MODULE VII

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
SURFACE FINISH
Usefulness of surface texture
 To try to predict the performance of the component
 To try to control the manufacturing process as the
manufacturing process leaves its signature in the
surface texture
 Controlling the manufacture helps repeatability and
hence quality of conformance.
 Functional optimization helps the designer and thereby
assists in the quality of design.
2
SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
Roughness – surface
irregularities which result
from various machining
process – closely spaced
irregularities - (cutting
tool marks, etc.)
Waviness – more
widely spaced
irregularities - caused
by workpiece or tool
deflection during
machining

Error of form – long

period or cyclic
deviation (uneven
wear, errors in
spindle, etc.)
3

Lay – reflects the machining operation used to produce it

LAY PATTERN OF DIFFERENT MACHINED
SURFACE

Parallel to the
projected surface on
which the direction of
lay of the cutting blade
is indicated.

Eg: Shaped surface

4
LAY PATTERN OF DIFFERENT MACHINED
SURFACE

Intersection of two diagonal

lines on the projected surface
on which the direction of lay of
the cutting blade is indicated.

Eg: Honing finished surface

Super finished
Concentric circles
surface, Face
milled or end
Eg: Facing surface
milled surface
in surfacing feed 5
direction
 MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Types of measuring
instrument
• Contact
• Non-contact

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2D ROUGHNESS TESTER

7
WAYS TO MEASURE SURFACE FINISH –
CONTACT TYPE

Stylus tip
radius
2 m
5 m
10 m

8
Stylus shape conical with spherical tip
Static measuring force 0.75 mN
WAYS TO MEASURE SURFACE FINISH –
NON-CONTACT TYPE

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THREE DISTANCES ON THE SURFACE FINISH
MEASUREMENT

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PROFILOMETER (SURFACE FINISH)
 Profilometers are used to measure surface roughness or surface
finish.
 Contact Profilometers use a stylus to measure one point at a
time.
 Optical Profilometers use reflected light for measurement, and
some can measure multiple points simultaneously.
 All profilometers are not the same, be sure to select one with the
measuring range and features best suited to your application.


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PROFILOMETER (SURFACE FINISH)
 A profilometer is an instrument used to measure the profile and
surface finish of a surface.
 On a small scale, surfaces can be composed of a series of peaks
and valleys with varying height, depth, and spacing.
 Profilometers come in many shapes and sizes, but they can be
divided into two basic types – contact and optical.
 Contact profilometers measure surface profile by physically
tracing the surface with a stylus.
 In contrast, optical profilometers use reflections of various types
of light to measure surface features in a line or area.

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PROFILOMETER (SURFACE FINISH)
Contact Profilometers
Contact profilometers measure surface profile by lightly dragging a
stylus across the surface. The tip of the stylus rides in a line across
the surface, moving vertically over the peaks and valleys. Changes
in the stylus’ height are registered electrically and tracked against
position as the stylus moves, creating a measured profile.

13
PROFILOMETER (SURFACE FINISH)
Contact Profilometers
Stylus tips are conical, with a spherical radius on the bottom. The cone angle
and tip radius determine the smallest features that a stylus can trace.
Stylus tips are typically made of hard, wear-resistant materials such as
diamond or sapphire.
Contact profilometers have many advantages.
They are not as sensitive to dirt and oil as their optical counterparts, and their
accuracy is not dependent on surface optical characteristics.
They are also less costly than optical profilometers, but they do have a few
limitations.
Stylus tips can create scratches in soft material, especially when measurements
are repeated.
Over time, stylus tips wear and need to be replaced. A worn stylus tip or
scratched material can result in inaccurate profile data.
14
 PROFILOMETER (SURFACE FINISH)
Optical Profilometers
Optical profilometers include 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D profiling devices.
These devices use light to measure features on a surface, and their
operation can be based on a number of different principles,
including optical interference, use of confocal apertures, focus
detection, and pattern projection.

Optical profilometers are relatively large

instruments that consist of a light
source, optical lenses, and image
sensors. They require the surface to
reflect the light being used, so many of
these instruments will have trouble
measuring translucent or highly
reflective surfaces. 15
THREE DISTANCES ON THE SURFACE FINISH
MEASUREMENT

16
SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS
 Ra – Arithmetic average of the absolute values of the
roughness ordinates
 Rq– root mean square average of the roughness profile
ordinates – used to control very fine surfaces

17
SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS
 Rz – Mean roughness depth – mean of five roughness
depth of five successive sampling lengths “l” of the
roughness
 Rmax – Maximum roughness depth – is the largest five
roughness depth – is useful where single defect is not
permissible

Similar
values of Rz
and Rmax
indicate
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consistent
surface finish
SURFACE ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS
 Rp – Largest of the five levelling depth
 Rpm – mean of five levelling depth of five successive
sample length “l”
 Rt – Peak to valley height – vertical distance between
highest peak and lowest valley of roughness profile
Rp – used for predicting
bearing surface
characteristics
Rpm – bearing and sliding
surfaces, substrates prior to
coating
Rv – used where stress is a
major factor
Rp – good to control coating
quality
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COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE (CMM)

 Three dimensional
measurements are essential for

Module VII_Dr.[Link]
various components. CMMs are
useful for this purpose.
 These machines have precise
movements in x-y-z coordinates
which can be easily controlled
and measured
 Each slides in three directions –
linear measurement transducer –
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digital display
COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE (CMM)

 The measuring head incorporates a probe tip, which can

be of different kinds like taper tip, ball tip, etc.

 Types of CMM

 Cantilever

 Bridge

 Gantry

 Horizontal arm
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 TYPES OF CMM

Bridge

Cantilever

Horizontal
arm

22

Gantry
CMM – TYPES OF PROBES

 Not all parts can be measured with one probe

• Scanning probe

– ideal for features with functional fits where form is important

– digitising contoured surfaces

• Touch-trigger probe

– ideal for discrete point inspection, for size and position control

– compact for easy access to deep features

• Optical probes

– ideal for pliable surfaces

– inspection of printed circuit boards 23

CMM – TOUCH TRIGGER PROBE

1 – Pivotal plate 24
2 – Three bearing point
3 – Helical compression spring
 TOUCH TRIGGER PROBE – WORKING
PRINCIPLE

25
Measuring force
range 0.05 N – 4.5
 CMM – TYPES OF TIP
 Stylus made up of light weight material access to features that
demand long or complex styli different tips (sphere, disc,
cylinder) needed for special features

Cylinder
tip

Disc

26
Measuring Star
head Sphere
CMM – PROBE CALIBRATION
Constant force does not equal
constant stylus deflection
 Stylus bending varies, depending on
the contact vector
 Stylus stiffness is very different
in Z direction (compression) to in
the XY plane (bending)
 If you are scanning in 3 dimensions
(i.e. not just in the XY plane), this is
important

 e.g. valve seats

27

 e.g. gears
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF CMM

 Increased inspection throughput

 Improved accuracy
 Uniform inspection quality
 Minimization of operator error
 Reduction of scrap and good part rejection
 No need for separate go/no go gauges for each features
 Reduction in set-up time and fixturing costs through automatic
compensation for misalignment
 Total measuring accuracy is dependent on the Master gauge
measurement
 Environmental effects have great influence on measurement 28
INSPECTION OF COMPONENTS

29
METROLOGY

 Metrology – science of measurement associated with

the evaluation of its uncertainty
 Core of metrology lies in validation of results, particularly by
specifying its actual limitations
 Metrology is also concerned with the methods, execution and
estimation of accuracy of measurements; the measuring
instrument and the inspectors
 Metrological activities start from establishment of
measurement standards, appraisal of various physical
parameters including dimensions, development of
measuring instruments and techniques and calibration
of test and measurement equipment's. 30
METROLOGICAL TERMINOLOGIES
 Accuracy – the closeness of agreement between a test
result and the accepted reference value [ISO 5725]
 Measurand – a particular quantity subject to
measurement
 Precision – the closeness of agreement between
independent test results obtained under stipulated
conditions [ISO 5727] – closeness of two or measurements
to each other
 Repeatability
 Resolution – smallest change of a measured quantity 31
MEASURING MEANS

 Standards (reference masters or setting standards) –

these are used to reproduce one or several definite values

of a given quantity

 Fixed gauges – these are used to check the dimensions,

form and position of product features

 Measuring instruments – these are used to determine

the value of the measured quantity

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TYPES OF ERROR

 Environmental error

 Error due to deformation of stylus and workpiece

 Error due to application of measuring force

 Parallax error

 Error due to non-alignment of center lines of the workpiece and

the measuring instrument

 Error due to backlash and friction

33
 Error due to wear in gauges
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS – VERNIER
CALLIPER'S

34
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = = 0.1 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
VERNIER CALIPER
How to read the scale

35
 SPECIAL PURPOSE CALIPER APPLICATIONS
Point jaw caliper Offset jaw caliper

For uneven surface measurement For stepped feature measurement

Depth Blade jaw caliper
caliper

36

For depth measurement For diameter of narrow

groove measurement
 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS – VERNIER
CALLIPER'S

Electronic digital brake

disc caliper
• External jaw – for pad
and disc wear
• Internal jaw – pad wear
Tyre thread depth gauge
– Base manufactured from
Carbon Fibre Composite

Gear tooth caliper - Stainless

37
steel frame plus tungsten carbide
Spring caliper – inside faces – measure thickness of gear
and outside diameter [[Link]] teeth
VERNIER CALIPER – SOURCES OF ERROR

 Scale misreading (parallax error)

 Moving jaw tilt due to excessive measuring force

 Thermal expansion caused by thermal difference between

the caliper and workpiece

 Small hole diameter error caused by inside jaw offset

38
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE
How to read the scale

• Base should be free of dust

• Leaf spring of the slider and 39
reference face of main scale
to be clean
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE APPLICATIONS

40
 DIAL INDICATOR

• Continuous dial –
for direct reading
• Balanced dial –
for reading the
difference from a
reference surface
• Reverse reading
dial – for depth or
bore gage
measurement

• One revolution dial – for error 41

free readings of small
differences
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS – MICROMETER

Standard
outside
micrometer

Digimatic
outside
micrometer 42
 LINEAR MEASUREMENT - MICROMETER

How to read the scale

Potential reading error due

to parallax
When a scale and its index
line does not lie in the
same plane it is possible to
make reading error due to 43
parallax Viewing direction
(a) & (c) – Produce error
(b)- Correct reading
 LINEAR MEASUREMENT - MICROMETER
Difference in thermal expansion between standard bar and micrometer

44
 SPECIAL PURPOSE MICROMETER APPLICATIONS
Inside micrometer –
Blade micrometer Caliper type

For diameter inside narrow For small internal diameter and

groove measurement groove width measurement
Spline micrometer

Tube micrometer

For pipe
thickness
45
measurement

For splined shaft diameter measurement

SPECIAL PURPOSE MICROMETER APPLICATIONS

Point micrometer Screw thread Disc type outside

micrometer micrometer

For root diameter

measurement For effective thread For root tangent
diameter measurement measurement on spur
gears and helical gears

46
 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT – SINE BAR

Upper face

End
End
face
face

Lower face
Setting Setting
rollers rollers
47
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT – GAUGE BLOCK

48
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS USING SINE BAR
AND GAUGE BLOCK

Sine bar

Gauge
block

49
ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS – SINE BAR

Slip gauge
set at
required
height (H)
Workpiece

Angle to be measured
50
𝐻
sin ∅ =
𝐿
THREAD MEASUREMENT
Three-wire method of thread measurement
Effective diameter of thread can be measured using three
wires contacting the thread as shown in figure below.

• For metric or unified screw threads

(60⁰ thread angle)
𝐸 = 𝑀 − 3𝑑 + 0.866025𝑃
• For Whitworth screw threads (55⁰
thread angle)
𝐸 = 𝑀 − 3.16568𝑑 + 0.960491𝑃
Where
E – Effective diameter of thread
M – Measurement over the three wires
P – Screw thread pitch 51
d – Mean diameter of three wires
COMPARATOR
 Comparator is used to indicate the difference in size
between the standard and the work being measured by
means of some pointer on a scale with sufficient
magnification
 Mechanical comparator

• Dial gauge

• Micrometer dial comparator

• Johansson ‘Mikrokator’

52
JOHANSSON “MIKROKATOR’

53
GEAR TESTING

 Gears are mechanical devices that transmit power and

motion between axes in a wide variety of commercial and
industrial applications
 Gears are widely used for
• Speed reduction or increase
• Torque multiplication and resolution
• Accuracy enhancement for positioning systems
 Gear applications
• Machine tools, automobiles, material-handling
54
devices, rolling mills, ancillary machinery, etc.
GEAR TESTING METHODS

 Size inspection

 Runout inspection

 Composite inspection

 Profile inspection

 Helix inspection

 Pitch or Index inspection

 Single Flank inspection

55
 GEAR TESTING METHODS – SIZE INSPECTION
 The traditional method of
inspecting a gear for correct size
is the measurement over pins
or balls with a micrometer.
 Pin measurement provides an
accurate and convenient method
of determining tooth thickness of
a gear of any diameter within the
capacity of the available
micrometres.
 For larger diameter gears a
56
span measurement or gear
tooth caliper's can be used
GEAR TESTING METHODS – COMPOSITE
INSPECTION

 The composite test of a gear is a method of inspection in

which the work gear is rolled in tight double flank
contact with a master gear. AGMA defines this type of
inspection as “radial composite deviation.” No backlash is
provided, as the work gear is spring loaded against the reference
gear on the inspection machine.
 The composite action test is made on an inspection instrument
that will allow variation in the center distance during
rolling. This variation in center distance will yield a “tooth-to-
tooth” and a “total composite” indication that can be read on a
57
simple dial indicator or recorded graphically.
 GEAR TESTING METHODS – COMPOSITE
INSPECTION

 Composite inspection is a
useful shop-friendly tool
to determine the general
quality of a gear
including size,
Runout, tooth-to-tooth
rolling action, and to
detect nicks. It is not
an appropriate method
to determine individual
58
tooth flank errors.
GEAR TESTING METHODS – PROFILE
INSPECTION
 Profile is the shape of the gear tooth curve and is
measured from the root to the tip of the gear tooth. The
functional, or operating, portion of the profile is the area
that is in actual contact during tooth mesh.
 Typically, this area is from just above the root fillet to the
tip of the tooth. On most parallel axis gears, the shape of
the profile curve is an involute. In practice, an appropriate
measuring machine aligns the measuring probe on the test
gear in the middle of the gear face.
59
GEAR TESTING METHODS – PROFILE
INSPECTION
 Most gear measuring machines use the generative
principle to create a reference profile to compare to
the gear’s actual profile.
 The profile is traced and recorded graphically, with a
correct unmodified profile being represented as a straight
line on the chart.
 Incorrect profile will cause a non-uniform rolling action of
the gear, which may cause a large tooth-to-tooth error,
uneven loading, and noise problems.
 In extreme cases, premature gear failure may occur. 60
GEAR TESTING METHODS – PROFILE
INSPECTION

61

Profile inspection with degrees of roll, roll angle

STRAIGHTNESS AND FLATNESS
 Straightness – A line is said to be straight over a given
length, if the variation of the distance of its points from
two planes perpendicular to each other and parallel to the
general direction of the line remains within the specified
tolerance limit
 Flatness – A surface is deemed to be flat within a given
range of measurement when the variation of the
perpendicular distance of its points from a geometrical
plane (this plane should be exterior to the surface to be
tested) parallel to the general trajectory of the plane to be
62
tested remains below a given value.
MEASUREMENT OF STRAIGHTNESS -
AUTOCOLLIMATOR

63
MEASUREMENT OF STRAIGHTNESS -
AUTOCOLLIMATOR
 Autocollimators are optical instruments that measure
angular displacements with high sensitivity. They are
used to align optical components and measure optical and
mechanical deflections.
 Autocollimators consist of a telescope and a collimator, a
device that narrows a beam of particles or waves. They
project a beam of collimated light to an external reflector
that reflects all or part of the beam back into the
instrument. This beam is then focused and sensed by a
photodector. The difference between the emitted beam and
64
the reflected beam is measured.
REFERENCES
 R K Jain (2014), Enginering Metrology, Khanna Publishers.

 [Link]

 [Link]

 Anand K Bewoor and Vinay A Kulkarni, Metrology and

Measurement, Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited,
New Delhi.
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