin your outing does not mean it will be warm the whole time. If there is
a chance that the weather will turn cold, take along some cold weather gear as well. 3. Know the principles in selecting a good quality backpack. In an emergency, what
Check an almanac to see how cold it can get during the time you are planning to be might be used in place of a backpack?
out.
There are a lot of products on the market these days that are called "backpacks," but
Here is a list of clothing appropriate for a warm-weather outing. don't be fooled. Some of them are entirely unsuited to backpacking. Most of the
cheap ones you will find in a store are intended for carrying school supplies between
 Thick socks the house, school bus, and classroom. They are not designed to carry all the gear
 Jeans you'll need for an overnight trip over miles of rough terrain. A backpack suited for
 Light Shirt (short sleeve) backpacking will have a hip strap on it that fastens around the hips. Most of the
 Light Shirt (long sleeve) weight of the backpack will thus be carried on your hips. The shoulder straps will
 Hat with a wide brim carry a small percentage of the weight as well, but they are really intended to keep
the backpack from tipping off. If you find that you are carrying most the weight on Look for 8 to 10 stitches per inch in the seams. More than 10 stitches per inch
your shoulders, you need to adjust the backpack to shift the weight to your hips. You decreases the strength of the cloth, and with fewer than 8, the thread is being asked
will be able to walk much farther distances in greater comfort that way. to do too much.

Book bags do not come with hip straps. All the weight is thus placed on the shoulder In an emergency, you can toss your gear into a blanket, gather the corners, and throw
which is fine for a short trek from the house to the bus stop, but miserable on a 3- it over your shoulders. Another option would be to stuff your gear into a closed
mile hike. sleeping bag and sling that over your shoulders. Either of these solutions are
obviously going to be far inferior to even the least adequate backpack though, so this
Backpacking backpacks come in two basic designs: the Internal Frame backpack, and substitution should be reserved for only emergencies.
the External Frame backpack.
4. Know the essential items to be taken on a backpack trip.
The external frame backpack (or EF backpack) has a rigid frame made from aluminum,
plastic, or both. The pack itself attaches to the frame, and the frame is attached to the  Good quality map of the area
body via shoulder and hip straps. The frame holds the pack away from the back so  Compass
that air may circulate back there, making an EF backpack cooler to carry. The  Knife
downside to an EF is that the body tends to twist and flex as a hiker moves, and the  Flashlight
frame resists this. Some EF packs take this into account, and provide a frame that will  Water treatment equipment
flex. The main measure of comfort on an EF backpack is the degree to which it flexes.  Water bottle
 Food
The internal frame backpack (IF backpack) drapes over the back. It gets its structure  Change of clothes
from the gear placed inside it. This allows the IF backpack to flex and move as the  First aid kit
body does, making it generally more comfortable to carry. Furthermore, the IF pack  Rain gear
lies against the hikers back. This allows it to distribute its weight over a greater area,  Backpack
but it also prevents air circulation, making it hotter to wear. The IF pack uses foam in  Firelighting equipment
the straps to add even more comfort. There are two basic types of foam: open-cell  Sleeping bag
foam, and closed-cell foam. Open cell foam is highly compressible. While this may add  Sleeping pad
comfort in some places, it should not be used in the straps. In the straps, the foam  Extra socks
compresses too much, leaving the webbing to dig into the shoulders. Closed cell foam  Good quality hiking boots or hiking shoes
compresses much less than open-cell foam, and is therefore preferred in the straps.  Eating and cooking utensils
You can easily tell the difference by squeezing the padding. If it compresses to about  Backpacking stove and fuel
a quarter its original thickness, it is open-cell foam.  Tent or tarp
 Toiletries (toothbrush, toilet paper, soap, etc)
Whether you choose an EF or an IF pack, the next thing to consider is the material  Compact shovel
from which the pack itself is made. Avoid cotton. It is cheap, but it is also not
waterproof. If you set a cotton pack on the wet ground, you will transfer the moisture 5. What kind of sleeping bag and pad are best for your camping area? Know at least
from the ground to your gear. Some packs made of Kevlar are appearing on the three kinds of each that are available.
market, and those should be avoided as well. Though Kevlar is renown for its
puncture resistance (think bullet-proof vests), it does not offer much in the way of Sleeping Bags
abrasion resistance. Your pack is far more likely to be subjected to abrasion than
puncture. Nylon is a far better choice than either of these, and of course, it comes in a Rectangular
variety of configurations. All of them are acceptable, but rip-stop is probably the best
suited to the job. The rectangular sleeping bag is probably the most common, and are popular for light
use. They are not suitable for backpacking because they provide the least amount of
warmth and the most amount of weight. As the name implies, they are rectangle-
shaped. While this makes them comfortable and roomy, the wide opening near the Closed-cell foam makes the ideal sleeping pad. The closed cells do not soak up water.
top is a major source of heat loss. Unlike a mummy bag it does not have a hood that They are lightweight, comfortable, and compact. Often they are only half an inch (12
can be drawn around the head to retain heat. mm) thick, so they can be rolled into a small tube and strapped to a backpack. They
also serve as an excellent thermal barrier between the sleeper and the ground.
Mummy Bag
6. Know how to pack a pack properly.
The mummy bag is shaped like a sarcophagus. It is narrow at the feet (but tall there
to allow just enough room for the feet), tapers at the waist, widens again at the 1. Lay out all your gear where you can see it, next to your pack.
shoulders, and then tapers down near the head. The top is very much like the hood of 2. Look for empty spaces in your gear - for instance, there may be room inside
a winter coat, complete with drawstrings to close up the gap and keep heat in. your cooking pot. Put any small items that will fit inside that to conserve
Because they conform so well to the human shape, there is very little wasted space space. Look for other "hidden" space as well.
inside. This is good because your body has to heat all that space, and because the 3. For an internal frame backpack, put the sleeping bag in first, at the bottom.
extra insulation and material thusly removed does not have to be carried (meaning For an external frame, tie it underneath the pack.
it's lighter). 4. Load the heavy items next, placing them as close to your back as you can.
This will shift the center of gravity forward which will help your balance and
Barrel Bag improve comfort. Be sure nothing is going to poke you in the back though.
5. Put the lighter items such as clothing in towards the outside of the pack.
The barrel bag is a modified mummy bag. It is roomier than the mummy bag and 6. Put the things you'll need on the trail (like water, trail mix, compass, map,
provides almost the same warmth at the cost of additional weight. etc) in the outer pockets where you can get to them. If they're hard to get to,
you'll be unlikely to use them. And if you don't use them, why bring them at
all?
Sleeping Pads

7. What types of food are best for backpacking? Visit a grocery store and list the
Sleeping pads can perform two main functions:
foods found there that are suitable for backpacking. With your instructor:
1. Provide cushioning
The best type of food to take backpacking is dehydrated food, as it is very lightweight,
2. Provide insulation between the sleeper and the ground.
compact, and nutritious. You can buy food pre-packaged or you can dehydrate it
yourself. For details on dehydrating your own food, see the Food Drying honor in the
Air mattresses Household Arts section of this book.

Air mattresses are inflatable cushions that can provide a lot of comfort when it comes a. Prepare a menu for a weekend backpack trip using foods obtained from a grocery
to sleeping on the ground. Unfortunately, they are not very warm as they provide store.
next to no insulation beneath the sleeper. This may not be an issue, though it is well
worth knowing.
Although you can buy prepared dehydrated foods for backpacking at an outdoor
outfitter, getting your food this way can be fairly expensive. Instead, try getting
Open-cell foam pads dehydrated food at a regular grocery store. Here's a short list of possibilities:

Open-cell foam is a type of foam padding that is sometimes found in furniture  Instant mashed potatoes
cushions or even in regular mattresses. It is lightweight - though somewhat bulky. Its  Instant oatmeal
chief disadvantage is that it soaks up water like a sponge.  Quick-cooking rice
 Powdered milk
Closed-cell foam pads  Powdered eggs
 Pasta
 Nuts and peanuts
  Dry soup mixes Put the baggie in an easy to reach place in your pack so you can nibble on it while you
 Dry beans, lentils, peas hike. Don't worry about getting low-fat items. You'll be doing enough walking (and
 Granola carrying a heavy pack) to burn a lot of calories - you'll need the fat.
 Dried fruits (apricots, apples, and banana chips)
 Flour, mixed with other dry ingredients to make pancakes or biscuits 8. Know the prevention and symptoms of, and the first aid for:

b. Learn the techniques of measuring, packaging, and labeling backpack foods for a. Sunburn
your trip.
Sunburn is from over-exposure to the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. While the
Once you've bought the food you plan to eat on your backpacking trip, the last thing symptoms are usually temporary (such as red skin that is painful to the touch), the
you will want to do is toss it unthoughtfully into your backpack in its original skin damage is often permanent and can have serious long-term health effects,
packaging. Food packaging is designed to catch your eye at the grocery store, and to including skin cancer.
do this, it does not come in space-efficient sizes. Empty all of your food and repack it
into sealable plastic bags (such as Ziplock bags). Make up a menu before you do this,  There is no such thing as a "healthy tan." Unprotected sun exposure causes
and pack each meal into a separate bag. Then clearly label the bag with a permanent premature aging of the skin.
marker or a mailing label. The label should be legible even in dim light - you never  Sun exposure can cause first and second degree burns.
know when you'll have to cook your food in the dark. This is a lot of trouble to go  Skin cancer usually appears in adulthood, but is caused by sun exposure and
through, but it is well worth it during the trip. sunburns that began as early as childhood. You can help prevent skin cancer
by protecting your skin and your children's skin from the harmful rays of the
If you wish to make pancakes, first determine how many pancake meals your party sun.
will eat, and mix it all up at once. It is a lot easier to accurately measure large
amounts of flour, salt, and baking powder than it is to measure small amounts of the Factors that make sunburn more likely:
same. Mix it all together thoroughly, and when it is well mixed, scoop out enough to
make one serving and place it in a baggie. Make as many single-serving baggies of
 Infants and children are especially sensitive to the burning effects of the sun.
pancake mix as you'll use. You can use the same technique for making soup mixes and
 People with fair skin are more likely to get sunburn. But even dark and black
other delectables. Just keep all the ingredients dry and be prepared to add water at
skin can burn and should be protected.
the campsite.
 The sun's rays are strongest during the hours of 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. The
sun's rays are also stronger at higher altitudes and lower latitudes (closer to
c. Make a trail snack. the tropics). Reflection off water, sand, or snow can intensify the sun's
burning rays.
There are millions of recipes for trail mix, and every seasoned backpacker has a  Sun lamps can cause severe sunburn.
favorite. "Gorp" is a perennial favorite - the name tells its ingredients: Good old  Some medications (such as the antibiotic doxycycline) can make you more
raisins and peanuts. Choose half a dozen (or more! or less!) of items such as these, susceptible to sunburn.
mix them together, and put them in a baggie:
First Aid
 Raisins
 Peanuts  Try taking a cool bath or shower. Or place wet, cold wash cloths on the burn
 Chex cereal for 10 to 15 minutes, several times a day. You can mix baking soda in the
 Frosted Flakes or other sweetened cereal water to help relieve the pain. (Small children may become easily chilled, so
 Pretzels keep the water tepid.)
 M & M's  Apply a soothing lotion to the skin.
 Chocolate chips  Aloe gel is a common household remedy for sunburns. Aloe contains active
 Dried fruit compounds that help stop pain and inflammation of the skin.
 Shelled sunflower seeds
  An over-the-counter pain medication, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen The areas most commonly affected are the face and extremities. The symptoms of
may be helpful. DO NOT give aspirin to children. frostbite are progressive. Victims generally incur this injury without being acutely
aware of it. Initially, the affected skin reddens and there is an uncomfortable
Do Not coldness. With continued heat loss, there is a numbness of the affected area due to
reduced circulation. As ice crystals form, the frozen extremity appears white, yellow-
 DO NOT apply petroleum jelly, benzocaine, lidocaine, or butter to the white, or mottled blue-white, and is cold, hard, and insensitive to touch or pressure.
sunburn. They make the symptoms worse and can prevent healing. Frostbite is classified as superficial or deep, depending on the extent of tissue
 DO NOT wash burned skin with harsh soap. involvement.

b. Blisters Superficial Frostbite

Blister Prevention In superficial frostbite the surface of the skin will feel hard, but the underlying tissue
will be soft, allowing it to move over bony ridges. This is evidence that only the skin
and the region just below it are involved. General treatment for superficial frostbite is
When it comes to blisters on the feet, it is always best to avoid them. Blisters are
as follows:
caused when your foot rubs against something repeatedly. Blisters can be avoided by
wearing footwear that fits you correctly. Also, be sure to break your footwear in
before embarking on a long hike. It also helps to wear two pairs of socks. When you 1. Take the victim indoors.
do this, the inner sock moves with your foot and the outer sock moves with your 2. Rewarm hands by placing them under the armpits, against the abdomen, or
boot. All the rubbing takes place between the two socks rather than between your between the legs.
foot and the sock. This will eventually wear a hole in your sock, but replacing socks is 3. Rewarm feet by placing them in the armpit or against the abdomen of the
a lot less painful than hiking with a blister. buddy.
4. Gradually rewarm the affected area by warm water immersion, skin-to-skin
contact, or hot water bottles.
Blister Treatment
5. Never rub a frostbite area.
Try not to break the blister open. It is far better if the skin continues to cover the
Deep Frostbite
injury, as this will keep out germs and prevent infection. If you must open the blister
in order to be able to walk, do it as follows.
In deep frostbite, the freezing reaches into the deep tissue layers. There are ice
crystals in the entire thickness of the extremity. The skin will not move over bony
 Clean the affected area
ridges and will feel hard and solid. The objectives of treatment are to protect the
 Sterilize a needle
frozen areas from further injury, to rapidly thaw the affected area, and to be
 Pierce the blister in several places around its perimeter to drain the fluid, but
prepared to respond to circulatory or respiratory difficulties.
try to leave as much of the skin intact as possible.
 Wipe the injury down with rubbing alcohol.
 Cover a small blister with an adhesive bandage 1. Carefully assess and treat any other injuries first. Constantly monitor the
 Cover a large blister with gauze and adhesive tape. victim’s pulse and breathing since respiratory and heart problems can
 Be sure to allow the blister to breathe develop rapidly. Be prepared to administer CPR if necessary.
2. Do not attempt to thaw the frostbitten area if there is a possibility of
refreezing. It is better to leave the part frozen until the victim arrives at a
c. Frostbite
medical treatment facility equipped for long-term care. Refreezing of a
thawed extremity causes severe and disabling damage.
Frostbite occurs when ice crystals form in the skin or deeper tissues after exposure to 3. Treat all victims with injuries to the feet or legs as litter patients. When this is
a temperature of 32°F (0°C) or lower. Depending upon the temperature, altitude, and not possible, the victim may walk on the frozen limb, since it has been
wind speed, the exposure time necessary to produce frostbite varies from a few proven that walking will not lessen the chances of successful treatment as
minutes to several hours. long as the limb has not thawed out.
 4. When adequate protection from further cold exposure is available, prepare must be controlled and fractures splinted over clothing before the victim is
the victim for rewarming by removing all constricting clothing such as gloves, moved.
boots, and socks. Boots and clothing frozen on the body should be thawed 3. Replace wet or frozen clothing and remove anything that constricts the
by warm-water immersion before removal. victim’s arms, legs, or fingers, interfering with circulation.
5. Rapidly rewarm frozen areas by immersion in water at 100°F to 105°F (38°C 4. If the victim is inside a warm place and is conscious, the most effective
to 41°C). Keep the water warm by adding fresh hot water, but do not pour method of warming is immersion in a tub of warm (100° to 105°F or 38° to
the water directly on the injured area. Ensure that the frozen area is 41°C) water. The water should be warm to the elbow - never hot. Observe
completely surrounded by water; do not let it rest on the side or bottom of closely for signs of respiratory failure and cardiac arrest (rewarming shock).
the tub. Rewarming shock can be minimized by warming the body trunk before the
6. After rewarming has been completed, pat the area dry with a soft towel. limbs to prevent vasodilation in the extremities with subsequent shock due
Later it will swell, sting, and burn. Blisters may develop. These should be to blood volume shifts.
protected from breaking. Avoid pressure, rubbing, or constriction of the 5. If a tub is not available, apply external heat to both sides of the victim.
injured area. Keep the skin dry with sterile dressings and place cotton Natural body heat (skin to skin) from two rescuers is the best method. This is
between the toes and fingers to prevent their sticking together. called “buddy warming.” If this is not practical, use hot water bottles or an
7. Protect the tissue from additional injury and keep it as clean as possible (use electric rewarming blanket. Do not place the blanket or bottles next to bare
sterile dressings and linen). skin, however, and be careful to monitor the temperature of the artificial
8. Try to improve the general morale and comfort of the victim by giving hot, heat source, since the victim is very susceptible to burn injury. Because the
stimulating fluids such as tea or coffee. Do not allow the victim to smoke or victim is unable to generate adequate body heat, placement under a blanket
use alcoholic beverages while being treated. or in a sleeping bag is not sufficient treatment.
9. Transfer to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible. During 6. If the victim is conscious, give warm liquids to drink. Never give alcoholic
transportation, slightly elevate the frostbitten area and keep the victim and beverages or allow the victim to smoke.
the injured area warm. Do not allow the injured area to be exposed to the 7. Dry the victim thoroughly if water is used for rewarming.
cold. 8. As soon as possible, transfer the victim to a definitive care facility. Be alert
for the signs of respiratory and cardiac arrest during transfer, and keep the
d. Hypothermia victim warm.

Hypothermia is caused by continued exposure to low or rapidly falling temperatures, e. Heat stroke
cold moisture, snow, or ice. Those exposed to low temperatures for extended periods
may suffer ill effects, even if they are well protected by clothing, because cold affects Heat stroke is a less common but far more serious condition than heat exhaustion,
the body systems slowly, almost without notice. As the body cools, there are several since it carries a 20 percent fatality rate. The main feature of heatstroke is the
stages of progressive discomfort and disability. The first symptom is shivering, which extremely high body temperature, 105º F (41º C) or higher, that accompanies it. In
is an attempt to generate heat by repeated contractions of surface muscles. This is heatstroke, the victim has a breakdown of the sweating mechanism and is unable to
followed by a feeling of listlessness, indifference, and drowsiness. Unconsciousness eliminate excessive body heat built up while exercising. If the body temperature rises
can follow quickly. Shock becomes evident as the victim’s eyes assume a glassy stare, too high, the brain, kidneys, and liver may be permanently damaged.
respiration becomes slow and shallow, and the pulse is weak or absent. As the body
temperature drops even lower, peripheral circulation decreases and the extremities Sometimes the victim may have preliminary symptoms, such as headache, nausea,
become susceptible to freezing. Finally, death results as the core temperature of the dizziness, or weakness. Breathing will be deep and rapid at first, later shallow and
body approaches 80°F (27°C). The steps for treatment of hypothermia are as follows: almost absent. Usually the victim will be flushed, very dry, and very hot. The pupils
will be constricted (pinpoint) and the pulse fast and strong.
1. Carefully observe respiratory effort and heart beat; CPR may be required
while the warming process is underway. When you provide first aid for heatstroke, remember that this is a true life-and-death
2. Rewarm the victim as soon as possible. It may be necessary to treat other emergency. The longer the victim remains overheated, the higher the chances of
injuries before the victim can be moved to a warmer place. Severe bleeding irreversible body damage or even death occurring. First aid treatment for heatstroke
is designed to reduce body heat. Reduce body heat immediately by dousing the body
with cold water, or applying wet, cold towels to the whole body. Move the victim to Readers are strongly advised to obtain guidelines from a reputable first aid
the coolest possible place and remove as much clothing as possible. Maintain an open organization in their own region, and to be wary of homegrown or anecdotal
airway. Place the victim on his/her back, with the head and shoulders slightly raised. remedies.
If cold packs are available, place them under the arms, around the neck, at the ankles,
and in the groin. Expose the victim to a fan or air-conditioner since drafts will However, most first aid guidelines agree on the following:
promote cooling. Immersing the victim in a cold water bath is also effective. Give the
victim (if conscious) cool water to drink. Do not give any hot drinks or stimulants. Get 1. Protect the patient (and others, including yourself) from further bites. While
the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible. Cooling measures must be identifying the species is desirable in certain regions, do not risk further bites
continued while the victim is being transported. or delay proper medical treatment by attempting to capture or kill the snake.
If the snake has not already fled, carefully remove the victim from the
f. Heat exhaustion immediate area.
2. Keep the victim calm. Acute stress reaction increases blood flow and
Heat exhaustion is the most common condition caused by working or exercising in hot endangers the patient. Keep people near the patient calm. Panic is infectious
spaces. Heat exhaustion produces a serious disruption of blood flow to the brain, and compromises judgment.
heart, and lungs. This causes the victim to experience weakness, dizziness, headache, 3. Call for help to arrange for transport to the nearest hospital emergency
loss of appetite, and nausea. room, where antivenom for snakes common to the area will often be
available.
Signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion are similar to those of shock: the victim will 4. Make sure to keep the bitten limb in a functional position and below the
appear ashen gray; the skin will be cold, moist, and clammy; and the pupils of the victim's heart level so as to minimize blood returning to the heart and other
eyes may be dilated (enlarged). The vital (blood pressure, temperature, pulse, and organs of the body.
respiration) signs usually are normal; however, the victim may have a weak pulse 5. Do not give the patient anything to eat or drink. This is especially important
together with rapid and shallow breathing. with consumable alcohol, a known vasodilator which will speed up the
absorption of venom. Do not administer stimulants or pain medications to
Body temperature may be below normal. You should treat heat exhaustion victims as the victim, unless specifically directed to do so by a physician.
if they were in shock. Loosen the clothing, apply cool wet cloths, move the victim to 6. Remove any items or clothing which may constrict the bitten limb if it swells
either a cool or an air-conditioned area, and fan the victim. Do not allow the person (rings, bracelets, watches, footwear, etc.)
to become chilled. If the victim is conscious, administer a solution of 1 teaspoon of 7. Keep the victim as still as possible.
salt dissolved in a quart of cool water. If the victim vomits, do not give any more 8. Do not incise the bitten site.
fluids. Transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible.
Many organizations, including the American Medical Association and American Red
g. Snake bite Cross, recommend washing the bite with soap and water. However, do not attempt to
clean the area with any type of chemical. Australian recommendations for snake bite
treatment strongly recommend against cleaning the wound. Traces of venom left on
First aid
the skin/bandages from the strike can be used in combination with a snake bite
identification kit to identify the species of snake. This speeds determination of which
Snakebite first aid recommendations vary, in part because different snakes have antivenom to administer in the emergency room.[1]
different types of venom. Some have little local effect, but life-threatening systemic
effects, in which case containing the venom in the region of the bite by pressure
h. Cramps
immobilization is highly desirable. Other venoms instigate localized tissue damage
around the bitten area, and immobilization may increase the severity of the damage
in this area, but also reduce the total area affected; whether this trade-off is desirable There are two basic causes of cramping. One is inadequate oxygenation of muscle,
remains a point of controversy. and the other is lack of water or salt. Cramps from poor oxygenation can be improved
by rapid deep breathing, and stretching the muscle. Cramps from lack of salt and
water can be treated by stretching the muscle, drinking water and eating salt.
Because snakes vary from one country to another, first aid methods also vary. As
Pounding on the muscle can increase soreness.
always, this article is not a legitimate substitute for professional medical advice.
What happens in a cramp is that lactic acid builds up because of normal anaerobic among the group. Take the tent apart and have one person carry the fly, another the
muscle metabolism. When the muscle burns sugar without enough oxygen, it makes canopy, and a third the poles. Instead of bringing a pillow, stuff tomorrow's clothes
lactic acid. The lactic acid finally becomes concentrated enough to trigger the into a sack and use that.
contraction of the muscle. When the muscle lacks salt, the nerves firing the muscle
are unable to recharge properly, causing a similar effect. 11. Know three ways to find direction without a compass. Demonstrate at least
two.
i. Dehydration
Northern hemisphere instructions
Dehydration is the depletion of water from the body. It can be prevented by drinking
plenty of water, especially during periods of physical exertion. One to five percent
dehydration will make you lose your appetite, become sleepy and nauseated, and
begin to vomit. As dehydration goes up to 10 percent, dizziness results. You will have
headaches, difficulty in breathing, tingling of the legs and arms caused by poor
circulation, indistinct speech, and, finally, an inability to walk. Still, 10 percent
dehydration generally causes no permanent ill effects. When dehydration exceeds 10
percent, you will become delirious, spastic, almost deaf, and barely able to see. The
skin shrivels and becomes numb. At temperatures above 90°F, dehydration over 15
percent is generally fatal. At 85° and less, the body can stand up to 25 percent
dehydration. Dehydration is quickly cured by water—in fact, only water can cure it.
When you are dehydrated, you don’t have to worry about how much water you drink
or how quickly you drink it, or if the water is warm or cool. Cold water, though, will
upset the stomach.

9. Have a first aid kit in your pack and know how to use it. Finding Polaris
North Star
Compact, lightweight firsts aid kits are available at many retailers and outdoor In the northern hemisphere on a clear night you can determine which
outfitters. But don't just go out, buy one, and toss it in you pack without another direction is north by finding Polaris (the North Star). You can find Polaris by
thought. It is important for you to open it up and examine every item. Then review following the two "pointer stars" in the Big Dipper. Unfortunately, this
the answers for the First Aid honor, so that you know how to use each item. method is only effective on clear nights.
Using a Watch
You can use an analog watch to figure out which way is south during the day.
10. According to your weight, what is the maximum number of pounds you should
To do this, it is easiest if you remove the watch from your wrist first. Hold
be allowed to carry?
the watch so that the face is pointing upwards. Then rotate it until the hour
hand points to the sun. You can use a blade of grass to cast a shadow on the
An adult should carry no more than a fifth to a third of his or her body weight in a watch face to make this easier - just line the hour hand up with the shadow.
backpack, depending on the level of fitness. A kid should not carry more than a Once the hour hand is pointing towards the sun, you can find south by
quarter his body weight. bisecting the angle between the hour hand and the 12 o'clock position. In
other words, if it is 4:00pm, south will lie in the 2:00 o'clock direction
Your aim should not be to load your pack until you hit the maximum, but rather, to (because 2:00 is halfway between 4:00 and 12:00). At 7:00 am, south will lie
bring as little as you can get by with. But don't carry anything you aren't going to in the 9:30 direction (because 9:30 is halfway between 7:00 and 12:00).
need. When it comes to backpacking, less is more! Don't kill yourself. Evaluate every Using a shadow
item you put into your backpack. Little things add up quickly, so try not to duplicate Find a straight stick at least 12 inches long (30 cm) and drive it into the
functionality. For instance, if you're brining a pocket knife, you can probably leave the ground such that it points directly at the sun. You can tell the stick is pointing
butter knife behind. Bring a spork rather than a spoon and a fork. Use parachute cord directly at the sun because its shadow will disappear. Then wait until the
for a clothesline - it's very strong and can be used as rope. Distribute "group" gear
 earth rotates enough so that you can see the shadow. The shadow will point side of the equator you are on) from the shortest shaddow and also East and West by
directly east. drawing a line from the ends of the longest shaddows assuming you had an early
morning and late evening marking with equal time from mid-day. But for this you
Southern Cross to find south at night have to be lucky to have sunshine for most of the day, which usually is not the case if
you are lost. Anyhow it is something to know if you do not have a watch to know
With the lack of a significant pole star in the southern sky (Sigma Octantis is closest to when mid-day is.
the pole, but is too faint to be useful for the purpose), two of the stars of Crux (Alpha
and Gamma, Acrux and Gacrux respectively) are commonly used to mark south. 12. Show the proper way to put on and take off a backpack alone and with a
Following the line defined by the two stars for approximately 4.5 times the distance partner.
between them leads to a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole.
Alone
Alternatively, if a line is constructed perpendicularly between Alpha Centauri and Set the backpack on a table (or a large rock), put your arms through the
Beta Centauri, the point where the above line and this line intersect marks the straps (loosened off), and lift with your legs. You can also set it on a rock or a
Southern Celestial Pole. The two stars are often referred to as the "Pointer Stars" or log and sit down in front of it. Again, lift with your legs, not with your back. If
"White Pointers", allowing people to easily find the top of Crux. there is nothing available to set your pack on; stand with your feet apart,
one leg ahead of the other, knee bent enough to set your pack on it. With
The junction of these two lines is the SCP Southern Celestial Pole. If you were at the shoulder straps loosened off, slip one arm through the shoulder strap, lean
South Pole this would be directly above you. This is the point where the night sky into your pack and slightly downward, and roll it up onto your back. Once in
revolves around. Point to this spot then lower your arm to the horizon. Where you place, slide your other arm through the shoulder strap. Always tighten your
are pointing is South. hip belt first, shoulder straps next and lastly your chest strap. Reverse this
procedure for removing your pack.
With a Partner
Have your partner lift your pack and hold it while you slip your arms into the
Watch method
straps. If you have to stoop, bend your knees. Remember to lift with your
legs!
Southern Hemisphere method [Link] the 12 to the sun. Halfway between the
hour hand and the 12 is North. You still have to use your intelligence for this as early
13. Participate in a weekend backpack trip of at least five miles (8 km) to a site not
morning time and evening time care must be taken as to which half you use. Eg 8am
accessible by a vehicle and cook your own meals.
sun is rising in the East; point 12 to the sun North is halfway between the 8 and the
12 at the 10. BUT late evening the sun is heading to set in the west say time is 8pm
you point the 12 at the sun. North is halfway between the 8 and the 12 at the other Five miles is a good backpacking trip for a beginner. Find a trail near you by visiting
side of watch at the 4. This should be used only as a guide as in some countries the your local outdoor outfitter. These stores are most often staffed by people who enjoy
real time has been adjusted and sometimes there is daylight saving time etc. backpacking and can provide you with valuable advice on destinations. Once you've
got a 5-mile trip under your belt, why not look at the Pioneering honor and make your
next trip a 15-miler?
Stick method

References
This method is a waste of time. We all know the sun rises in the East and sets in the
West. The stick shadow shows you this. Also when the sun is at its zenith the highest
it gets in the Southern Hemi look at the sun and it is towards the North the opposite  [Link]
in the Northern Hemi. So we learn that at mid day is the best time to find North (or  [Link]
South).

But if you must... place a stick in the ground on an open area. Mark the shaddows at
times through out the day. From this you can find North or South (depending what