Assignment
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
SUBMITTED BY: AMANULLAH
REGISTRATION NO: 00000538756
SUBJECT: ADVANCED MARINE VEHICLE
SUBMITTED TO: LT CDR SHAKEEL
1. Hydrodynamic lift on a hydrofoil section & the Kutta–
Joukowski condition -why circulation matters?
A hydrofoil moving through water causes the flow to move on the upper
side of the foil to be changes (sequence or time) than on the bottom of the
foil, due to the shape of the foil and Angle of Attack (AoA). Faster flow -
less pressure (Bernoulli). A net difference in pressure integrated over the
surface generates the lift perpendicular to the flow across the surface.
For a sharp trailing edge, the flow must leave smoothly -- that requirement
is the so-called Kutta condition. To satisfy that the flow around the foil
develops a net rotation of fluid - this is circulation.
Kutta–Joukowski theorem (key result for 2D section):
For a 2D hydrofoil (per unit span) the lift per unit span L′ is
'
L =ρ V ∞ Γ
where
ρ = fluid density (water).
V ∞ = free-stream speed.
Γ = circulation (line integral of tangential velocity around the foil): Γ =∮C V ⋅ ds .
1
Where circulation comes from:
If, starting at zero AoA, you started out with some potential flow at some
symmetric shape, you had circulation zero, you had no lift.
If you are tilted the foil (nonzero AoA) or if you put asymmetric shape, to
satisfy the Kutta condition the potential flow solution includes a certain
value of circulation. That circulation changes the velocity distribution so as
to obtain the net pressure difference.
In the unsteady start-up, a starting vortex is lost downstream. By Kelvin's
circulation theorem, the sum of the circulation around the foil + the
circulation of the starting vortex = zero, and once the starting vortex
leaves, the foil has the opposite amount of circulation left on it.
Why circulation is important:
Lift is directly proportional to circulation (Kutta-Joukowski).
Circulation ensures that circulation is smooth along the trailing edge (Kutta
condition), thus there will be no infinite velocities or large separated wakes
in the ideal solution.
The control of pressure distribution and then lift and moment
characteristics of the foil is effected by circulation.
2
limits and applicability:
Kutta-Joukowski is a (2D) inviscid (ideal) result. Real Hydrofoils are
Viscous and 3D Viscous Effects Determine Where Separation Occurs
Viscous Effects Determine if Kutta Condition is Physically Achieved But
the theorem nevertheless remains as a powerful tool for engineers.
3
2. Mathematical relation for 3D hydrodynamic lift and drag of a
wing/hydrofoil; effect of taper and aspect ratio.
We go from 2D sections then to a finite span foil (3D). Finite Span Effect
produces tip effects (vortices) which alter lift and induce drag.
Lifting-line idea (Prandtl) — main relationships (engineering form)
Lifting line theory fits the wing to be a bound vortex line with a strength G(y)
being a function of spanwise coordinate y. From this analysis useful approximate
formulae are:
Lift coefficient (for a finite wing):
a0 α eff
CL≈
a0
1+
πARe
where
a 0= sectional (2D) lift-curve slope (for thin aerofoils in incompressible flow
−1
a 0 ≈ 2 π radians
α eff = geometric angle of attack minus zero-lift angle (in radians).
b2
AR= =aspect ratio (span b, planform area S).
S
e = span efficiency factor (0 < e ≤ 1; e = 1 ideal elliptical lift distribution).
For water (incompressible) you can often set a 0 ≈ 2 π .
Induced drag coefficient:
2
CL
C Di=
πARe
2
and the induced drag force Di=0.5 ρV ∞ S C Di
Derivation sketch for induced drag formula (conceptual):
Trailing vortices produce a downwash www behind the wing.
The wing experiences an effective angle of attack reduced by the induced
angle α i=w /V ∞.
The induced drag is approximately Di ≈ Lsin α i ≈ L α i
4
2
CL CL
From lifting-line analysis, α i= Combine to getC Di=L and divide
πARe πARe
by dynamic pressure × area to reach the coefficient form above.
Effect of Aspect Ratio (AR)
High AR (long slender foil) - effects of tip considerably weaker - circulation
distribution closer to 2D - attempted drag is less for equal lift.
Low AR (short, stubby foil) - powerful tip vortices - increased induced drag
In formula: induced drag is inversely proportional to ARInduced drag = -
ARScales with (for equivalent e): If AR is doubled the coefficient of
induced drag will be halved for same CL.
Effect of Taper Ratio (planform taper)
Taper ratio = tip chord/ root chord.
Tapering has an effect on the spanwise distribution of lift:
o Through proper tapering, the lift can be moved inboard, strong tip
loading can be reduced, or drag can be reduced or structural
bending moment reduced.
o Very high taper (thin tip) causes a reduction in local lift at the tip of
the blade, which can lead to a reduction in the strength of the tip
vortex and therefore can also cause slightly reduced induced drag.
Taper has an interaction with twist and sectional geometry. Optimum
planforms (elliptical lift distribution) have a minimum induced drag. taper is
a design trick to come close to this.
Practical engineering note
Oswald efficiency factor e, because not elliptical distributions, viscous
effects and planform shape. Typical values: 0.7 - 0.95 depending on
design and renouvielment number (Rezaei -2008). Designs aim to
maximize e.
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3. Development of trailing and bound vortices on a wing section
and the concept of induced drag
Bound vortex and trailing vortices (Helmholtz theorems)
A bound vortex is the circulation around the wing that produces lift (the 2D
G extended along span as G(y)).
Helmholtz's vortex theorems say vortex lines are continuous; the bound
vortex cannot end inside the fluid, so near the wingtip the bound vortex
"peels off" and becomes trailing vortices that run downstream as a vortex
pair (one from each wingtip).
In the start-up of motion, a starting vortex of equal and opposite circulation
is shed so that total circulation stays constant (Kelvin theorem).
Downwash and induced angle of attack
The trailing vortices induce a velocity field behind and around the wing --
notably a downward component behind the wing called downwash (o).
This downwash tilts the local resultant velocity vector seen by the wing,
reducing the effective angle-of-attack by a_i. The wing must generate
additional lift (and thus additional induced circulation) to maintain the
required lift, and the tilted lift vector generates a component opposed to
the flight direction - induced drag.
Induced drag — energy perspective and formula
Induced drag represents energy going into the rotational kinetic energy of
the trailing vortex system and the work done to deflect the flow downward.
CL
Starting from Di ≈ Lsin α i ≈ L α i and α i= , we get:
πARe
CL
Di=L
πARe
And in coefficient form:
2
CL
C Di=L
πARe
Another useful rearrangement using L=0.5 ρ V ∞ 2 S C L gives the drag force:
6
2
2 CL
Di=0.5 ρV ∞ S
πARe
Practical implications
Induced drag dominates at low speeds / high lift coefficients (e.g., takeoff
or slow operation), because C Di ∝C L 2.
Viscous (profile) drag dominates at high speeds / low C L .
Wing (or foil) design trades span, area, taper, and twist to balance induced
drag, structural weight, and other constraints.