Temperature Measurement

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTDs - or Resistance Temperature Detectors - are temperature
sensors that contain a resistor that changes resistance value as its
temperature changes.

 They have been used for many years to measure temperature

in laboratory and industrial processes

 RTD gives high accuracy, repeatability, and stability.

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 RTDs work on a basic correlation between metals and
temperature. As the temperature of a metal increases, the
metal's resistance to the flow of electricity increases.
 Similarly, as the temperature of the RTD resistance element
increases, the electrical resistance, measured in ohms (Ω),
increases.
 RTD elements are commonly specified according to their
resistance in ohms at zero degrees Celsius (0C).
 The most common RTD specification is 100 Ω, which means
that at 0 C the RTD element should demonstrate 100 Ω of
resistance.

3
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Platinum is the most commonly used metal for RTD elements
due to a number of factors, including its
(1) chemical inertness,
(2) nearly linear temperature versus resistance relationship,
(3) temperature coefficient of resistance that is large enough to
give readily measurable resistance changes with temperature and
(4) stability (in that its temperature resistance does not drastically
change with time).

4
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Platinum Resistance Temperature Detectors
Platinum RTDs are the most common type of RTD used in industrial
applications. This is because platinum has excellent corrosion resistance,
excellent long-term stability, and measures a wide range of temperature, (-
200…+850°C).

Nickel Resistance Temperature Detectors

Nickel RTDs are less expensive than platinum and have good corrosion
resistance. However, nickel ages more rapidly over time and loses accuracy at
higher temperatures. Nickel is limited to a measurement range of -80…+260°C.

Copper Resistance Temperature Detectors

Copper RTDs have the best resistance to temperature linearity of the three RTD
types, and copper is a low cost material. However, copper oxidizes at higher
temperatures. Copper is limited to a measurement range of -200…+260°C.

5
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Construction:

Resistance Temperature Detector construction is done in one of

three ways:
1. Wire wound RTDs,
2. Coiled element RTDs,
3. Thin film RTDs.
In a wire wound RTD, a resistance wire is
wound around a non-conducting core, which is
usually made of ceramic. The sensor maker
carefully trims the length of resistance wire to
achieve the specified resistance at 0°C.

Next, lead wires are attached to the resistance

wire, and then a glass or ceramic coating is
applied over the wire for protection. As
temperature increases, the length of resistance
wire increases slightly.
6
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Construction:

In a coiled element RTD, the resistance

wire is rolled into small coils, which
loosely fit into a ceramic form that is then
filled with non-conductive powder. The
resistance wire is free to expand and
contract as temperature changes,
minimizing error caused by mechanical
strain. The powder increases the rate of
heat transfer into the coils, thereby
improving the response time. Coiled
element RTDs are usually protected by a
metal sheath in forming RTD temperature
probes.

7
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Construction:

Thin film RTDs are mass-

produced and cost less than the
other RTD types. They are
smaller, and have a faster
response time than the others,
which is desirable in many
applications. They are made by
depositing a thin pathway of
platinum on a ceramic base

8
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Why use an RTD instead of a thermocouple or thermistor sensor?
Each type of temperature sensor has a particular set of conditions for which it is
best suited. RTDs offer several advantages:
• A wide temperature range (approximately -200 to 850°C)
• Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
• Linear output
• Long-term stability

 With a temperature range up to 850°C, RTDs can be used in all but the
highest-temperature industrial processes.
 When made using metals such as platinum, they are very stable and are not
affected by corrosion or oxidation.
 Other materials such as nickel, copper, and nickel-iron alloy have also been
used for RTDs.
 However, these materials are not commonly used since they have lower
temperature capabilities and are not as stable or repeatable as platinum.

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
RTD sensors are used for virtually every industry, but you
typically find them in:
 Aerospace
 Analytical Equipment
 Food Service Equipment
 Semiconductor Equipment
 Food & Beverage Processing

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 Thermistor
 THERmally controlled resISTOR”, thermistor is a temperature controlled
resistor

 In thermistor, physical changes (change in its temperature) tend to change

its electrical properties (like resistance),it can be also referred to as
transducer.

 A thermistor is mostly made from sensitive semiconductor based metal

oxides with metallised or sintered connecting leads onto a ceramic disc or
bead

 A thermistor is a device that can be used to establish temperature

measurements by correlating the measured value of its electrical resistance
to the temperature of the environment or the specific part to which the
thermistor has been mounted

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 Thermistor
The Thermistor works on a simple principle: Change in temperature of
the Thermistor, leads to a change in its resistance.

How does its temperature change?

• The Thermistor’s temperature can change either due to external
factors or due to internal factors.
• The most important internal factor is the current flowing through the
device. As the current through it increases, it starts self heating its
elements. This causes a rise in temperature of the Thermistor.
• Depending on the type of Thermistor( whether NTC or PTC), its
resistance changes with respect to this change in temperature.
• Externally the Thermistor temperature can be changed by changing
the ambient temperature.

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 Thermistor
The thermistor is a thermal resistor used for measuring
temperature. It is made of semiconductor material
because of which it has both the positive and negative
temperature coefficient. The positive temperature
coefficient means temperature increases with the
increases in resistance and in negative temperature
coefficient the temperature is inversely proportional to
the resistance.
How RTD is different with Thermistor

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 Thermistor
• Thermistors are a type of temperature sensor that is used in a variety
of different applications and can be viewed as a special type of
resistor.
• All resistors generally have some temperature dependency, meaning
that their resistance value will change somewhat depending on
temperature.
• This effect is defined and measured by the temperature coefficient of
resistance, or TCR. TCR can be defined as the percentage change
in the value of the resistance that occurs for a given change in
temperature.
• It is sometimes expressed in parts per million (ppm) per degree
Celsius, and can be expressed as:

where R2 is the value of resistance at operating

temperature T2, and R1 is the value of resistance at temperature T1,
which is typically room temperature (25oC). 14
 Thermistor
Generally, thermistors are divided into two main types:

1. Negative Temperature Coefficient, or NTC thermistors

2. Positive Temperature Coefficient, or PTC thermistors
NTC or negative temperature coefficient
thermistor is a device whose resistance
decreases with increase in temperature.
These types of resistor usually exhibit a
large, precise and predictable decrease in
resistance with increase in temperature.
Material Used for Construction – Unlike
other resistors (fixed or variable), these are
made of ceramics and polymers, which
composed of metal oxides that are dried
and sintered to obtain a desired form
factor. In case of NTC thermistor, cobalt,
nickel, iron and copper oxides are
preferred 15
 Thermistor
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient, or NTC thermistors
Characteristic Curve – A typical NTC thermistor
gives most precise readings in the temperature
range of -55oC to 200oC. However some specially
designed NTC thermistors are used at absolute
zero temperature(-273.15oC) and some can be
used above 150oC.
Heat dissipation:
Like any resistor, Thermistor also dissipates heat
whenever a significant amount of current flows
through it. This heat is dissipated in the core of the
Thermistor, therefore it can tamper the precision of
the device.

Heat capacity:
The heat required to increase the temperature by
1oC in a NTC Thermistor, is called its heat capacity. It
defines the response speed of NTC Thermistor and
hence its knowledge is needed to decide where it
16
has to be used.
 Thermistor
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient, or PTC thermistors

PTC or Positive temperature coefficient Thermistors

are those resistors whose resistance increases with
increase in ambient temperature.

Types of PTC Thermistors – PTC Thermistors are

grouped according to their structure, materials used
and their manufacturing process. Silistors, are PTC
Thermistors that belong to the first group(according to
material used and structure). They use silicon as the
semiconductor and have linear characteristic.

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 Thermistor
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient, or PTC thermistors
Characteristic Curve – PTC Thermistor is quite
sensitive to the change in temperature. Its resistance
increases linearly with increase in temperature.
The switching type PTC however, is different.

Due to its poly-crystalline ceramic body, has a

nonlinear characteristic curve. We see from the figure
that upto a certain temperature, lets call it a threshold
temperature, the resistance decreases with increase in
temperature much like a NTC Thermistor. As the
temperature increases beyond the threshold
temperature, the resistance starts to increase
dramatically with increase in temperature

Rated resistance of Thermistor – The

resistance of PTC Thermistor is rated at a
temperature of 25oC. It means that if you find a
PTC Thermistor, that has a rating say 200Ω, it
implies that this is the value of resistance at
25oC.
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 Thermistor
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient, or PTC thermistors
Characteristic Curve – PTC Thermistor is quite
sensitive to the change in temperature. Its resistance
increases linearly with increase in temperature.
The switching type PTC however, is different.

Due to its poly-crystalline ceramic body, has a

nonlinear characteristic curve. We see from the figure
that upto a certain temperature, lets call it a threshold
temperature, the resistance decreases with increase in
temperature much like a NTC Thermistor. As the
temperature increases beyond the threshold
temperature, the resistance starts to increase
dramatically with increase in temperature

Rated resistance of Thermistor – The

resistance of PTC Thermistor is rated at a
temperature of 25oC. It means that if you
find a PTC Thermistor, that has a rating
say 200Ω, it implies that this is the value of
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resistance at 25oC.
 RTD vs Thermistor
 The RTD is made of the metals having a positive
temperature coefficient whereas the thermistor is made
of the semiconductor materials.
 The accuracy of the RTD is low as compared to the
thermistor. The thermistor has a negative temperature
coefficient because of which they can detect even the
smallest change in temperature.
 The thermistor gives a quick response to the small
changes, whereas the response time of the RTD is slow.
 The thermistor is used for measuring the small range of
temperature (between -55°C and + 114°C) whereas the
RTD measures the temperature up to 850ºC.

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 RTD vs Thermistor
 The characteristic graph between resistance and
temperature of the RTD is linear whereas that of
thermistor it is nonlinear.
 The RTD is less sensitive as compared to the thermistor.
 The size of the RTD is much larger as compared to the
thermistor.
 The cost of the thermistor is much higher than the RTD.
 The resistivity of the RTD is less as compared to the
thermistor.
 The hysteresis effect in the thermistor is much high as
compared to the RTD.
 The RTD is used in the industries for measuring the high
temperature, whereas the thermistor is used in home
appliances for measuring the small temperature.
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 Thermocouple
 It consists of two different types of metals, joined
together at one end.
 When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled,
a voltage is created that can be correlated back to the
temperature.
 A thermocouple is a simple, robust and cost-effective
temperature sensor used in a wide range of temperature
measurement processes.
 When the junction experiences a change in temperature,
a voltage is created. The voltage can then be interpreted
by calculating the temperature.

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 Thermocouple
 The thermocouple working principle is based on the
Seeback Effect. This effect states that when a closed
circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two
junctions, and junctions are maintained at different
temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
induced in this closed circuit.

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 Thermocouple
The various types of popular thermocouples include:
Type K: the most common type of thermocouple, it is inexpensive,
reliable and accurate
Type J: also, very common, but has a smaller temperature range and
also has a shorter lifespan at higher temperatures than the type K
Type T: a stable thermocouple and is used for lower temperatures
Type E: has a stronger signal and a higher accuracy
Type N: shares the same accuracy and limits as K but it slightly more
expensive
Type S: for very high temperatures and is used mainly in the
pharmaceutical industry
Type R: similar to type S in terms of performance and is often used in
lower temperature because of its accuracy and stability
Type B: has the highest temperature range out of all the
thermocouples

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Thermocouple

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27
 PRESSURE Measurements
• Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid
from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per
unit area
– (pounds per square inch-psi)

• Pressure sensor acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a

function of the pressure imposed.

• A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or

liquids.

• Pressure sensors are used for control, monitoring and

measurement of variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed,
water level, and altitude.
 Pressure - Units
• The basic SI unit of pressure is the Pascal , which is N/m2.
• One common unit used in vacuum is Torr, which is defined as 1
mm-Hg, or 1/760 of an atmosphere.
 Atmosphere Pressure: force per unit area exerted against a
surface by the weight of air above that surface.
• 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 760 torr
• 1 atm= 14.696 psi
• 1 psi=6,894.76Pa
• Another commonly used unit is bar, which is 100K pascal.
– Bar : atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level.
 Units
pound-force per
Unit atmosphere
Pascal (Pa) bar Torr square inch (psi)
(atm)

1 Pa 1 10−5 9.8692×10−6 7.5006×10−3 145.04×10−6

1 bar 100,000 1 0.98692 750.06 14.504

1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1 760 14.696

1 Torr 133.322 1.3332×10−3 1.3158×10−3 1 19.337×10−3

1 psi 6,894.76 68.948×10−3 68.046×10−3 51.715 1

 Pressure Measurement

• Five basic scales used to measure pressure:

– Atmosphere pressure
– Gauge pressure
– Absolute pressure
– Differential pressure
– Vacuum pressure
 Atmosphere pressure

• Atmospheric pressure is the air pressure exerted

upon the earth.
• The pressure due to air surrounding the earth’s
surface is called as atmospheric pressure.
• It is approximately 14.7 psi at sea level and
decreases as elevation increases.
• For measuring a low vacuum below one
atmosphere, the atmospheric pressure is often
taken as “0”, and the unit in-Hg (inch of Hg) is
often used to indicate the vacuum (1 atm = 29.92
in-Hg) without the negative sign.
• Compound vacuum pressure gauge can measure
pressures both above and below one atmosphere.
 Gauge Pressure

• A pressure measuring instrument generally

measures the difference between the
unknown pressure (P) and the atmospheric
pressure (Pata).
• When the unknown pressure (P) is greater
than the atmospheric pressure (Patm), the
pressure measured by the instrument is called
as the gauge pressure
• units of measurement are recorded as psig
(pounds per square inch, gage).
• Examples: Tire pressure, blood pressure
 Absolute Pressure
• It is known that pressure is force per unit area
when the interaction of fluid particles among
themselves is zero, a zero pressure intensity
will occur.
• This is possible only when the population of
molecules is negligibly small which means
perfect vacuum.
• Hence the pressure intensity measured from a
state of prefect vacuum is called as absolute
pressure.
• Absolute pressure is zero referenced
against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to
gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure.
• Examples: atmospheric pressures, vacuum
pressures, altimeter pressures (Altitude).
 Differential Pressure
• Differential pressure is used to express
the difference between two measured
pressures.
• It is determined by subtracting the
lower reading from the higher reading.
• Differential pressures are commonly
used in industrial process systems.
 Vacuum Pressure
• A Pressure measuring instrument generally
measures the difference between the
unknown pressure (P) and the atmospheric
pressure (Patm).
• When the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is
greater than the unknown pressure (P), the
pressure measured by the instrument is
called as the vacuum pressure
• Most common vacuum scales use inches of
mercury (in Hg) to express the value
• A vacuum gage will read zero when
measuring atmospheric pressure and 29.92
in Hg when measuring a complete vacuum.
 Pressure Measurement Methods
• Pressure control is an important process in many industrial
applications requiring accurate measurement and control
• Instruments are often classed by whether they make direct or
inferred measurements
• Both electronic and non-electronic instruments are used in
pressure measurement.
• As pressure changed ,the flexible element moved, and this
motion was used to rotate a pointer in front of dial.
• Two broad categories of pressure measurement.
– Mechanical Pressure Transducers
– Electrical Pressure Transducers
 Types
• Mechanical (Elastic) Pressure utlizes flexible element
as a sensor.
• Pressure sensor measured in form of
1. Liquid Column Gauges
2. Manometer
3. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
4. Diaphragm (capsule) pressure transducers
5. Bellows
6. Spring and Piston.
 Liquid Column Gauges
• Measuring pressure is possible
by monitoring the height of a
liquid in a column.
• These gauges are very accurate
and may be used as calibration
tools for other instruments
• A barometer is an example of a
liquid column gauge.
– A barometer is a instrument
used in meteorology to
measure atmospheric
pressure by using water, air,
or mercury.
 Manometer
• The most common liquid column device to measure
pressure is the manometer.

• A common simple manometer consists of a U

shaped tube of glass filled with some liquid.
– Typically the liquid is mercury because of its
high density

• Each column is exposed to a different pressure

source.

• Read the rise of liquid in one column and the drop

in the other, and add them together.
 Manometer
• The principle of the manometer is that the pressure
to be measured is applied to one side of the tube
producing a movement of liquid, as shown in figure
above.
• It can be seen that the level of the filling liquid in
the leg where the pressure is applied, i.e. the left
leg of the tube, has dropped, while that in the right
hand leg as risen.
• A scale is fitted between the tubes to enable us to
measure this displacement.

• Knowing the length of the column of the liquid, H,

and density of the filling liquid, we can calculate
the value of the applied pressure
Types of Manometers
 Bourdon Tube
• Most common device around us is the pressure gauage
which utilizes a bourdon tube as its sensing elements.
• The tube serves as the primary detector-transducer,
changing pressure into near linear displacement
• A bourdon tube is a curved, hollow tube with the process
pressure applied to the fluid in the tube.
• Pressure in the tube causes, tube to deform or uncoil.
Bourdon tubes are generally are of three types.
1. C-type
2. Helical type
3. Spiral type
Types
 C-Type Bourdon Tube
• The C type Bourdon tube works on a simple principle that a bent tube will change its
shape when exposed to variations of internal and external pressure.
• As pressure is applied internally, the tube straightens and returns to its original form
when the pressure is released.
• Advantages
• - Inexpensive
• - Wide operating range
• - Fast response
• - Good sensitivity
• - Direct pressure measurement
• Disadvantages
• - Primarily intended for indication only
• - Non linear transducer,
• - Hysteresis on cycling
• - Sensitive to temperature variations
• - Limited life when subject to shock and vibration
 Spiral Type
• Spiral Bourdon Tube is made by winding a partially flattened metal tube into a
spiral having several turns instead of a single C-bend arc.
• When the pressure to be measured is applied to the spiral, it tends to uncoil
producing relatively long movement of the tip whose displacement can be
indication of applied pressure.
• Accuracy of this element is higher than ‘C’ type element.
• Therefore it produces a greater tip movement with a C-bend bourdon tube. It is
mainly used in low- pressure application.
 Helical Type
• It is similar to spiral element, except it is wound in the form of helix.
• The displacement of the tip of a helical element is larger than the spiral element.
Central shaft is installed (not shown in fig.) within a helical element and the
pointer is driven by this shaft using connecting links.
• This mechanism transmits only the circular motion of the tip to the pointer
which is directly proportional to the applied pressure.

•
 Merits and Demerits of Bourdon tube
1. They give reasonably accurate results.
2. They are simple in construction and inexpensive to produce.
3. They can be safely used for the accurate measurement of high pressures.
4. They can be modified to generate electrical outputs.
5. Bourdon tube gauges have high repeatability, i.e., they can accurately record
the same pressures multiple times.

• 1. A Bourdon tube responds slowly to changes in pressure.

2. An amplification mechanism is needed to generate readings, as the
movement of the free end of the Bourdon tube is quite low.
3. While Bourdon tube gauges can produce accurate results, they cannot be
used for precision applications.
4. Bourdon tubes suffer from hysteresis, a condition that causes the tube to
retract slower when moving from a high scale reading to a low scale reading.
This results in the scale showing a slightly “higher than actual” reading.
 Diaphragm
• Diaphragm is constructed of two
flexible disks, and when a pressure
is applied to one face of the
diaphragm, the position of the disk
face changes due to deformation.
• Position can be related to pressure.
• Diaphragm expands when very
small pressures are applied.
• Movement is transmitted to a
pointer on a dial through a fine
mechanical linkage
• Diaphragm are mostly made of
Rubber.
 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
• They are used to measure
gauge pressures over very low
ranges.
• Two types of diaphragm
pressure gauges are:
1. Metallic diaphragms gauge
(brass or bronze)
2. Slack diaphragms gauge
(Rubber)
 Bellows
• Bellows are used to measure low pressures.
• Bellows is a closed vessel with sides that can
expand and contract, like an accordion.
• The position of the bellows without pressure
can be determined by the bellows itself or a
spring.
• The pressure is applied to the face of the
bellows, and its deformation and its position
depend upon the pressure.
• The diameter of the bellows ranges from 0.5
to 12 in. and may have as many as 24 folds.
• As the inlet pressure to the instrument varies,
the bellows will expand or contract.
• The moving end of the bellows is connected
to a mechanical linkage assembly.
 Bellows Constructional Elements
• Bellows elastic elements are made of
brass, phosphor bronze, stainless steel,
beryllium-copper, or other metal suitable
for the intended service of the gauge.
• Motion of the element (bellows) is
transmitted by suitable linkage and gears
to a dial pointer.
• Most bellows gauges are spring-loaded, as
spring opposes the bellows and thus
prevents full expansion of the bellows.
– Thus by limiting the expansion of the
bellows, protects and prolongs the
bellows life.
• Because of the elasticity in both the
bellows and the spring in a spring-loaded
bellows element, the relationship between
the applied pressure and bellows
movement is linear.
 Spring & Piston Type
• The pressure acts directly on the piston and
compresses the spring.
• The position of the piston is directly related
to the pressure.
• A window in the outer case allows the
pressure to be indicated.
• The piston movement may be connected to
a secondary device to convert movement
into an electrical signal.
• This type is usually used in hydraulics
where the ability to withstand shock,
vibration and sudden pressure changes is
needed (shock proof gauge).
 Flow Measurement -Venturimeter

Venturimeter: is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a

fluid flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts:
• A short converging part
• Throat
• Diverging part
 Flow Measurement -Venturimeter
• A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi where
the fluid gets converges.
• Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the converging and
diverging part of the venturi. The cross section of the throat is
much less than the cross section of the converging and
diverging parts. As the fluid enters in the throat, its velocity
increases and pressure decreases.
• Diverging part: It is the portion of the venturimeter (venturi)
where the fluid gets diverges.
Flow Measurement -Venturimeter
 Flow Measurement -Venturimeter
 The venturimeter works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation, i.e., the pressure
decreases as the velocity increases.

 The cross-section of the throat is less than the cross-section of the inlet pipe.

 As the cross-section from the inlet pipe to the throat decreases, the velocity of the
fluid increases, and hence the pressure decreases.

 Due to the decrease in pressure, a pressure difference is created between the inlet
pipe and the venturimet’s throat.

 This pressure difference can be measured by applying a differential manometer

between the inlet section and throat section or using two gauges on the inlet
section and throat.

 The pressure difference through the pipe is calculated after obtaining the flow
rate.
 Flow Measurement -Venturimeter
The working of venturimeter is based on the principle of
Bernoulli’s equation.
• Bernoulli’s Statement: It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an
incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point of the fluid is
constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy or datum energy.

Here all the energies are taken per unit weight of the fluid.
• The Bernoulli’s equation for the fluid passing through the
section 1 and 2 are given by
 Flow Measurement -Venturimeter

From the continuity equation at sections 1 and 2, we obtain

 Flow Measurement -Rotameter
 Rotameter is variable area flowmeter used to measure
fluid flow. It works on the principle of upthrust force
exerted by fluid and force of gravity.

 The buoyant force exerted on an immersed object is

equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the object.

 Under this principle, the rotameter works with float-

tapered tube system.
 Flow Measurement -Rotameter
A rotameter is made up of a tapered tube and a float inside it.
The glass tapered tube has a scale on the surface or a scale is
placed adjacent to it, according to purpose.

 Tapered tube:

The tapered tube is placed vertically in the flow channel with a

conical shape inside. The quantity measured is defined by the
height of float going up. Glass tubes are used for both liquid
and gas measurement. Metallic tubes are used where the
process fluid with high temperature and pressure.

 Float:

Stainless steal floats are commonly used, there are different

types of metals from lead to aluminium used as floats. A float
material, shapes are also varied according to applications
considering density.
 Flow Measurement -Rotameter
 Fluid enters from the bottom of the tapered tube, then
some of the fluid strikes directly into the float bottom
and others pass aside the float.

 Now the float experience two forces in opposite

direction, darg force upward and gravitational force
downward.

 Fluid flow moves the float upward against gravity. At

some point, the flowing area reaches a point where the
pressure-induced force on the floating body exactly
matches the weight of the float.

 The float will find equilibrium when the area around

float generates enough drag equal to weight -
buoyancy.

 As the float weight and gravity are constant, the

distance float displaced upward is proportional to the
flow velocity of the fluid passing through the tapered
 Flow Measurement -Anemometer
Hot Wire Anemometer works When an electrically heated wire
is placed in a flowing gas stream, heat is transferred from the
wire to the gas and hence the temperature of the wire reduces,
and due to this, the resistance of the wire also changes. This
change in resistance of the wire becomes a measure of flow rate.
 Flow Measurement -Anemometer
The main parts of the arrangement are as follows:
• Conducting wires placed in a ceramic body.
• Leads are taken from the conducting wires and they are connected to one of the
limbs of the wheat stone bridge to enable the measurement of change in
resistance of the wire.

The hot wire anemometer basic working principle is that once an electrically
heated up wire is placed within the flow of the gaseous stream, after that the heat
gets moved from thin wire to gas so that the wire temperature levels can be
reduced. Due to this reason, the resistance value of the wire can also be changed.
So this change within wire resistance permits us to measure the liquid flow rate.
 Flow Measurement -Anemometer
Types of Hot wire Anemometer
• Constant current method
• Constant temperature method

• A constant current is passed through the sensing wire. That is,

the voltage across the bridge circuit is kept constant, that is,
not varied.
• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing
wire to the flowing gas and hence the temperature of the
sensing wire reduces causing a change in the resistance of the
sensing wire. (this change in resistance becomes a measure of
flow rate).
 Flow Measurement -Anemometer
Types of Hot wire Anemometer
• Constant current method
• Constant temperature method

• A current is initially passed through the wire.

• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing
wire to the flowing gas and this tends to change the
temperature and hence the resistance of the wire.
• The principle in this method is to maintain the temperature
and resistance of the sensing wire at a constant level.
Therefore, the current through the sensing wire is increased to
bring the sensing wire to have its initial resistance and
temperature.
 Flow Measurement -Anemometer

The advantages of a hot wire anemometer include

the following.
Less cost
Spatial separation
High-frequency response
Signal analysis
Small size
Accuracy is good
Good spatial & temporal resolution
measure Turbulent flows
Measurement of simultaneous temperature
Measurement of Multi-component
Venturi-meter
Venturi-meter
Venturi-meter
Venturi-meter
Problem 10
Problem 10
Problem 10
Problem 11
Problem 11
Problem 11
 Numerical's on Venturimeter
A Venturimeter is used to measure liquid flow rate of 7500 litres per minute. The
difference in pressure across the Venturimeter is equivalent to 8 m of the flowing
liquid. The pipe diameter is 19 cm. Calculate the throat diameter of the Venturimeter.
Assume the coefficient of discharge for the Venturimeter as 0.96.
 Numerical's on Venturimeter
A horizontal Venturimeter with d1 = 30 cm and d2 = 15cm is used to measure the flow
of the water by reading of differential manometer is 20 cm of Hg. Determine the rate of
flow of the fluid. Assume the coefficient of discharge for the Venturimeter as 0.96.
 Numerical's on Venturimeter
A 200 mm by 100 mm Venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipe carrying water,
flowing in upward direction. A differential mercury manometer is connected to inlet &
throat gives a reading of 220 mm. Find the rate of flow. Assuming the coefficient of
discharge is 0.98.
 Potentiometer
Advantages
• The advantages of digital potentiometers are:
• Higher reliability
• Increased accuracy
• Small size, multiple potentiometers can be packed on a
single chip
• Negligible resistance drift
• Unaffected by environmental conditions like vibrations,
humidity, shocks and wiper contamination
• No moving part
• Tolerance up to ±1%
• Very low power dissipation, up to tens of milliwatts
82
 Force Measurement – Load Cell
A load cell is an electro-mechanical sensor used to measure
force or weight.

A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a

measurable electrical output. Although there are many
varieties of load cells, strain gage based load cells are the
most commonly used type.
• When we use load cells, one end is usually secured to a
frame or base, while the other end is free to attach the
weight or weight-bearing element.
• When force is applied to the body of the load cell, it flexes
slightly under the strain. This is similar to what happens to
a fishing rod when a fisherman hooks a fish. 83
 Force Measurement – Load Cell
• To measure the deformation, strain gages are tightly bonded to the
body of the load cell at pre-determined points, causing them to
deform in unison with the body. The resulting movement alters the
electrical resistance of the strain gages in proportion to the amount
of deformation caused by the applied load.
• Using signal conditioning electronics, the electrical resistance of the
strain gages can be measured with the resulting signal being output
as a weight or force reading.

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 Force Measurement – Load Cell
• Typical load cell consists of two parts: the main body and
an attached electrical circuit. The main body is what bears
the weight or force and accounts for most of the load cell’s
size. Typically, it is made from high-grade steel or
aluminium, which ensures mechanical reliability, and
predictable and uniform strain distribution.
• The electrical circuit is housed within the load cell, tightly
bonded to the main body. The circuit includes strain-gauges
which are specialised parts of the circuit designed to sense
the deformations of the main body.

85
 Force Measurement – Load Cell
• These strain-gauges consist of thin, electrically conductive wire or foil
arranged in a tight zig-zag pattern. This pattern makes them sensitive
to stretch and compression along their length, but insensitive across
their width. As such, they can be precisely positioned to sense forces
that run along particular axes. For example, shear beam load cells
have their strain gauges positioned at a 45-degree angle to the
loading axis, so as to maximise the detection of the shear strain
running through the load cell.

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 Acceleration measurement
• An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration,
or acceleration of motion of a structure.
• The force caused by vibration or a change in motion
(acceleration) causes the mass to "squeeze" the
piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge
that is proportional to the force exerted upon it.
• Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass
is a constant, then the charge is also proportional to the
acceleration.

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 Types of Accelerometers
• Piezoelectric Accelerometers
• A piezoelectric accelerometer is a type of accelerometer that
works by sending an electrical signal from the sensor when it
experiences a sudden acceleration. The construction of a
piezoelectric accelerometer involves a sensing crystal to which a
seismic weight is attached.

• Piezoresistance Accelerometers
• A piezoresistance - or piezoresistive - accelerometer is a
type of accelerometer that works by varying their
resistance based on the acceleration they experience.
The change in acceleration can be measured to
understand the rate of acceleration experienced by the
sensor. Piezoresistive accelerometers are less sensitive
than piezoelectric accelerometers, as they are not best
at measuring low-frequency impacts.
88
 Types of Accelerometers
• Capacitive Accelerometers
Capacitive sensors work by changing their capacitance based
on the acceleration they experience. Their construction
involves two capacitive plates and a diaphragm. As the sensor
experiences acceleration, the diaphragm moves and changes
the distance between the capacitive plates.

89
 Pizeoelectric Accelerometers
A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that
employs the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to
measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g.,
acceleration, vibration, and mechanical shock).
As with all transducers, piezoelectrics convert one
form of energy into another and provide an electrical
signal in response to a quantity, property, or condition
that is being measured.

90
 Pizeoelectric Accelerometers
Principle of Piezoelectricity
• The piezoelectric effect is the key principle behind
piezoelectric accelerometers. It is a phenomenon where
certain materials, known as piezoelectric materials,
generate an electric charge when subjected to mechanical
stress. Conversely, they also experience mechanical
deformation when an electric field is applied. This effect
was first discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880.
Common piezoelectric materials include quartz, lead
zirconate titanate (PZT), and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

91
 Pizeoelectric Accelerometers
Piezoelectric accelerometers have a wide range of applications
across various industries. Some of these include:
• Aerospace and Defense: Used to monitor vibration in aircraft
engines, satellites, and helicopters. They are also used in testing
and development of new aerospace technologies.
• Automotive: Employed in vehicle dynamics testing, crash
testing, and monitoring of engine performance.
• Consumer Electronics: Integrated into smartphones, tablets,
and wearable devices to enable features such as motion
detection, navigation, and gesture recognition.
• Industrial Machinery: Used for monitoring and diagnosing the
health of rotating equipment, such as motors, pumps, and
turbines.
• Structural Health Monitoring: Implemented to assess the
integrity of bridges, buildings, and other large structures.
92
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• The fiber optic sensors also called as optical fiber
sensors use optical fiber or sensing element.
• These sensors are used to sense some quantities like
temperature, pressure, vibrations, displacements,
rotations or concentration of chemical species.
• Fibers have so many uses in the field of remote sensing
because they require no electrical power at the remote
location and they have tiny size.
• Fiber optic sensors are supreme for insensitive
conditions, including noise, high vibration, extreme
heat, wet and unstable environments.
• These sensors can easily fit in small areas and can be
positioned correctly wherever flexible fibers are
needed.
93
 Fibre Optic Sensors
• The general block diagram of fiber-optic sensor is
shown above. The block diagram consists of optical
source (Light Emitting Diode, LASER, and Laser
diode), optical fiber, sensing element, optical
detector and end-processing devices (optical-
spectrum analyzer, oscilloscope).

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Optical pressure sensor

95
 Optical fiber
• Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the
technology that transmits information as light
pulses along a glass or plastic fiber. A fiber optic
cable can contain a varying number of glass fibers,
from a few up to a couple hundred. Another glass
layer called cladding surrounds the glass fiber core.

96
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Types of Fiber-Optic Sensor Systems
Based on the sensor location, the fiber optic sensors
are classified into two types:
• Intrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensors
• Extrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensor

97
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Intrinsic Type Fiber Optic Sensors
• In this type of sensors, sensing takes place within the fiber itself. The
sensors depend on the properties of the optical fiber itself to convert
an environmental action into a modulation of the light beam passing
through it. Here, one of the physical properties of light signal may be
in the form of frequency, phase, polarization; intensity. The most
useful feature of the intrinsic fiber optic sensor is, it provides
distributed sensing over long range distances. The basic concept of
the intrinsic fiber optic sensor is shown in the following figure.

98
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Extrinsic Type Fiber optic Sensors
• In extrinsic type fiber optic sensors, the fiber may be used as
information carriers that show the way to a black box. It generates a
light signal depending on the information arrived at the black box.
The black box may be made of mirrors, gas or any other mechanisms
that generates an optical signal. These sensors are used to measure
rotation, vibration velocity, displacement, twisting, torque and
acceleration. The major benefit of these sensors is their ability to
reach places which are otherwise unreachable.

99
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Based on operating principles, fiber optic sensors are classified into
three types:
• Intensity based
• Phase based
• Polarization based

100
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Based on operating principles, fiber optic sensors are classified into
three types:
• Intensity based Fiber Optic Sensor
• Intensity based fiber optic sensors require more light and these
sensors use a multi-mode-large core [Link] shown figure gives an
idea about how the light intensity work as a sensing parameter as
well as how this arrangement makes the fiber to work as a vibration
sensor. When there is a vibration, there will be a change in light
inserted from one end to another end and this will make the
intelligence for measuring the vibration amplitude.

101
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Phase based Fiber Optic Sensor
• These types of sensors are used to change emitter light on
information signal wherein the signal is observed by the phase based
fiber optic sensor. When a light beam is passed through the
interferometer, then the light separates into two [Link] one
beam is exposed to the sensing environment and the other beam is
isolated from the sensing environment, which is used as a reference.
Once the two separated beams are recombined, then they get in the
way with each other. The most commonly used interferometers are
Michelson, Mach Zehnder, Sagnac, grating and polarimetric
interferometers.

102
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Polarization based Fiber Optic Sensor
• The optical setup for a polarization-based-fiber-optic sensor is shown above. It is
shaped by polarizing the light from the light source through a polarizer. The
polarized light is started at 45o to the selected axes of a length of birefringent
polarization protecting fiber. This section of the fiber is served as sensing fiber.
Then, the phase difference between the two polarization states is changed under
any external disturbances such as stress or strain. Then, according to the external
disturbances, the output polarization is [Link], by considering the output
polarization state at the next end of the fiber, the external disturbances can be
detected.

103
 Semiconductor sensors
• A sensor detects an event or a change in a factor and responds with
an output. The measured phenomenon may be chemical, electrical,
mechanical, radiant, magnetic or thermal.
• Most sensors operate using semiconductors and are therefore called
semiconductor sensors.
• The materials most commonly used for semiconductors include
silicon and other members of groups III to V.
• This is because they are readily available, can be easily used, have the
required physical characteristics and are cost-effective.
• Semiconductors are in general used for the detection of various kinds
of charged particles and photons.
• Their detection capacity is based on the occurrence of ionization and
their applications are extensive in scope.

104
 Semiconductor Sensor

Many types of semiconductor temperature sensors are

available, and are classified into five categories:
• Voltage output - linear output, low output impedance.
• Current output - constant current regulator displaying high
impedance.
• Digital output - both sensor and analog-to-digital converter
integrated on one chip, typically specific to microprocessor
chips rather than measuring devices.
• Resistance output - exploits temperature vs. bulk
resistance properties of semiconductors to provide more
stable sensors, but may heat up which can be hazardous.
• Simple diodes - the least expensive, but require two-point
calibration and stable current input for good results

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