HEAT TRANSFER LAB (2025-26)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
CYCLE-1

[Link] Name of the Experiment

Determination of thermal resistance, thermal conductivities and the overall heat

1
transfer coefficient of Composite Wall

2 Determination of Thermal Conductivity of given metal rod

3 Determination of convective heat transfer coefficient in natural convection

4 Determination of convective heat transfer coefficient in Forced convection

Determination of heat transfer coefficient, temperature distribution along the length of

5
fin and efficiency of pin-fin

CYCLE-2

6 Determination of Emissivity of test plate using emissivity apparatus

Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness in Parallel flow &
7
counter flow heat exchangers

8 Determination of Stefan Boltzmann constant using Stefan Boltzmann apparatus

9 Determination of COP of Vapour compression refrigeration Test Rig

10 Determination of COP of Air conditioning Test Rig

 Experiment No. 1

DETERMINATION OF OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF A COMPOSITE WALL

Aim: To determine the thermal resistance, the thermal conductivities and the overall heat
transfer coefficient of a composite plate experimentally and compare with the standard values
Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the electrical analogy used for calculation of heat transfer in composite
systems.
2. To understand the concept of overall heat transfer coefficient
Apparatus: Experimental test rig.

Introduction:
Many Engineering applications of practical utility involve heat transfer through a medium
composed of two or more materials of different thermal conductivity arranged in series or
parallel. A composite wall refers to a wall of several heterogeneous layers, for example wall of
dwelling houses where bricks are given a layer of plaster on either side. Likewise walls of
furnaces, boilers and other heat exchange devices consist of several layers, a layer for
mechanical strength are for high temperature characteristics, a layer of low thermal conductivity
material to restrict flow of heat and another layer for structural requirement for good appearance.
Analysis of the composite wall assumes that there is a perfect contact between layers and no
temperature difference occurs across the interface between materials.

Theory:
Consider a multi-layered wall as depicted in the following figure the temperature gradients in the
three materials as shown. The Fourier equation may be applied directly to yield the heat flow
rate. It is assumed that the interior and exterior surfaces of this system are subjected to
convective heat transfer to fluids at mean coefficients h1 and h2 respectively.

Electrical analogy
Where,
LA = Thickness of the brass
LB = Thickness of the mild steel
LC = Thickness of the Bakelite
kA = Thermal conductivity of the brass
kB = Thermal conductivity of the mild steel
kC = Thermal conductivity of the Bakelite
TA = Inside surface temperature of the wall
TB = contact temperatures between brass-mild steel
TC= contact temperatures between mild steel-Bakelite
TD = Outer surface temperature of the wall
We know from the above derivation that the overall rate of heat transfer through the composite
wall is,
T TA  TD
Q 
 R LA  LB  LC
k A A k B A kC A

Here, A  D2
4
Same heat should flow through each layer of the system. Therefore,
TA  TB TB  TC TC  TD
Q  
LA LB LC
kA A kB A kC A

Experimental Set Up:

The apparatus consists of a central heater as shown in figure, is sand-witched between two
aluminium plates. Three types of slabs are provided to ensure the perfect contact between the
slabs. A dimmer stat is provided for varying the input to the heater and measurement of input is
carried out by a voltmeter and ammeter. Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of
input slabs, to read temperatures at the surface.
Specifications:
1. Slabs size
(a) M.S - 25 cm  x 10 mm thick.
(b) Bakelite - 25 cm x 10 mm thick.
(c) Brass - 25 cm x 10 mm thick.
2. Nichrome heater would on mica former and insulation with control unit capacity 200 W
max.
3. Heater control unit: - 230V, 0-2 A., single phase Dimmer stat - 1 No.
4. Voltmeter- 0 – 250V.
5. Ammeter- 0 –1 A
6. Multi channel digital temp indicator.
 Table: Thermal conductivities of the materials of composite wall

Material Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

Brass 110
Mild Steel 46
Bakelite 0.12

Arrangement of plates in composite wall

Procedure:
1. Arrange the plates properly (symmetrical) on both sides of heater plate.
2. See the plates are symmetrically arranged on the both sides of heater plate (arranged
normally).
3. Operate the hand press properly to ensure perfect contact between the plates.
4. Close the box by cover sheet to achieve steady environmental conditions.
5. Start the supply of heater by varying the dimmer stat and adjust the input at the desired value
(range 30 to 70 Watts) and start water supply.
6. Take readings of all the temperatures after the steady state is reached.
7. Note down the steady state readings in observation table.
8. Repeat the same for different heat input conditions
Observation Table:
Voltmeter Ammeter Heat flow rate Thermocouple readings (°C)
[Link]
reading (V) reading (I) (Q = V x I) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Calculations:

VxI
The rate of heat transfer, Q 
2

T
We know that, Q   UAT
R
Q
Therefore the overall heat transfer coefficient, U 
A T
Where, T  TA  TD .
Precautions:
1) Keep the dimmer stat zero before starting.
2) Increase the voltage and current slowly.
3) Keep all the assembly undistributed.
4) Do not increase voltage above maximum limit.

RESULT: Thermal resistance and thermal conductivities of the materials and found
experimentally are shown in the table:

Thermal Thermal conductivity, K overall heat transfer coefficient of

Material Resistance, (W/mK) composite wall, U (W/m2- 0C)
RTh (K/W) Theoretical Experimental
Brass
Mild Steel
Bakelite
 Experiment No.2
DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A GIVEN METAL ROD

Aim: To Determine the thermal conductivity of copper metal rod.

Learning Objectives:
1. To study about thermal conductivity
2. To understand Fourier’s law of heat conduction
Apparatus: Experimental Test Rig.
Theory: Mechanism of Heat Conduction in Metals:
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a substance or between substances in direct contact,
without any overall movement of the material itself. The substance may be either solid or liquid
or gas.
In solids, the heat transfer by conduction occurs via the following two mechanisms:
(i) By lattice vibration: The faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part of a body
transfer some of their energy as heat to adjacent molecules by impacts.
(ii) Drift of free electrons: solids in metallic form have no of free electrons and these free
electrons carry heat from high temperature region to low temperature region.
Now unlike a solid, in a liquid or a gas, molecules have freedom of movement. In a solid, they
are restricted to a particular point. In fluids, the molecules move over short distances in a random
fashion. Now in an overall sense, the liquid or gas may be stationary in a macroscopic sense. In a
gas, those distances are a little longer, in a liquid, those distances are a little smaller. The transfer
of energy which occurs due to collision between molecules when they move in this random
fashion over short distances within a liquid or a gas is called as conduction in a liquid or a gas.
So, in a liquid or a gas the transfer of energy occurs due to collision of molecules. Molecules at a
higher temperature giving their energy to molecules at a lower temperature. So this is how the
conduction mode occurs in various substances – solids, liquids and gases.
Ex: Warming up of the other end of a spoon kept in hot tea cup.

The governing equation to find the thermal conductivity is Fourier’s equations which is
given by the,
dT
Q=-kA
dx
Thermal conductivity of some materials,
Solids (metals) K (W/mK)
Pure copper 380
Brass 110
Steel 54
Stainless steel 17
Experimental Setup:
The schematic diagram of experimental set up as shown in Figure.1 consists of a copper bar, one
end of which is heated by an electrical heater and the other end is cooled by water. The middle
portion i.e., test section of the bar is insulated.
The bar temperature is measured at 5 different sections while two thermocouples are provided to
measure water inlet and out let temperature. A dimmer stat is provided for the heater to control
its input. Constant water flow is circulated through the heat sink. A gate valve provided to
control the water flow.

Specifications:
1. Metal bar - Cu, 25 mm O.D, approximately 430 mm long with insulator shell along the heat
lost length and water control heat sink at the other end.
2. Test length of the bar 240 mm.
3. Thermocouples- chromel / alumel –7 No.s.
4. Nichrom heater to heat the bar.
5. Dimmer stat to control the heater input 2 amps, 230 V.
6. Voltmeter & ammeter to measure heat input given to the heater.
7. Multi channel digital temperature indicator to measure temperature,
Least count, 0-200°c with channel selection switches.

The Experimental Procedure:

1. Start the electric supply.
2. Then start heating the bar by adjusting the heater input by rotating Dimmer stat in clockwise
 direction.
3. Start cooling water supply through the heat sink and adjust it to around 350- 400 cc per
minute.
4. Note down the time taken to collect 1 lit of water in sec
5. Observe the bar temperature till the steady state is reached
6. Note all the temperatures after attain steady state condition
7. Repeat the same for different heat inputs
8. Note down all the observation and complete the observation table.
Observation table:

Temperatures along axial Water temp Time taken to

[Link] V I direction (C) (C) collect 1 lit of
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 water in sec

Temp (C) Distance from leading edge

(hot end) (mm)
T1 50
T2 100
T3 150
T4 200
T5 240

Model Calculations:
Precautions:
1. Keep the dimmer stat zero before starting.
2. Increase the voltage and current slowly.
3. Keep all the assembly undistributed.
4. Do not increase voltage above maximum limit.

Result:
Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod, K (W/mK)
Theoretical
Experimental
 Experiment No 3

HEAT TRANSFER BY FREE CONVECTION

AIM: To determine the average surface heat transfer coefficient in natural convection and
compare it with the value obtained by using appropriate correlation.
Learning objectives
1. To demonstrate the basic principles of natural convection heat transfer
2. To demonstrate the boundary layer character of external natural Convection
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical fashion. The duct is
open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of undisturbed
surrounding. An electric heating element is kept in the vertical tube, which in turn heats the tube
surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. 4
thermocouples are located along the length of heat and 2 thermocouples are situated at inlet and
outlet of the heater rod to measure inlet and exit air temperatures. The heat input to the heater is
measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter and is varied by a dimmer-stat. The tube surface is
polished to minimize the radiation losses.
THEORY:
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
that is in motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.
Convection is of two types: forced convection and natural convection. In forced convection, the
fluid motion is caused by an external agency like fan or blower where as in natural convection,
the heat transfer occurs due to density variations caused by temperature difference.

SPECIFICATION:
Length of cylinder, L = 500mm
Diameter of the cylinder, d = 32mm

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the unit and adjust the regulator to provide suitable power input.
2. Allow some time for the unit to reach steady state condition.
3. Note the temperature of inlet air, outlet air and temperatures along the heater rod.
4. Note ammeter and voltmeter readings.
5. For different power inputs the experiments may be repeated.
The readings are tabulated as below: -
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION:
COVECTIVE HEAT
POWER AIR
HEATER ROD TEMP,OC TRANSFER COEFFICIENT,
[Link] V I INPUT, Q TEMP,OC
h, (W/m2K)
(W)
T1 T6 T2 T3 T4 T5 EXP THEORETICAL

CALCULATIONS:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:

Where, h= Convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K

A = Area of heat transfer = πdL, m2
d = Diameter of heater rod = 32mm
L = Length of heater rod = 500mm
 ΔT = Avg. temp. of heater rod – Avg. temp. of air.

THEORETICAL METHOD:
Using free convection correlations for vertical cylinders.

Characteristic length is the height of the cylinder (L)

K = Thermal conductivity of air, W/mK
Pr = Prandtl number of air
υ = Kinematic Viscosity, m2/s

The properties of air such as kinematic viscosity (υ) thermal conductivity (K) and Prandtl
Number (Pr) are collected at mean film temperature,

Tmf =

And later h can be evaluated.

RESULT:

The values of convective heat transfer coefficient in natural convection are found to be

COVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

POWER
[Link] V I COEFFICIENT, h, (W/m2K)
INPUT, Q (W)
EXP THEORETICAL
 Experiment No 4

HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION

AIM: To find the heat transfer coefficient of air under forced convection environment and
compare it with the value obtained by using appropriate correlation.
Learning objectives: To
1. Know the mechanism of forced convection
2. Know the governing principles of convection
3. Know the physical significance of heat transfer coefficient (or) Nusselt number
4. Know various correlations to calculate heat transfer coefficient
5. Study the variation of heat transfer coefficient with flow rate
SPECIFICATIONS :
Blower : 0.5 HP
Tube length, L = 500mm
Diameter of orifice, d2 = 20 mm
Diameter of pipe, d1 = 40mm
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
The experimental set up (see sketch) consists of a tube through which air is sent in by a
blower. The test section consists of a long electrical surface heater on the tube which serves as a
constant heat flux source on the flowing medium.
The inlet and outlet temperatures of the flowing medium are measured by thermocouples and
also the temperatures at several locations along the surface heater from which an average
temperature can be obtained. An orifice meter in the tube is used to measure the airflow rate
with a ‘U’ tube water manometer. An ammeter and a voltmeter are provided to measure the
power input to the heater. A power regulator also known as Dimmer stat is provided to vary the
power input to heater. A multi point digital temperature indicator is provided to measure the
above thermocouples input.
A valve is provided to regulate the flow rate of air.

Theory: Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer. Convection is of two types: forced convection and natural convection. In forced
convection, the fluid motion is caused by an external agency like fan or blower where as in
natural convection, the heat transfer occurs due to density variations caused by temperature
difference.

Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat conduction.
The fluid motion enhances heat transfer (the higher the velocity the higher the heat transfer rate).
The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by Newton’s law of cooling:
q = h (TS – Ta) (W/m2)
Q = hA (TS – Ta) (W)
The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties and roughness
of the solid surface, and the type of the fluid flow (laminar or turbulent). Figure given below
shows the mechanism of forced convection.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the mains.
2. Switch on the blower.
3. Adjust the regulator to any desired power input to heater.
4. Adjust the position of the valve to any desired flow rate of air.
5. Wait till steady state temperature is reached.
6. Note manometer readings h1 and h2.
7. Note temperatures along the tube. Note air inlet and outlet temperatures.
8. Note volt meter and ammeter reading.
9. Adjust the position of the valve and vary the flow rate of air and repeat the experiment.
For various valve openings and for various power inputs repeat the experiment and
tabulate the readings.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION:

Air temp,
0 Surface temperature of rod, oC Manometer reading, (cm)
[Link] V I C
T0 T6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 h1 h2

CALCULATIONS:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
The heat input Q = h A (L M T D)
Where,
Q= Heat input to the heater Rod = VxI

ΔT1 = (Avg. Temp of tube – outlet air temp)

ΔT2 = (Avg. Temp of tube – inlet air temp.)
h = Convective heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2 K
A = area of heat transfer = πd1L, m2
From the above, the Convective heat transfer co-efficient ‘h’ can be calculated
experimentally. These experimentally determined values may be compared with theoretical
values i.e. the value obtained by using appropriate correlation.
THEORETICAL METHOD:
Calculate the velocity of the air in the tube using orifice meter / water manometer.
The volume of air flowing through the tube

ha= head of air causing the flow.

Where, h1 and h2 are manometer reading in meters.

Heat transfer rate and flow rates are expressed in dimension less form of Nusselt number
and Reynolds number which are defined as

d1 = Diameter of the pipe, m

Va= Velocity of air, m/s
K = Thermal conductivity of air, W/mK
υ = Kinematic viscosity, m2/s
The heat transfer co-efficient can also be calculated from Dittus-Boelter correlation.

Where Pr is the Prandtl number for air which can be taken as 0.7. The Prandtl number
represents the fluid properties.

RESULT:
The values of convective heat transfer coefficient in forced convection are found to be
COVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

[Link] V I Head of air, ha (m) COEFFICIENT, h, (W/m2K)

EXP THEORETICAL
 Experiment No 5
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH PIN-FIN
AIM: To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient and FIN efficiency under forced

convection environment.

Learning objectives:
1. To understand the mechanisms of heat transfer through the fin
2. To understand the insulated tip condition used in fin analysis
3. To know the conditions for maximum heat transfer through the fins
Apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a pin-fin provided with an electric heater at one end. This assembly is
kept in a duct and provided with thermocouples along the length. A blower is fitted to this duct
to provide a constant supply of high velocity air. This blower is fitted in such a way that its inlet
is at the end of the duct. The heater coil is fitted with voltmeter and ammeter. An orifice meter
with a U-tube differential type manometer is fitted to the delivery pipe to measure the velocity of
the air.
PIN FIN SPECIFICATIONS :
Blower : 0.5 HP:
Fin dia ,d = 12 mm
Fin length, L = 100 mm
Diameter of orifice, d1 = 20 mm
Diameter of pipe, d2 = 40 mm
Duct width, B = 150 mm
Duct height, W = 100 mm
THEORY:
The heat conducted through the solids walls or boundaries has to be continuously dissipated to
the surrounding or environment to maintain the system in a steady state condition. In many
engineering applications, large quantities of heat have to be dissipated from small area. Heat
transfer by convection between surface and fluid surroundings can be increased by attaching thin
strips of metal to the surface known as fins. Fins are also known as extended surfaces. Fins
enhance the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface area. The increased surface area causes
an increase in the convective heat transfer. Fins are usually made up of high thermal
conductivity materials. There are different types of fins depending upon their shape such as
triangular fins, parabolic fins, pin fins depending upon the cross section of the fin as shown fig.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to a 230V, 50Hz, 15A power and switch on the unit.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3. Turn the regulator knob to clockwise and set the power to the heater to any desired value
by looking at the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Switch ON the blower.
 6. Set the airflow rate to any desired value looking at the difference in U tube manometer
limb levels.
7. Note down the temperatures indicated by temperature indicator after attaining the steady
state condition.
8. Repeat the experiment by
a. Varying the airflow rate and keeping the power input to the heater constant.
b. Varying the power input to the heater and keeping the air flow rate constant.
9. Tabulate the readings and calculate for different conditions.
10. After all the experiment is over, put off the blower switch, turn the energy regulator knob
anti clockwise, put off the main switch and disconnect the power supply.

TABULATION:
Manometer
Volt meter Ammeter Fin surface Ambient
reading
[Link]. reading, reading, I température, OC Temp, (0C)
(cm)
V(Volts) (Amps)
h1 h2 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

CALCULATIONS :

Volume of air flowing through the duct,

ha= head of air causing the flow.

 Where, h1 and h2 are manometer reading in meters.

Where, W = Width (height) of the duct, m

B = Breadth of the duct, m
REYNOLD’S NUMBER OF AIRFLOW:

Where Va = Velocity of air in the duct, m/sec

ρa = density of air in the duct, kg/m3
υ = Kinematic viscosity, m2/sec
L = length of fin, m
PRANDTL NUMBER OF AIRFLOW

Where Cpa = specific heat of air.

μa = viscosity of air.
Ka = thermal conductivity of air.
HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT CALCULATIONS
NUSSELT NUMBER (Nu)
For 1 < Re < 4
Nu = 0.989 (Re)0.33 (NPr)0.333
For 4 < Re < 40
Nu = 0.911 (Re)0.385 (Pr)0.333
For 40 < Re < 4000
Nu = 0.683 (Re) 0.466 (Pr) 0.333
For 4000 < Re < 40000
Nu = 0.193 (Re)0.618 (Pr)0.333
For Re > 40000
Nu = 0.0266 (Re)0.805 (Pr)0.333
Ka = thermal conductivity of air
L = length of fin.

hp
Where, m
kb A
Where, h = heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K
L = length of the fin, m
P = Perimeter of the fin = (π x d), m

Kb = thermal conductivity of brass rod.

RESULT :
Volt meter Ammeter
Head of air, Convective heat transfer Efficiency
[Link]. reading, reading,
ha, (m) coefficient, h ((W/m2K) of the fin, η
V(Volts) I (Amps)
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6
EMISSIVITY APPARATUS
AIM: To determine the Emissivity of a given test plate by using emissivity apparatus.
Learning Objectives:
1. To review the basic principles of radiation heat transfer.
2. To know the relation between emissivity, Transmittivity, absorptivity and Reflectivity

Apparatus:
The experimental set up consists of two circular aluminium plates identical in size and is
provided with heating coils at the bottom. The plates are mounted on thick asbestos sheet and
kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heat
input to the heaters is varied by two regulators and is measured by an ammeter and voltmeter.
The temperatures of the plates are measured by Ir/Con thermocouples. Each plate is having
three thermocouples and hence an average temperature may be taken. One thermocouple is kept
in the enclosure to read the chamber temperature. One plate is blackened by a layer of enamel
black paint to form the idealized black surface whereas the other plate is the test plate. The heat
dissipation by conduction is same in both cases.

THEORY:

All substance at all temperatures will emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an
electromagnetic wave & does not require any material medium for its propagation. All bodies
can emit radiation and have also the capacity to absorb all or a part of radiation coming from
surrounding towards it.
An idealized black surface is one which absorbs all the incident radiation with reflectivity and
transmissivity equal to zero. The radiant energy from the surface of a body per unit time per unit
area is called emissive power and is usually denoted by ‘E’. The emissivity of the surface is the
ratio of the emissive power of surface to the emissive power of black surface.

For the black body absorptivity =1 and by the knowledge of Kirchhoff’s law emissivity of the
black body becomes unity. It is obvious from Stefan-Boltzmann law that the prediction of
emissive power of a surface requires knowledge about the values of its emissivity and therefore
much experimental research in radiation has been concentrated on measuring values of
emissivity as a surface temperature. The present experimental set up is designed and fabricated
to measure the property of emissivity of the test plate surface at various temperatures.
SPECIFICATION:
Diameter of test plate and black surface = 150 mm.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230V, 50Hz, 15 amps main supply and switch on the unit.
2. By operating the energy regulators power will be fed to black plate and the test plate.
3. Allow the unit to stabilize. Ascertain the same power inputs to the black and test surfaces.
4. Observe the readings till the steady state condition is reached
5. Turn the thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step and note down the temperatures
indicated by the temperature indicator from channel 1 to 7.
6. Tabulate the readings and calculate.
7. Repeat the experiment for various power inputs

TABULATION:
Polished body Black body Average Chamber Emissivity,
temperature, 0C Average temperature, 0C
[Link]. Temp. Temp. T4
Temp. TP, 0C ε
T1 T2 T3 T5 T6 T7 Tb, 0C (TC), 0C
CALCULATIONS:

Since the power input is same for both heaters and area of radiating surface (A) is also same,
knowing the εb =1. The emissivity of polished surface (test plate) is given by

RESULT:

Voltmeter Ammeter Heat input (W) Emissivity of the specimen

[Link]
reading, V Reading, I (test Plate), ϵ
 Experiment No. 7
PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGERS
Aim: To determine,
(i) LMTD for parallel flow arrangement
(ii) LMTD for counter flow arrangement
(iii) Overall heat Transfer coefficient (U) parallel flow arrangement
(iv) Overall heat Transfer coefficient (U) counter flow arrangement
(v) Effectiveness (ε) for parallel flow arrangement
(vi) Effectiveness (ε) for counter flow arrangement

Learning Objectives: To,

1. To study about various heat exchanging equipments
2. To study fundamental methods of designing heat exchanging equipments and comparing them
3. To study LMTD and its necessity
4. To know the effectiveness of heat exchanger
5. To know the temperature profiles of parallel and counter flows

Apparatus: Experimental test rig, stop watch, thermometers.

Theory:
A heat exchanger is a device used for the process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at
different temperatures. Heat exchangers are useful in many engineering processes like those in
refrigerating and air conditioning systems, power systems, Food processing systems, chemical
reactors and space or Aeronautical applications. Heat exchangers are of basically of three types.
(1) Transfer type, in which both fluids pass through the exchanger and heat gets transferred
through the separating walls between the fluids, (2) Storage type- in this, firstly the hot fluid
passes through a medium having high heat capacity and then cold fluid is passed through the
medium to collect the heat. Thus hot and cold fluids are alternately passed through the medium,
(3) Direct contact type- in this type, the fluids are not separated but they mix with each other and
heat passes directly from one fluid to the other.

Heat exchangers may be classified in several ways. One classification is according to the fluid
flow arrangement or the relative direction of the hot and cold fluids. The fluids may be separated
by a plane wall but more commonly by a concentric tube (double pipe) arrangement shown in
fig. If both the fluids move in the same direction, the arrangement is called a parallel flow type.
In the counter flow arrangement, the fluids move in parallel but opposite directions. In a double
pipe heat exchanger, either the hot or cold fluid occupies the annular space and the other fluid
moves through the inner pipe.

The method of solving the problem using logarithmic mean temperature difference is typical and
more iteration must be done. So it takes more time for the problem to solve. Therefore another
method is practiced for solving this type of problems. This method is known as Effectiveness
and Number of Transfer Units or simply ε-NTU method.
“Effectiveness of heat exchangers is defined as actual heat transfer rate by maximum possible
heat transfer rate”. The LMTD method may be applied to design problems for which the fluid
flow rates and inlet temperatures, as well as a desired outlet temperature, are prescribed. If the
LMTD method is used in performance calculations for which both outlet temperatures must be
determined from knowledge of the inlet temperatures, the solution procedure is iterative.

For both design and performance calculations, the effectiveness-NTU method may be used
without iteration.

Figure 1 Parallel and Counter flow Heat exchangers

Experimental setup
The experimental setup consists of two concentric tubes in which fluids pass. The hot fluid is hot
water, which is obtained from an electric geyser. Hot water flows through the inner tube, in one
direction. Cold fluid is cold water, which flows through the annulus. Control valves are provided
so that direction of cold water can be kept parallel or opposite to that of hot water. Thus, the heat
exchanger can be operated either as paralle1 or counter flow heat exchanger. The temperatures
are measured with thermocouples. Thus, the heat transfer rate, heat transfer coefficient, LMTD
and effectiveness of heat exchanger can be calculated for both parallel and counter flow.
Specifications
1. Heat exchanger - (a) Inner tube - 12 mm OD and11 mm ID copper tube.
(b) Outer tube - 25 mm OD G. I. Pipe.
(c) Length of Heat exchanger is 1 m.
2. Electric heater - 3 KW Capacity to supply hot water.
3. Valves for flow and direction control- 5 No’s.
[Link] to measure temperatures - 10 to 110°C - 4 No's.
5. Measuring flask and stop clock for flow measurement.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold sides.
2. Keep the valves V2& V3 closed and V1& V4 opened so that arrangement is parallel flow.
3. Switch ON the geyser. Temperature of water will start rising. After temperatures become
steady, note down the readings in the observation table.
4. Repeat the experiment by changing the flow. Now open the valves V2& V3 and then close
the valves V1& V4. The arrangement is now counter flow. Wait until the steady state is
reached and note down the readings.

Observation Table:
Cold water Hot water
Flow Time for 1 Inlet Outlet Time for 1 Inlet Outlet
Type of Litre water temperature temperature Litre water temperature temperature
flow collection, Tc1(0C) Tc2(0C) collection, Th1 (0C) Th2 (0C)
sec sec
Parallel
flow
Counter
flow

CALCULATIONS:


 Specific heat of hot water at bulk temperature, Cph = 4187 J/kg-0C

 Specific heat of cold water at bulk temperature, Cpc = 4187 J/kg-0C
 Density of water=1000kg/m3
 (mCp)h = (mCp)c =
PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER:
COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER:
(vi)

Precautions:
[Link] switch ON the geyser unless there is water supply through it.
2. If the red indicator on geyser goes off during operation, increase the water supply,
because it indicates that water temperature exceeds the set limit.
3. Ensure steady water flow rate and temperatures before noting down the readings, as
fluctuating water supply can give erratic results.

RESULT:
LMTD (0C) Overall heat transfer (U) (W/m2K) Effectiveness (ε)
Parallel flow Heat
exchanger
Counter flow Heat
exchanger
 Experiment No.08:
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF STEFAN BOLTZMAN CONSTANT

Aim: To determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant.

Learning Objectives:
1. To understand the Radiation heat transfer.
2. To understand the different laws associated with Radiation.

Apparatus: Experimental Test Rig, Thermometer range 100C to 1100 C

Theory:
The mode of heat transfer termed radiation implies any of the various energy transfer processes,
which arise as a result of the emission of energy carrying electromagnetic waves. These waves
are emitted by materials because of change in the energy levels of atoms and molecules.

The Stefan Boltzmann law, given by q = AT4 shows that under most circumstances the effects
of radiations are insignificant at low temperatures owing to the small values for. At room
temperature the total emission power ‘q/A’ of a black system is approximately 460 W/m2. This
value is only about one tenth of the heat flux transferred from a surface to a fluid by convection,
even when the convection heat transfer coefficient and temperature difference are reasonably
low values of 100 W/m2 K and 50K respectively. At low temperatures we can therefore often
neglect radiation effects. However we must include radiation effects at high temperature because
the emissive power increases with the fourth power of absolute temperature. The objective of
this experiment is to determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant.

All the substances emit thermal radiation. When heat radiation is incident over a body, part of
radiation is absorbed, transmitted through and reflected by the body. A surface, which absorbs
all thermal radiation incidents over it, is called black surface. For black surface, transmitivity
and reflectivity are zero and absortivity is unity. Stefan Boltzmann law states that emissive
power of a surface is proportional to fourth power of its absolute surface temperature i.e. q/A=
T4
Where, e = emissive power of surface. T = absolute temperature.  = Stefan Boltzmann constant,
 = Emissivity of the surface. The value of Stefan Boltzmann constant is taken as 5.67 X 10 -8
W/m2 K4. For black surface,  =1, hence the above equation reduces to q/A= T4
Experimental Set Up:
The experimental set up consists of a water-heated jacket of hemispherical shape. A copper test
disc is fitted at the center of jacket. The hot water is obtained from a hot water tank, fitted to the
panel, in which water is heated by an electric immersion heater. The hot water is taken around
the hemisphere, so that hemisphere temperature rises. The test disc is then inserted at the center.
Thermocouples are fitted inside hemisphere to average out hemisphere temperature. Another
thermocouple fitted at the center of test disc measures the temperature of test disc. A timer with
a small buzzer is provided to note down the disc temperature at the time intervals of 5 sec.
1. Water tank 2. Main Switch 3. Temperature Indicator
4. Temperature Selector Switch 5. Buzzer Switch 6. Shell

Procedure:
1. Pour sufficient quantity the water boiler and heat the water with help of main heater.
2. Pour the hot water into the testing chamber.
3. Allow the copper hemisphere to absorb heat from the water and note down all the
temperatures of the hemisphere surface and note down test disc temperatures
4. Then introduce test disc (black body) in to the circular hole provided below the copper
hemisphere and allow it to absorb heat falling on the black body.
5. Then record the variation of temperature with time.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 1: The Hemisphere temperature and initial test disc temperature
Temperature of the
T1 T2 T3 T4
Hemisphere
Just before inserting the
test disc
At the end of the
experiment

Table 2: The test disc temperatures at various time intervals are as follows.
Time interval Test disc Time interval Test disc
in sec temperature in °C in sec Temperature in °C

CALCULATIONS:
1. Area of test disc A = 3.14 x 10-4 m2 (d=20 mm)
2. Weight of test disc, m = 5.2 x 10-3 Kg
3. Plot the graph of temperature rise of test disc with time as base and find out its slope.
T1  T2  T3  T4
4. Hemisphere temperature, TH =Average of +273.15 K initial and final
4
readings
5. Test disc temperature TD=T5+273.15 K
6. As area of hemisphere is very large compared to that of test disc we can put
Q= A(TH  TD )
4 4

Where, Q = heat gained by disc/sec

 = Stefan Boltzmann constant
 = Emissivity of test disc = 1
A = Area of disc
o
CP= Specific heat of copper =381 J/Kg C
dT
(mC p)
 dt
A(TH 4  TD 4 )
 Where TD is the average of all disc temperatures.

Precautions:
1. Never put on the heater before putting water in the tank.
2. Put off the heater before draining the form heater tank.
3. Drain the water after completion of the experiment.
4. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

RESULT:
The value of Stefan Boltzmann constant,  is found to be = W/m2-K4
 EXPERIMENT NO: 09
REFRIGERATION TEST RIG.

AIM: To determine C.O.P of the vapour compression refrigeration test rig.

Learning objectives
1. To demonstrate understanding of the basic cycle working of vapour compression refrigerating
system and function its main components
2. To demonstrate the performance evaluation along with details of system components and
refrigerant properties.
THEORY:
Refrigeration is defined as science of producing and maintaining the temperature of the
substance or confined space below the surrounding by removing heat from it.
A vapor compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration system
in which a suitable working substance, termed as refrigerant is used. Fig represents the flow
diagram of a refrigeration test rig (tutor). The components of the refrigeration test rig (tutor) are
compressor, condenser, expansion device, evaporator, flow meter, and energy meter, ammeter,
voltmeter, pressure gauges and temperature indicator.
The pressure gauges and temperature sensors are placed at various points to
measure the pressure and temperatures respectively. The compressor compresses the refrigerant.
The condenser condenses the gaseous refrigerant into liquid refrigerant. The expansion valve
expands the high-pressure liquid refrigerant to a low-pressure liquid. Flow meter measures the
amount of flow of refrigerant in the system.

Fig: Components and P-h diagram of Vapour compression Refrigeration system

PROCEDURE:
1. Before starting the experiment ensure that discharge valve of the compressor is opened
and the valve after the condenser is also opened.
2. Pour the known quantity (say 2 lit) of water in to the evaporator.
3. Note the initial temperature of water with the thermometer.
4. Switch on the main.
5. Allow the system to run for some time.
 6. Note down the energy meter reading.
7. Note the pressures and temperatures.
8. Note the final temperature of water in the evaporator.
9. Take the reading again in “t 1” interval of time.
10. Tabulate the
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION:
Pressure(PSi) Temperature, OC Water temp, OC Total duration Time taken
[Link]
of the for N no of
P1 P2 P3 P4 T1 T2 T3 T4 Initial,Twi Final,Twf experiment rev(t),sec
(t1), Sec

CALCULATIONS:

Where,
N = no of revolutions in energy meter.
t = Time taken for N no of revolutions.
E = Energy meter constant
C.O.P using P-h Chart
Covert the pressure readings to absolute pressure in bar.
14.5 Psi = 1 bar
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure in bar + 1.03 bar
Locate different state points on the P-h Chart using the absolute pressure and temperature
readings. Note the enthalpy at each state point. P 1, T1 corresponds to state point 1 similarly (
P2,T2), (P3,T3) and (P4,T4) corresponds to state points 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
Process 4 – 1 represents adiabatic compression in compressor.
Process 1 – 2 represents Isobaric condensation in condenser.
Process 2 – 3 represents Throttling process.
Process 3 – 4 represents isobaric evaporation in evaporator.
From the P – h Chart, h1 = kJ/kg h2 = kJ/kg
h3 = kJ/kg h4 = kJ/kg
COP (from the Chart) =

RESULT:
The C.O.P of the given refrigeration unit is thus determined as
1. C.O.P experimental =
2. C.O.P from the P-h chart =
 EXPERIMENT NO: 10
AIR-CONDITIONING TEST RIG
AIM: To determine C.O.P of the Air Conditioning Test rig and compare experimental value
with the theoretical value.
Learning objectives
1. To demonstrate understanding of the basic cycle working of air conditioning system and
function its main components
2. To demonstrate the performance evaluation along with details of system components and
refrigerant properties.
3. To impart knowledge of psychrometric properties, processes which are used in air-
conditioning systems for comfort and industrial applications.
THEORY:
Air-conditioning is defined as science of artificial withdrawal of heat from substance or
confined space so as to constantly produce a temperature lower than that would normally exist
under the natural influence of surroundings.
The components of the air conditioning tutor are compressor, condensor, expansion
device, evoporator, flowmeter, and energy meter, ammeter, voltmeter, pressure gauges and
temperature indicator
The pressure gauges and temperature sensors are placed at various points to measure the
pressure and temperatures respectively. The compressor compresses the refrigerant. The
condenser condenses the gaseous refrigerant into liquid refrigerant. The expansion valve
expands the high-pressure liquid refrigerant to a low-pressure liquid vapour mixture. The
evaporator converts the liquid refrigerant into gaseous form. The flow meter measures the
amount of flow of refrigerant in the system.
SPECIFICATION:
COMPRESSOR: Reciprocating Compressor. , 8.5 Kg.
HP / LP Cut-off valve: Minimum Pr. – 35 psi.
Maximum Pr. –65 psi.
The refrigerant has to be charged to the pressure range of about 40 psi.
 Fig : Air conditioning Test Rig

Fig : P-h diagram of Vapour compression Refrigeration system

PROCEDURE:
1. Before starting the experiment ensure that discharge valve of the compressor is opened
and the valve after the condenser is also opened.
2. Note the initial temperature of the air, T db1
3. Switch on the main.
 4. Allow the system to run for some time.
5. Note down the air velocity-using anemometer at different intervals of time and then take
average value.
6. Also note down the energy meter reading.
7. Take the reading with 10 min interval of time.
8. Note the final temperature of the air, T db2
9. Note the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant at all state points.
OBSERVATION:
TABULATION 1:
Pressure (PSi) Temperature(0C) Time taken for N no of
[Link]
energy meter revolutions
P1 P2 P3 P4 T1 T2 T3 T4
(sec)

TABULATION 2:

Anemometer reading(m/s) Dry Bulb

[Link] Temperatures
1 2 3 4 5 Avg Tdb1 Tdb2

CALCULATION:

Where, N = no of revolutions in energy meter.

t = Time taken for N no of revolutions.
E = Energy meter constant
C.O.P using P-h Chart
Convert the pressure readings to absolute pressure in bar.
14.5 Psi = 1 bar
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure in bar + 1.03 bar
Locate different state points on the P-h Chart using the absolute pressure and temperature
readings. Note the enthalpy at each state point. P1, T1 corresponds to state point 1 similarly (P2,
T2), (P3, T3) and (P4, T4) corresponds to state points 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
Process 4 – 1 represents adiabatic compression in compressor
Process 1 – 2 represents Isobaric condensation in condenser
Process 2 – 3 represents Throttling process.
Process 3 – 4 represents isobaric evaporation in evaporator.
From the P – h Chart, h1 = kJ/kg h2 = kJ/kg
h3 = kJ/kg h4 = kJ/kg
COP (from the Chart) =

RESULT:
C.O.P of the given Air conditioning unit is thus determined as
3. C.O.P Experimental =
4. C.O.P from the P-h chart =