Chapter 13
Quality tools and approaches
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify and describe the different tools of quality management
• Explain the purpose and function of each quality tool
• Understand the quality approaches to quality improvement
• Apply the various quality tools and approaches to solve problems.
13.1 Introduction
• Many organisations experience internal and external quality problems
that eventually erode profits if they are not dealt with.
• These problems cannot be resolved if, in the first place, the causes are
not identified.
• A lot of effort is fruitless if symptoms are cured but the causes are not
addressed.
• Tools of quality are used to identify the problems and their root causes.
• Once the causes are identified, solutions can be planned and
implemented by means of various quality improvement techniques.
13.2 Tools of quality improvement
• Tools of quality improvement include flow charts, run charts, control
charts, check sheets, histograms, Pareto analysis, cause-and-effect
diagrams, scatter diagrams, and failure mode, effects, and criticality
analysis (FMECA).
• Quality improvement tools are going to play a significant role when used
with big data sets, which impacts on meeting the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), for example, in terms of
manufacturing waste management.
Flow charts
• A flow chart/process map is a picture of the separate steps or activities
of a process showing the flow of materials, resources, and information.
• The purpose of a flow chart is to identify problem areas, such as
bottlenecks, duplication, delays, quality gaps, and non-value adding
processes, to either eliminate them or try to convert them into
value-adding processes.
Run charts
• Run charts are graphic
representations of process
performance.
Control charts
• Control charts are run charts
with an indication of upper and
lower tolerances. The control
chart is a graph used to study
how a process changes over
time and the data are plotted in
time order.
Check sheets
• A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and
analysing data. Check sheets have a dual purpose. First, they can be
used to ensure that certain activities and tasks are completed. Second,
they serve the purpose of data collection.
Histograms
• Histograms are simply graphic representations of data in a bar format.
Pareto analysis
• Pareto analysis uses charts to identify and prioritise problems to be
solved. They are histograms aided by the 80/20 rule, which means that there
are a few crucial aspects that cause most of the quality problems. Generally,
80 per cent of the problems result from 20 per cent of the causes.
• The following steps are used to develop a Pareto chart.
1. Identify a problem and decide how the categories will be classified.
2. Collect data over a specific time period.
3. Calculate the relative frequency of each category and display the
categories on a bar graph in descending order.
4. Calculate the cumulative percentage of each category and display them as
an arc on the same bar graph.
Cause-and-effect diagrams
• The use of a cause-and-effect
diagram (also known as a
fishbone diagram) moves away
from identification of the
symptoms of a problem towards
identification of the real causes
of the problem.
• It identifies as many causes as
possible for an effect or
problem.
Scatter diagrams
• The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable
on each axis, to look for relationships between them. The data are
plotted on the chart and form scattered patterns.
Failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis
• By using the failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis (FMECA)
technique, organisations can determine and identify potential causes of
performance failures during the design phase of goods and services,
• The primary objective of FMECA is to identify critical failures and
probable causes for these, with the aim of reducing them. There are
basically three elements of FMECA:
• Failure mode: The anticipated operational conditions are used as the
background of the study of the good or service.
• Failure effect: The potential failures are studied to determine their probable
effects on the performance of the good or service.
• Failure criticality: The potential failures of the various components of the good
or service are examined to determine the severity of each failure.
Nine windows technique
• The nine windows technique is a method for exploring issues and their potential
impacts by examining the past, present, and future of both high-level areas and
their related subsections.
• The future looks at the goal the organisation is trying to achieve. There are four
steps.
• Step 1 Write down the problem and the current system for solutions in the centre of a 3
× 3 matrix. Fill in the sections for the past (what started the problem) and the future (what is the
goal?).
• Step 2 Complete the super-system (or macro system) past and future. These is the
external environment and components that the problem or system interacts or may interact
with.
• Step 3 Complete the subsystem (or micro system) past and future. This is the problem or
system that was created.
• Step 4 Explore all nine windows by asking the following question: Can the organisation or
team do something at the subsystem, system, or super-system level, in advance, to fix or avoid
the problem or improve the system?
13.3 Quality improvement approaches
• Seven-step problem-solving model
• The seven-step problem-solving model is a structured problem-
solving approach.
• The problem and the component parts of the problem are clearer if
steps are followed.
• It also allows us to understand which components we should pay
attention to.
Seven-step problem-solving model
• Step 1: Identify the problem and the process
• Step 2: List possible root causes
• Step 3: Search out the most likely root cause
• Step 4: Identify potential solutions
• Step 5: Select and implement the solution
• Step 6: Follow up to evaluate the effect
• Step 7: Standardise the process
Benchmarking
• Benchmarking is a process of comparing key performance measures to those
of the best performers and subsequently identifying areas for improvement.
• The benchmarking process involves five steps:
Step 1 Decide on the aspect of the organisation on which the benchmarking exercise will
focus.
Step 2 Determine what to measure.
Step 3 Select the benchmarking partner.
Step 4 Study and compare the measures and activities of performance of the
benchmarking partner and identify the opportunities for performance improvement.
Step 5 Improve and reinforce the performance.
Six Sigma
• Six Sigma is a business
performance improvement
strategy that aims to reduce
the number of mistakes or
defects to as low as 3,4
occasions per million
opportunities by eradicating
variability within a process.
• Basically, to improve the
quality, variation within the
process must be identified,
measured, reduced, and
prevented.
Lean manufacturing
• Lean manufacturing is a process of designing systems to reduce costs by
getting rid of any waste in an organisation.
• The emphasis is on eliminating any non-value activities, such as
production of defective products, excess inventory costs, excessive
quality inspections, and idle time.
The Deming cycle
• The Deming cycle is also called
the PDSA (Plan, Do, Study, Act)
cycle.
• This methodology is based on
the premise that improvement
comes from applying knowledge
which makes processes easier,
more accurate, faster, less costly,
safer, and more effective to
customers.
Poka-yoke
• Poka-yoke is an approach for error proofing a process.
• It is basically the use of devices to prevent human error.
• An example is the key to a specific lock. You would need the exact key to
open that lock. In other words, there can be no human error through
the use of the wrong key, as the door will not open.
The 5S model
• The 5S model is used to improve the quality of housekeeping. The
benefits of good housekeeping include prevention of defects, prevention
of accidents, and elimination of wasted time spent on looking for
documents and components.
• Five ‘S’ stands for the following:
1. Sort: Remove and clear out all unwanted items.
2. Set: Arrange items so that they are easy to find and retrieve.
3. Shine: Sweep, wash, polish and keep the work area clean at all times.
4. Standardise: Make all good practices of housekeeping a habit.
5. Sustain: Create the conditions, such as rewards and other means of
recognition, for housekeeping efforts.
Summary
• In this chapter, we explained the various quality tools, such as flow
charts, run charts, control charts, check sheets, histograms, Pareto analysis,
cause-and-effect diagrams, scatter diagrams, FMECA, and the nine window
technique.
• All these tools are used to try to identify possible causes of quality problems.
• We then discussed and illustrated some of the quality improvement
approaches such as the seven-step problem-solving model, benchmarking,
Six-Sigma, lean manufacturing, the Deming cycle, use of Poka-yoke, and the
5S model.
• Some of these tools are very easy to use, while others require substantial
input in the form of training and expert intervention.
• Many of them are dependent on good-quality data collection.