Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

1. Develop a program to create histograms for all numerical features and analyze the
distribution of each feature. Generate box plots for all numerical features and identify any
outliers. Use California Housing dataset.
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import seaborn as sns
import [Link] as plt
from [Link] import fetch_california_housing

# Step 1: Load the California Housing dataset

data = fetch_california_housing(as_frame=True)
housing_df = [Link]

# Step 2: Create histograms for numerical features

numerical_features = housing_df.select_dtypes(include=[[Link]]).columns

# Plot histograms
[Link](figsize=(15, 10))
for i, feature in enumerate(numerical_features):
[Link](3, 3, i + 1)
[Link](housing_df[feature], kde=True, bins=30, color='blue')
[Link](f'Distribution of {feature}')
plt.tight_layout()
[Link]()

# Step 3: Generate box plots for numerical features

[Link](figsize=(15, 10))
for i, feature in enumerate(numerical_features):
[Link](3, 3, i + 1)
[Link](x=housing_df[feature], color='orange')
[Link](f'Box Plot of {feature}')
plt.tight_layout()
[Link]()

# Step 4: Identify outliers using the IQR method

print("Outliers Detection:")
outliers_summary = {}
for feature in numerical_features:
Q1 = housing_df[feature].quantile(0.25)
Q3 = housing_df[feature].quantile(0.75)
IQR = Q3 - Q1
lower_bound = Q1 - 1.5 * IQR
upper_bound = Q3 + 1.5 * IQR

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

outliers = housing_df[(housing_df[feature] < lower_bound) | (housing_df[feature] >

upper_bound)]
outliers_summary[feature] = len(outliers)
print(f"{feature}: {len(outliers)} outliers")

# Optional: Print a summary of the dataset

print("\nDataset Summary:")
print(housing_df.describe())

output:

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Outliers Detection:
MedInc: 681 outliers
HouseAge: 0 outliers
AveRooms: 511 outliers
AveBedrms: 1424 outliers
Population: 1196 outliers
AveOccup: 711 outliers
Latitude: 0 outliers
Longitude: 0 outliers
MedHouseVal: 1071 outliers

Dataset Summary:
MedInc HouseAge AveRooms AveBedrms Population \
count 20640.000000 20640.000000 20640.000000 20640.000000 20640.000000
mean 3.870671 28.639486 5.429000 1.096675 1425.476744
std 1.899822 12.585558 2.474173 0.473911 1132.462122
min 0.499900 1.000000 0.846154 0.333333 3.000000
25% 2.563400 18.000000 4.440716 1.006079 787.000000
50% 3.534800 29.000000 5.229129 1.048780 1166.000000
75% 4.743250 37.000000 6.052381 1.099526 1725.000000
max 15.000100 52.000000 141.909091 34.066667 35682.000000
AveOccup Latitude Longitude MedHouseVal
count 20640.000000 20640.000000 20640.000000 20640.000000
mean 3.070655 35.631861 -119.569704 2.068558
std 10.386050 2.135952 2.003532 1.153956
min 0.692308 32.540000 -124.350000 0.149990
25% 2.429741 33.930000 -121.800000 1.196000
50% 2.818116 34.260000 -118.490000 1.797000
75% 3.282261 37.710000 -118.010000 2.647250
max 1243.333333 41.950000 -114.310000 5.000010

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

2. Develop a program to Compute the correlation matrix to understand the relationships

between pairs of features. Visualize the correlation matrix using a heatmap to know which
variables have strong positive/negative correlations. Create a pair plot to visualize pairwise
relationships between features. Use California Housing dataset.

import pandas as pd
import seaborn as sns
import [Link] as plt
from [Link] import fetch_california_housing

# Step 1: Load the California Housing Dataset

california_data = fetch_california_housing(as_frame=True)
data = california_data.frame

# Step 2: Compute the correlation matrix

correlation_matrix = [Link]()

# Step 3: Visualize the correlation matrix using a heatmap

[Link](figsize=(10, 8))
[Link](correlation_matrix, annot=True, cmap='coolwarm', fmt='.2f', linewidths=0.5)
[Link]('Correlation Matrix of California Housing Features')
[Link]()

# Step 4: Create a pair plot to visualize pairwise relationships

[Link](data, diag_kind='kde', plot_kws={'alpha': 0.5})
[Link]('Pair Plot of California Housing Features', y=1.02)
[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

3. Develop a program to implement Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for reducing the
dimensionality of the Iris dataset from 4 features to 2.
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from [Link] import load_iris
from [Link] import PCA
import [Link] as plt

# Load the Iris dataset

iris = load_iris()
data = [Link]
labels = [Link]
label_names = iris.target_names

# Convert to a DataFrame for better visualization

iris_df = [Link](data, columns=iris.feature_names)

# Perform PCA to reduce dimensionality to 2

pca = PCA(n_components=2)
data_reduced = pca.fit_transform(data)

# Create a DataFrame for the reduced data

reduced_df = [Link](data_reduced, columns=['Principal Component 1', 'Principal
Component 2'])
reduced_df['Label'] = labels

# Plot the reduced data

[Link](figsize=(8, 6))
colors = ['r', 'g', 'b']
for i, label in enumerate([Link](labels)):
[Link](
reduced_df[reduced_df['Label'] == label]['Principal Component 1'],
reduced_df[reduced_df['Label'] == label]['Principal Component 2'],
label=label_names[label],
color=colors[i]
)

[Link]('PCA on Iris Dataset')

[Link]('Principal Component 1')
[Link]('Principal Component 2')
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

4. For a given set of training data examples stored in a .CSV file, implement and
demonstrate the Find-S algorithm to output a description of the set of all hypotheses
consistent with the training examples.

import pandas as pd
def find_s_algorithm(file_path):
data = pd.read_csv(file_path)

print("Training data:")
print(data)

attributes = [Link][:-1]
class_label = [Link][-1]

hypothesis = ['?' for _ in attributes]

for index, row in [Link]():

if row[class_label] == 'Yes':
for i, value in enumerate(row[attributes]):
if hypothesis[i] == '?' or hypothesis[i] == value:
hypothesis[i] = value
else:
hypothesis[i] = '?'

return hypothesis

file_path = 'training_data.csv'
hypothesis = find_s_algorithm(file_path)
print("\nThe final hypothesis is:", hypothesis)

Output:

Training data:
Outlook Temperature Humidity Windy PlayTennis
0 Sunny Hot High False No
1 Sunny Hot High True No
2 Overcast Hot High False Yes
3 Rain Cold High False Yes
4 Rain Cold High True No
5 Overcast Hot High True Yes
6 Sunny Hot High False No

The final hypothesis is: ['Overcast', 'Hot', 'High', '?']

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

5. Develop a program to implement k-Nearest Neighbour algorithm to classify the

randomly generated 100 values of x in the range of [0,1]. Perform the following based on
dataset generated.
a) Label the first 50 points {x1,……,x50} as follows: if (xi ≤ 0.5),then xi ∊ Class1, else xi ∊
Class1
b) Classify the remaining points, x51,……,x100 using KNN. Perform this for
k=1,2,3,4,5,20,30
import numpy as np
import [Link] as plt
from collections import Counter

data = [Link](100)

labels = ["Class1" if x <= 0.5 else "Class2" for x in data[:50]]

def euclidean_distance(x1, x2):

return abs(x1 - x2)

def knn_classifier(train_data, train_labels, test_point, k):

distances = [(euclidean_distance(test_point, train_data[i]), train_labels[i]) for i in
range(len(train_data))]

[Link](key=lambda x: x[0])
k_nearest_neighbors = distances[:k]

k_nearest_labels = [label for _, label in k_nearest_neighbors]

return Counter(k_nearest_labels).most_common(1)[0][0]

train_data = data[:50]
train_labels = labels

test_data = data[50:]

k_values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 20, 30]

print("--- k-Nearest Neighbors Classification ---")

print("Training dataset: First 50 points labeled based on the rule (x <= 0.5 -> Class1, x > 0.5 ->
Class2)")
print("Testing dataset: Remaining 50 points to be classified\n")

results = {}

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

for k in k_values:
print(f"Results for k = {k}:")
classified_labels = [knn_classifier(train_data, train_labels, test_point, k) for test_point in
test_data]
results[k] = classified_labels

for i, label in enumerate(classified_labels, start=51):

print(f"Point x{i} (value: {test_data[i - 51]:.4f}) is classified as {label}")
print("\n")

print("Classification complete.\n")

for k in k_values:
classified_labels = results[k]
class1_points = [test_data[i] for i in range(len(test_data)) if classified_labels[i] == "Class1"]
class2_points = [test_data[i] for i in range(len(test_data)) if classified_labels[i] == "Class2"]

[Link](figsize=(10, 6))
[Link](train_data, [0] * len(train_data), c=["blue" if label == "Class1" else "red" for label
in train_labels],
label="Training Data", marker="o")
[Link](class1_points, [1] * len(class1_points), c="blue", label="Class1 (Test)",
marker="x")
[Link](class2_points, [1] * len(class2_points), c="red", label="Class2 (Test)", marker="x")

[Link](f"k-NN Classification Results for k = {k}")

[Link]("Data Points")
[Link]("Classification Level")
[Link]()
[Link](True)
[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

--- k-Nearest Neighbors Classification ---

Training dataset: First 50 points labeled based on the rule (x <= 0.5 -> Class1, x > 0.5 -> Class2)
Testing dataset: Remaining 50 points to be classified

Results for k = 1:
Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2
Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1
Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2
Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2
Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class2
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class2
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2

Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2
Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2
Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1
Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1
Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class2
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2
Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1
Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1
Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1
Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class2
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

Results for k = 2:
Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2
Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1
Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2

Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class2
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class2
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2
Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2
Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2
Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2
Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1
Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1
Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class2
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2
Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1
Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1
Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1
Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class2
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

Results for k = 3:
Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1

Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2
Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2
Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class2
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class2
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2
Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2
Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2
Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2
Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1
Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1
Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class2
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2
Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1
Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1
Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1
Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class2
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Results for k = 4:
Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2
Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1
Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2
Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2
Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class2
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class2
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2
Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2
Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2
Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2
Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1
Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1
Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class2
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2
Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1
Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1

Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class2
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

Results for k = 5:
Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2
Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1
Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2
Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2
Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class2
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class1
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2
Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2
Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2
Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2
Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1
Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1
Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class2
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1

Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1
Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1
Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class2
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

Results for k = 20:

Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2
Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1
Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2
Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2
Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class1
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class1
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2
Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2
Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2
Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2
Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1

Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class1
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2
Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1
Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1
Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1
Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class2
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

Results for k = 30:

Point x51 (value: 0.2059) is classified as Class1
Point x52 (value: 0.2535) is classified as Class1
Point x53 (value: 0.4856) is classified as Class1
Point x54 (value: 0.9651) is classified as Class2
Point x55 (value: 0.3906) is classified as Class1
Point x56 (value: 0.8903) is classified as Class2
Point x57 (value: 0.9695) is classified as Class2
Point x58 (value: 0.2206) is classified as Class1
Point x59 (value: 0.0203) is classified as Class1
Point x60 (value: 0.1619) is classified as Class1
Point x61 (value: 0.6461) is classified as Class2
Point x62 (value: 0.6523) is classified as Class2
Point x63 (value: 0.8728) is classified as Class2
Point x64 (value: 0.5435) is classified as Class1
Point x65 (value: 0.8246) is classified as Class2
Point x66 (value: 0.9347) is classified as Class2
Point x67 (value: 0.5361) is classified as Class1
Point x68 (value: 0.7215) is classified as Class2
Point x69 (value: 0.9703) is classified as Class2
Point x70 (value: 0.8764) is classified as Class2

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Point x71 (value: 0.7543) is classified as Class2

Point x72 (value: 0.1406) is classified as Class1
Point x73 (value: 0.1349) is classified as Class1
Point x74 (value: 0.9705) is classified as Class2
Point x75 (value: 0.2985) is classified as Class1
Point x76 (value: 0.9948) is classified as Class2
Point x77 (value: 0.4551) is classified as Class1
Point x78 (value: 0.2101) is classified as Class1
Point x79 (value: 0.5542) is classified as Class1
Point x80 (value: 0.3202) is classified as Class1
Point x81 (value: 0.6325) is classified as Class2
Point x82 (value: 0.9345) is classified as Class2
Point x83 (value: 0.0156) is classified as Class1
Point x84 (value: 0.8859) is classified as Class2
Point x85 (value: 0.2495) is classified as Class1
Point x86 (value: 0.6380) is classified as Class2
Point x87 (value: 0.7095) is classified as Class2
Point x88 (value: 0.4259) is classified as Class1
Point x89 (value: 0.0052) is classified as Class1
Point x90 (value: 0.6322) is classified as Class2
Point x91 (value: 0.1701) is classified as Class1
Point x92 (value: 0.3693) is classified as Class1
Point x93 (value: 0.4087) is classified as Class1
Point x94 (value: 0.8103) is classified as Class2
Point x95 (value: 0.0773) is classified as Class1
Point x96 (value: 0.8792) is classified as Class2
Point x97 (value: 0.9138) is classified as Class2
Point x98 (value: 0.5567) is classified as Class1
Point x99 (value: 0.8625) is classified as Class2
Point x100 (value: 0.9363) is classified as Class2

Classification complete.

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

6. Implement the non-parametric Locally Weighted Regression algorithm in order to fit

data points. Select appropriate data set for your experiment and draw graphs
import numpy as np
import [Link] as plt

def gaussian_kernel(x, xi, tau):

return [Link](-[Link]((x - xi) ** 2) / (2 * tau ** 2))

def locally_weighted_regression(x, X, y, tau):

m = [Link][0]
weights = [Link]([gaussian_kernel(x, X[i], tau) for i in range(m)])
W = [Link](weights)
X_transpose_W = X.T @ W
theta = [Link](X_transpose_W @ X) @ X_transpose_W @ y
return x @ theta

[Link](42)
X = [Link](0, 2 * [Link], 100)
y = [Link](X) + 0.1 * [Link](100)
X_bias = np.c_[[Link]([Link]), X]

x_test = [Link](0, 2 * [Link], 200)

x_test_bias = np.c_[[Link](x_test.shape), x_test]
tau = 0.5
y_pred = [Link]([locally_weighted_regression(xi, X_bias, y, tau) for xi in x_test_bias])

[Link](figsize=(10, 6))
[Link](X, y, color='red', label='Training Data', alpha=0.7)
[Link](x_test, y_pred, color='blue', label=f'LWR Fit (tau={tau})', linewidth=2)
[Link]('X', fontsize=12)
[Link]('y', fontsize=12)
[Link]('Locally Weighted Regression', fontsize=14)
[Link](fontsize=10)
[Link](alpha=0.3)
[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

7. Develop a program to demonstrate the working of Linear Regression and Polynomial

Regression. Use Boston Housing Dataset for Linear Regression and Auto MPG Dataset (for
vehicle fuel efficiency prediction) for Polynomial Regression.

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import [Link] as plt
from [Link] import fetch_california_housing
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
from [Link] import PolynomialFeatures, StandardScaler
from [Link] import make_pipeline
from [Link] import mean_squared_error, r2_score

def linear_regression_california():
housing = fetch_california_housing(as_frame=True)
X = [Link][["AveRooms"]]
y = [Link]

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

model = LinearRegression()
[Link](X_train, y_train)

y_pred = [Link](X_test)

[Link](X_test, y_test, color="blue", label="Actual")

[Link](X_test, y_pred, color="red", label="Predicted")
[Link]("Average number of rooms (AveRooms)")
[Link]("Median value of homes ($100,000)")
[Link]("Linear Regression - California Housing Dataset")
[Link]()
[Link]()

print("Linear Regression - California Housing Dataset")

print("Mean Squared Error:", mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred))
print("R^2 Score:", r2_score(y_test, y_pred))

def polynomial_regression_auto_mpg():
url = "[Link]
column_names = ["mpg", "cylinders", "displacement", "horsepower", "weight",
"acceleration", "model_year", "origin"]
data = pd.read_csv(url, sep='\s+', names=column_names, na_values="?")
data = [Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

X = data["displacement"].[Link](-1, 1)
y = data["mpg"].values

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

poly_model = make_pipeline(PolynomialFeatures(degree=2), StandardScaler(),

LinearRegression())
poly_model.fit(X_train, y_train)

y_pred = poly_model.predict(X_test)

[Link](X_test, y_test, color="blue", label="Actual")

[Link](X_test, y_pred, color="red", label="Predicted")
[Link]("Displacement")
[Link]("Miles per gallon (mpg)")
[Link]("Polynomial Regression - Auto MPG Dataset")
[Link]()
[Link]()

print("Polynomial Regression - Auto MPG Dataset")

print("Mean Squared Error:", mean_squared_error(y_test, y_pred))
print("R^2 Score:", r2_score(y_test, y_pred))

if __name__ == "__main__":
print("Demonstrating Linear Regression and Polynomial Regression\n")
linear_regression_california()
polynomial_regression_auto_mpg()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

Linear Regression - California Housing Dataset

Mean Squared Error: 1.2923314440807299
R^2 Score: 0.013795337532284901

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Polynomial Regression - Auto MPG Dataset

Mean Squared Error: 0.7431490557205861
R^2 Score: 0.7505650609469626

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

8. Develop a program to demonstrate the working of the decision tree algorithm. Use
Breast Cancer Data set for building the decision tree and apply this knowledge to classify a
new sample.
# Importing necessary libraries
import numpy as np
import [Link] as plt
from [Link] import load_breast_cancer
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from [Link] import DecisionTreeClassifier
from [Link] import accuracy_score
from sklearn import tree

data = load_breast_cancer()
X = [Link]
y = [Link]

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

clf = DecisionTreeClassifier(random_state=42)
[Link](X_train, y_train)
y_pred = [Link](X_test)

accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)

print(f"Model Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%")
new_sample = [Link]([X_test[0]])
prediction = [Link](new_sample)

prediction_class = "Benign" if prediction == 1 else "Malignant"

print(f"Predicted Class for the new sample: {prediction_class}")

[Link](figsize=(12,8))
tree.plot_tree(clf, filled=True, feature_names=data.feature_names,
class_names=data.target_names)
[Link]("Decision Tree - Breast Cancer Dataset")
[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

9. Develop a program to implement the Naive Bayesian classifier considering Olivetti Face
Data set for training. Compute the accuracy of the classifier, considering a few test data
sets.
import numpy as np
from [Link] import fetch_olivetti_faces
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split, cross_val_score
from sklearn.naive_bayes import GaussianNB
from [Link] import accuracy_score, classification_report, confusion_matrix
import [Link] as plt

data = fetch_olivetti_faces(shuffle=True, random_state=42)

X = [Link]
y = [Link]

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3, random_state=42)

gnb = GaussianNB()
[Link](X_train, y_train)
y_pred = [Link](X_test)

accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)

print(f'Accuracy: {accuracy * 100:.2f}%')

print("\nClassification Report:")
print(classification_report(y_test, y_pred, zero_division=1))

print("\nConfusion Matrix:")
print(confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred))

cross_val_accuracy = cross_val_score(gnb, X, y, cv=5, scoring='accuracy')

print(f'\nCross-validation accuracy: {cross_val_accuracy.mean() * 100:.2f}%')

fig, axes = [Link](3, 5, figsize=(12, 8))

for ax, image, label, prediction in zip([Link](), X_test, y_test, y_pred):
[Link]([Link](64, 64), cmap=[Link])
ax.set_title(f"True: {label}, Pred: {prediction}")
[Link]('off')

[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

Classification Report:
precision recall f1-score support

0 0.67 1.00 0.80 2

1 1.00 1.00 1.00 2
2 0.33 0.67 0.44 3
3 1.00 0.00 0.00 5
4 1.00 0.50 0.67 4
5 1.00 1.00 1.00 2
7 1.00 0.75 0.86 4
8 1.00 0.67 0.80 3
9 1.00 0.75 0.86 4
10 1.00 1.00 1.00 3
11 1.00 1.00 1.00 1
12 0.40 1.00 0.57 4
13 1.00 0.80 0.89 5
14 1.00 0.40 0.57 5
15 0.67 1.00 0.80 2
16 1.00 0.67 0.80 3
17 1.00 1.00 1.00 3
18 1.00 1.00 1.00 3
19 0.67 1.00 0.80 2
20 1.00 1.00 1.00 3
21 1.00 0.67 0.80 3
22 1.00 0.60 0.75 5
23 1.00 0.75 0.86 4
24 1.00 1.00 1.00 3
25 1.00 0.75 0.86 4
26 1.00 1.00 1.00 2
27 1.00 1.00 1.00 5
28 0.50 1.00 0.67 2
29 1.00 1.00 1.00 2
30 1.00 1.00 1.00 2
31 1.00 0.75 0.86 4
32 1.00 1.00 1.00 2
34 0.25 1.00 0.40 1
35 1.00 1.00 1.00 5
36 1.00 1.00 1.00 3
37 1.00 1.00 1.00 1
38 1.00 0.75 0.86 4
39 0.50 1.00 0.67 5

accuracy 0.81 120

macro avg 0.89 0.85 0.83 120

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

weighted avg 0.91 0.81 0.81 120

Confusion Matrix:
[[2 0 0 ... 0 0 0]
[0 2 0 ... 0 0 0]
[0 0 2 ... 0 0 1]
...
[0 0 0 ... 1 0 0]
[0 0 0 ... 0 3 0]
[0 0 0 ... 0 0 5]]

Cross-validation accuracy: 87.25%

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

10. Develop a program to implement k-means clustering using Wisconsin Breast Cancer
data set and visualize the clustering result.

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import [Link] as plt
import seaborn as sns
from [Link] import load_breast_cancer
from [Link] import KMeans
from [Link] import StandardScaler
from [Link] import PCA
from [Link] import confusion_matrix, classification_report

data = load_breast_cancer()
X = [Link]
y = [Link]

scaler = StandardScaler()
X_scaled = scaler.fit_transform(X)

kmeans = KMeans(n_clusters=2, random_state=42)

y_kmeans = kmeans.fit_predict(X_scaled)

print("Confusion Matrix:")
print(confusion_matrix(y, y_kmeans))
print("\nClassification Report:")
print(classification_report(y, y_kmeans))

pca = PCA(n_components=2)
X_pca = pca.fit_transform(X_scaled)

df = [Link](X_pca, columns=['PC1', 'PC2'])

df['Cluster'] = y_kmeans
df['True Label'] = y

[Link](figsize=(8, 6))
[Link](data=df, x='PC1', y='PC2', hue='Cluster', palette='Set1', s=100, edgecolor='black',
alpha=0.7)
[Link]('K-Means Clustering of Breast Cancer Dataset')
[Link]('Principal Component 1')
[Link]('Principal Component 2')
[Link](title="Cluster")
[Link]()

[Link](figsize=(8, 6))

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

[Link](data=df, x='PC1', y='PC2', hue='True Label', palette='coolwarm', s=100,

edgecolor='black', alpha=0.7)
[Link]('True Labels of Breast Cancer Dataset')
[Link]('Principal Component 1')
[Link]('Principal Component 2')
[Link](title="True Label")
[Link]()

[Link](figsize=(8, 6))
[Link](data=df, x='PC1', y='PC2', hue='Cluster', palette='Set1', s=100, edgecolor='black',
alpha=0.7)
centers = [Link](kmeans.cluster_centers_)
[Link](centers[:, 0], centers[:, 1], s=200, c='red', marker='X', label='Centroids')
[Link]('K-Means Clustering with Centroids')
[Link]('Principal Component 1')
[Link]('Principal Component 2')
[Link](title="Cluster")
[Link]()

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Machine Learning –I Lab 2025-26

Output:

Confusion Matrix:
[[175 37]
[ 13 344]]

Classification Report:
precision recall f1-score support

0 0.93 0.83 0.88 212

1 0.90 0.96 0.93 357

accuracy 0.91 569

macro avg 0.92 0.89 0.90 569
weighted avg 0.91 0.91 0.91 569v

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Dept. Of CSE(AI&ML) Page 34