Module 3.

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS
THAT DEFEINED SOCIETY
The change to the medieval idea of
science occurred for four reasons:
LESSON PROPER
1. Seventeenth century scientists and
GROUP 4 philosophers were able to collaborate with
members of the mathematical and
astronomical communities to effect advances in
all fields.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of
medieval experimental methods for their work
The scientific revolution was the and so felt the need to devise new methods
emergence of modern science during the early (some of which we use today).
modern period, when developments in 3. Academics had access to a legacy of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, European, Greek, and Middle Eastern scientific
biology (including human anatomy), and philosophy that they could use as a starting
chemistry transformed societal views about point (either by disproving or building on the
nature. The scientific revolution began in theorems).
Europe toward the end of the 4. institutions (for example, the British Royal
Renaissance period, and continued through the Society) helped validate science as a field by
late 18th century, influencing the intellectual providing an outlet for the publication of
social movement known as the Enlightenment. scientists’ work.
While its dates are disputed, the publication in
1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often New Methods
cited as marking the beginning of the scientific
Under the scientific method that was
revolution. defined and applied in the 17th century, natural
and artificial circumstances were abandoned,
The scientific revolution was built upon and a research tradition of systematic
the foundation of ancient Greek learning and experimentation was slowly accepted
science in the Middle Ages, as it had been throughout the scientific community. The
elaborated and further developed by philosophy of using an inductive approach to
nature (to abandon assumption and to attempt
Roman/Byzantine science and medieval
to simply observe with an open mind) was in
Islamic science. The Aristotelian tradition was strict contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian
still an important intellectual framework in the approach of deduction, by which analysis of
17th century, although by that time natural known facts produced further understanding. In
philosophers had moved away from much of practice, many scientists and philosophers
it. Key scientific ideas dating back to classical believed that a healthy mix of both was needed
—the willingness to both question
antiquity had changed drastically over the
assumptions, and to interpret observations
years, and in many cases had been assumed to have some degree of validity.
discredited. The ideas that remained were
transformed fundamentally during the scientific During the scientific revolution, changing
revolution. perceptions about the role of the scientist in
respect to nature, the value of evidence,
experimental or observed, led towards a discoveries of Johannes Kepler and
scientific methodology in which empiricism Galileo gave the theory credibility and
played a large, but not absolute, role. The term the work culminated in Isaac
British empiricism came into use to describe
Newton’s Principia, which formulated
philosophical differences perceived between
two of its founders—Francis Bacon, described the laws of motion and universal
as empiricist, and René Descartes, who was gravitation that dominated
described as a rationalist. Bacon’s works scientists’ view of the physical universe
established and popularized for the next three centuries.
inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry,  Studying human anatomy based upon
often called the Baconian method, or the dissection of human corpses, rather
sometimes simply the scientific method. His
than the animal dissections, as practiced
demand for a planned procedure of
investigating all things natural marked a new for centuries. Discovering and studying
turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework magnetism and electricity, and thus,
for science, much of which still surrounds electric properties of various materials.
conceptions of proper methodology today. Modernization of disciplines (making
Correspondingly, Descartes distinguished them more as what they are today),
between the knowledge that could be attained including dentistry, physiology,
by reason alone (rationalist approach), as, for
chemistry, or optics.
example, in mathematics, and the knowledge
that required experience of the world, as in  Invention of tools that deepened the
physics. understating of sciences, including
mechanical calculator, steam digester
Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and (the forerunner of the steam engine),
David Hume were the primary exponents of refracting and reflecting telescopes,
empiricism, and developed a sophisticated vacuum pump, or mercury barometer.
empirical tradition as the basis of human
knowledge. The recognized founder of the
approach was John Locke, who proposed The Thinker: Nicolaus Copernicus
in An Essay Concerning Human As mentioned earlier, the man who
Understanding (1689) that the only true arguably began this revolution was the Polish
knowledge that could be accessible to the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. Born in
human mind was that which was based on Thorn in 1473, Copernicus studied in Krakow,
experience.
Bologna, Padua and Rome before returning to
Warmia, Poland to teach and study for the
remainder of his life.
New Ideas
Copernicus worked on a heliocentric
Many new ideas contributed to what is
model - where the sun, and not the Earth, was
called the scientific revolution. Some of them
the center of the solar system - for nearly his
were revolutions in their own fields. These
entire life. Unlike previous astronomers and
include:
mathematicians who had used heliocentric
 The heliocentric model that involved the
models simply to make their mathematical
radical displacement of the earth to an
calculations of the planet's orbits more
orbit around the sun (as opposed to
accurate, Copernicus firmly believed the sun to
being seen as the center of the
be at the center of the solar system. Likely due
universe). Copernicus’ 1543 work on the
to fears of potential backlash from church
heliocentric model of the solar system
authorities, Copernicus waited to publish his
tried to demonstrate that the sun was
theories and calculations until shortly before his
the center of the universe. The
death. Regardless of errors and discrepancies descendants with a set of adaptations to their
in his final theory, Copernicus' greatest environment eventually diverge from their less
achievement was the removal of the Earth from adapted ancestors. Working from this basic
the center of the universe and solar system. foundation of evolution through natural
selection, modern scientists and investigators
GROUP 5 have been able to formulate more specific
principles and ideas relating to many topics.

Charles Darwin and his Theory of Evolution CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

Charles Robert Darwin (February 12,
1809 – April 19, 1882) is one of the most Mesoamerica
celebrated and eminent scientists of the past The founding culture of Mesoamerica
few centuries, with his broadest and most appeared along the southwestern curve of the
notable influence arising from his theory of Gulf of Mexico, near the present city of
evolution by means of natural selection. Veracruz. The Olmecs (the “rubber people”)
Darwin’s remarkable investigations and culture lasted from about 1400 BCE to 100
insights obtained during his voyage on the BCE. It produced nearly imperishable art,
HMS Beagle (1831–1836) led him to theorize notably large carved heads of volcanic rock,
about concepts of evolutionary biology and to the largest weighing some 20 tons and
develop revolutionary ideas related to standing about 10 feet tall. Monumental
adaptation and speciation. Although previous sculptures or tombs are typically indicative of a
scientific thinkers had laid down some of the civilization with powerful leaders. The Maya
foundations for Darwin’s work, and others later organized themselves into small city-states
expanded upon and more fully developed the instead of one big empire. They developed the
scientific bases for his conclusions, Darwin set most elaborate and sophisticated writing
forth and formulated the controversial but system of the several different ones used in
coherent ideas about organic evolution that Mesoamerica. Mayan writing included both
have impacted the world at large. His pictographs and symbols for syllables.
groundbreaking “On the Origin of Species” was
originally published in 1859. Later, in 1871, Maya shaman/priests worked out
Darwin argued in “The Descent of Man, and remarkable systems of cosmology and
Selection in Relation to Sex” that humans had mathematics. They devised three kinds of
evolved just as other organisms had, creating a calendars. A calendar of the solar year of 365
storm of controversy that continues today. days governed the agricultural cycle and a
calendar of the ritual year of 260 days dictated
Darwin’s core insights regarding natural daily affairs; these two calendars coincided
selection have proven inspirational and every 52 years. A third calendar, called the
profound. In the process of natural selection, Long Count calendar, extended back to the
organisms often tend to produce more progeny date August 13, 3114 BCE (on the Gregorian
than the environment will allow to subsist. In calendar), to record the large-scale passage of
the struggle for existence that ensues, progeny time. The Maya calculated a solar year as
with favorable variations in their traits will 365.242 days, about 17 seconds shorter than
survive and leave more offspring than others the figures of modern astronomers. They also
do; the favorable variations accumulate introduced the concept of zero; the first
through subsequent generations, and evidence of zero as a number dates from 357
BCE, but it may go back further, to Olmec Middle East
times. In Afro-Eurasia, Hindu scholars first The capital of this empire, Baghdad,
represented zero in the 800s CE. was established on the Tigris River. Its location
made it a natural crossroads, the place where
GROUP 1 East and West could meet. Baghdad quickly
became a major cultural centre. Important
Greek and Indian mathematical books were
translated and studied, leading to a new era of
Asia scientific creativity that was to last until the 14th
Early evidence for century.
Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around One of the earliest and most
7000 BCE, with the earliest evidence of distinguished of the Arabic mathematicians
cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near was the 9th century scholar Abu Ja'far
the Yangtze River, dated to 6500 BCE. Mohammed ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi, an
Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first astronomer to the caliph at Baghdad. His full
walled city in China. This Neolithic name can be translated as "Father of Ja'far,
Revolution gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 Mohammed, son of Moses, native of the town
to 5800 BCE). Some scholars have suggested of Al-Khwarizmi". Al-Khwarizmi wrote several
that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BCE) are the enormously influential books. One, in
earliest form of proto-writing in China. particular, describes how to write numbers and
Chinese civilization begins during the compute with them using the place-value
second phase of the Erlitou period (1900 to decimal system we use today, which had been
1500 BCE), with Erlitou considered the first developed in India some time before 600 AD.
state level society of East Asia. Erlitou saw an This book would, when translated into Latin
increase in 300 years later, prove a major source for
bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a Europeans who wanted to learn the new
rapidly growing regional center with palatial system. Today, we know it as the Hindu-Arabic
complexes that provide evidence for social system. It is taught to schoolchildren
stratification. The earliest traditional Chinese worldwide.
dynasty for which there is both archeological
and written evidence is the Shang Africa
dynasty (1600 to 1046 BCE). Shang sites The Lebombo Bone discovered
have yielded the earliest known body between South Africa and Swaziland is dated
of Chinese writing, the oracle bone script, back to about 37,000 years before the present
mostly divinations inscribed on bones. These era. According to scientists, it could be a lunar
inscriptions provide critical insight into many calendar, specifying the number of days in a
topics from the politics, economy, and religious lunar month, similar in principle to the notches
practices to the art and medicine of this early calendar used today by the San people in
stage of Chinese civilization. Namibia. This is the first visible sign of the
The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese emergence of mathematical calculations in
Bronze Age society, contemporaneous to the the history of humanity, as reflected by the
Shang dynasty, however they developed a Anglo-Saxon researcher Richard Mankiewicz in
different method of bronze-making from the his book L’histoire des mathématiques – Paris,
Shang. Seuil, 2001. The first certain trace of the
existence and the mastery of agriculture comes
from Nubia (Sudan). The work of Professor
Fred Wendorf admitted today that at least
14,000 years ago, the African man was the first
to master agriculture and techniques.