MODULE 11 LESSON PROPER

BIODIVERSITY AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

The term “biodiversity” is a contraction of “biological diversity” or “biotic diversity”.

These terms all refer to the idea of living variation, from genes and traits, to species,
and to ecosystems.

Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety of
animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural
world. Each of these species and organisms work together in ecosystems, like an
intricate web, to maintain balance and support life. Biodiversity supports everything in
nature that we need to survive: food, clean water, medicine, and shelter.

1. Genetic Diversity
It is basically the variety of species expressed at the genetic level by each
individual in a species. No two individuals belonging to the same species are exactly
similar. For example, in the species of human beings, each human shows a lot
of diversity in comparison to another human. People living in different regions show a
great level of variation.

2. Species Diversity
It is the biodiversity observed within a community. It stands for
the number and distribution of species. The number of species in a region varies widely
depending upon the varied environmental conditions. For example, it is usually observed
that civilizations residing beside water bodies show more species than the one compared
to the areas away from water bodies.
3. Ecological diversity
It defines the diversity observed among the ecosystems in a particular region.
Different ecosystems like mangroves, rainforests, deserts, etc., show a great variety of life
forms residing in them.

Biodiversity is threatened by many factors, including:

 Habitat loss: The destruction of a species' habitat, which can lead to

extinction. Human population growth and resource use are major causes of
habitat loss.
 Invasive species: These species can be harmful to agriculture and ranching,
and can destroy man-made structures.
 Climate change: A major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Climate
change is a result of human population needs for energy and the use of fossil
fuels.
 Pollution: Air pollution can reduce the ability of ecosystems to provide services
like carbon sequestration and water purification. Soil pollution is a threat to
biodiversity, crop production, and human health.
 Overexploitation: A major driver of biodiversity loss, especially on oceanic
islands.
 Infectious diseases: Environmental conditions can dictate the success of
pathogen spread.
Biodiversity and Human Health

Natural environments and frequent contact with nature have beneficial effects on
human health and well-being. The physical and mental health benefits associated with
the interaction with natural and human-made green environments depend, in the first
place, on the duration and timing of the exposure.

a. Short-term exposure to forests, urban parks, gardens, and other (semi-)

natural environments reduces stress and depressive symptoms, restores
attention fatigue, increases self-reported positive emotions, and improves self-
esteem, mood, and perceived mental and physical health. Access to natural
environments also tends to enhance outdoor physical activity, thereby improving
physical health, for instance, by reducing obesity and type 2 diabetes prevalence.

b. Long-term exposure to natural environments, such as residing in areas with

high greenness or diverse landscapes, has been associated with reduced all-
cause, respiratory, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality and improved respiratory
and mental health. The effects of ‘chronic’ exposure to green spaces have been
investigated over varying spatial scales. Positive effects of green spaces have
been demonstrated over distances ranging between 150mand5km.

The short- and long-term benefits that natural and human-made green spaces
provide, in terms of human health, can be classified as ‘ecosystem services.’
Ecosystem services are ‘the ecological characteristics, functions or processes that
directly or indirectly contribute to human well-being, i.e., the benefits people derive from
functioning ecosystems.’

Diverse systems have also been shown to be more resilient in the face of natural
and anthropogenic disturbances (‘ecological resilience theory’), which is important in
urban settings. Here, we review the evidence for effects of actual biodiversity for the
three main mechanisms that link biodiversity in nature and green spaces to human
health and well-being: the ‘biophilia hypothesis,’ the ‘biodiversity hypothesis’ and the
‘dilution effect hypothesis.’

a. Biophilia Hypothesis

The ‘biophilia hypothesis’ proposes that humans have an intrinsic affinity to other
species and nature because the interaction with the natural environment drove the
evolution of our species. Under the biophilia hypothesis, people are expected to select
biologically diverse environments and derive mental benefits from exposure to green
space. Biophilia studies are often framed in ‘stress ‘recovery theory’ (natural
environments facilitate the recovery from physiological stress) and ‘attention restoration
theory’ (natural environments facilitate the recovery from mental fatigue and assist the
restoration of directed attention).

b. Biodiversity Hypothesis

The ‘biodiversity hypothesis’ proposes that exposure to biodiversity improves the

immune system by regulating the species composition of the human microbiome.
Under this hypothesis, exposure to beneficial environmental microbiota reduces the
prevalence of allergies, asthma, and other chronic inflammatory diseases. The related
‘hygiene hypothesis’ and ‘microflora hypothesis’ state that reduced early-life exposure to
parasites and environmental bacteria is associated with an increased risk to develop
allergic diseases, asthma, and other hypersensitivity disorders because it has
detrimental effects on the development of human (intestinal) microbiome (dysbiosis)
and the infant immune system (for a review on the health effects of commensal
microbiota and parasitic helminths, which are beyond the scope of this review, see e.g.,
the work done by Stiemsma et al.).

c. Dilution Effect Hypothesis

The ‘dilution effect hypothesis’ proposes that high vertebrate species richness
reduces the risk of infectious diseases of humans because pathogens are ‘diluted’
among a high number of animal reservoir species that differ in their capacity to infect
invertebrate vector species. Under the dilution effect hypothesis, transmission and
burden of infectious diseases are expected to be lower in animal species-rich natural
environments because the prevalence of infected vectors is lower, despite expected
higher pathogen richness and elevated risks of pathogen spillover from those various
hosts to humans.

Much of the earlier work on the effects of environmental biodiversity on human

health has focused on Lyme disease (borreliosis), a tick-borne infectious disease
caused by bacteria of the Borrelia genus. Syntheses of the available evidence reported
in the literature on the complex ecology of Lyme disease have yielded opposing
conclusions. Some authors conclude that biodiversity strongly reduces the human risk
of Lyme disease and others suggest that Lyme disease risk increases with biodiversity.
As a result, the relationship between biodiversity and the human risk of Lyme disease
remains fiercely debated. Here, we look for evidence of biodiversity effects on human
health beyond Lyme disease. We focused our review on whether biodiverse green
environments are more beneficial for promoting human health than less biodiverse
green environments.
GMO (short for “genetically modified organism”) is a plant, animal or microbe in which
one or more changes have been made to the genome, typically using high-tech genetic
engineering, in an attempt to alter the characteristics of an organism. Genes can be
introduced, enhanced or deleted within a species, across species or even across
kingdoms. GMOs may be used for a variety of purposes, such as making human insulin,
producing fermented beverages and developing pesticide resistance in crop plants.

Uses of Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

1. Agriculture: GMOs can help with crop yields, pest and disease resistance, and
nutritional value:
 Herbicide resistance: Some GMOs are resistant to herbicides, which can
reduce the need for pesticides.
 Pest resistance: GMOs can repel specific types of insects.
 Nutritional value: GMOs can be more nutritious, such as golden rice.
2. Medicine and vaccines: GMOs can produce more consistent medicines and
vaccines that are less contaminated. They can also be used to treat diseases like sickle
cell anemia.
3. Food security: GMOs can help increase food security.
4. Animal feed: GMO cottonseed meal and hulls are used in animal feed.
5. Living sensors: Genetically engineered microorganisms can detect chemicals in
soil, air, and other samples.
6. Malaria-resistant mosquitoes: Genetically modified mosquitoes can be used to
reduce the transmission of malaria.
7. Iron deficiency: GMO rice can help combat iron deficiency by binding iron and
digesting compounds that inhibit iron absorption.

Benefits of GMO
The first genetically modified plants were introduced in the mid-1990s for human
consumption. Today, 90 percent of crops such as corn, sugar beets, and soybeans on
the market are GMOs. In Canada, GMO foods include canola, corn, potatoes,
soybeans, sugar beets, and alfalfa. There are many benefits to GMO food production,
including:
 Genetically modified crops can raise higher yields and are more resistant to
pests and diseases which is a good thing for farmers because they won’t have to
buy many pesticides to grow a high supply of quality food.
 GMO crops also have a longer shelf life along with higher yields which is a good
thing for consumers because that will lead to lower prices on food for them.
 GMO crops taste better and are more nutritious.
 GMO potatoes also get more desirable traits such as producing fewer cancer-
causing substances when they are fried.

Golden Rice and Bt Eggplant Battle Court Order in the Philippines

The Philippine population is projected to reach 157,891,622 by mid-2050,

causing a rise in food demand. However, food production is expected to decline,
potentially leading to food shortages. Scientists have developed genetically modified
(GM) crops to improve food production, such as Golden Rice and Bt eggplant. Golden
Rice, genetically engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, could
combat vitamin A deficiency, a major public health problem in Southeast Asia.

Bt eggplant, a genetically modified eggplant developed by the University of the

Philippines Los Baños, is a potential solution to eggplant fruit and shoot borer, a major
insect pest in the Philippines. It is expected to reduce yield losses and increase farmers'
income by 192%. However, the Philippine Supreme Court has granted a Writ of
Kalikasan to stop the commercial release of Golden Rice and Bt eggplant. The court
has ordered UPLB to cease commercial propagation of Bt eggplant, revoked the
Biosafety Permit for Commercial Propagation of Golden Rice, and ordered PhilRice to
cease commercial activities. The decision also enjoins commercial propagation until all
legal requirements are met, and prohibits applications for contained use, field testing, or
importation of GM products until compliance is established.

Writ of Kalikasan

The Writ of Kalikasan is a unique legal remedy under Philippine law that protects
the constitutional right to a balanced and healthful ecology, as outlined in the 1987
Philippine Constitution. It was issued in 2010 and has been used against environmental
protection and mining operations in the Philippines. The Writ of Kalikasan has been
issued against various entities, including the DENR, Mines and Geosciences Bureau,
and Altai Philippines Mining Corporation, in response to petitions for protection of the
Sibuyan Island ecosystem and local livelihoods. The Writ of Kalikasan was first issued
against a crop in 2013, banning field trials of Bt eggplant, and again in 2024, banning
the production and commercial activity of Bt eggplant and Golden Rice.

UPLB and PhilRice issue statements on the CA Ruling

UPLB and PhilRice have issued statements on the CA Decision on Bt eggplant,

stating that the University has not revoked its Biosafety Permit for Commercial
Propagation and has consistently complied with government standards. PhilRice also
acknowledges the Appellate Court's Decision and is reviewing the implications to
prepare their response to the CA Decision.

GM products receive support from academe, scientists, and media practitioners

The National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) and the Coalition for
Agriculture Modernization in the Philippines (CAMP) have criticized the California
Agricultural Act (CAA) decision on genetically modified crops (GM crops). NAST claims
that the decision prioritizes ideology over scientific evidence, discourages innovation,
and delays solutions to hunger and poverty. CAMP calls the decision a "war of attrition"
for Filipino farmers and consumers, arguing that it relies on ideology and misinterprets
the concept of a balanced and healthful ecology. The Biotechnology Coalition of the
Philippines (BCP) calls for a balanced, responsible, science-based approach to
decision-making, urging the Court of Appeals to reconsider its decision and support
responsible development and adoption of agricultural biotechnology.

GM crops to help feed the world’s future population

GM crops have been commercially propagated since 1996, with 29 countries,

including the Philippines, planting 190.4 million hectares in 2019. Gene editing offers
potential for poverty alleviation by increasing crop yields and improving nutritional value.
Safeguarding food security and nutrition is crucial, and responsible implementation of
these technologies will contribute to a future where everyone has access to adequate
and nutritious food.

References:

Biodiversity (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2021, February

4). [Link]
Types of biodiversity: genetic, species, ecological, videos and examples. (2019,
December 9). Toppr-guides. [Link]
and-conservation/types-of-biodiversity/

Libretexts. (2022, September 5). 10: Threats to biodiversity. Biology

LibreTexts. [Link]
e_(Ha_and_Schleiger)/03%3A_Conservation/3.02%3A_Threats_to_Biodiversity

Genetically modified organism (GMO). (n.d.).

[Link]. [Link]
Organism#:~:text=Definition&text=GMO%20(short%20for
%20%E2%80%9Cgenetically%20modified,pesticide%20resistance%20in
%20crop%20plants.

Admin, & Admin. (2022, December 16). GMO Benefits and Potential Dangers - Youth in
food systems. Youth in Food Systems - Engaging Youth in Food
Exploration. [Link]
dangers/#:~:text=GMOs%20are%20%E2%80%9CGenetically%20Modified
%20Organisms%E2%80%9D%2C%20containing%20DNA,and%20crops
%20which%20have%20been%20genetically%20modified.