Module IV:

120

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela

Power Measurement in DC Circuit
 Case A:
Current through the voltmeter, 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 /𝑅𝑉
where, 𝑅𝑉 is the internal resistance of the voltmeter
Power consumed by the load = 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐼𝑆 − 𝐼𝑉
= 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐼𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐼𝑉
= 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐼𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅2 /𝐼𝑅
= Power indicated by instrument −Power loss in voltmeter
So, Power indicated = Power consumed + Power Loss in Voltmeter

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 121

Power Measurement in DC Circuit Contd..
 Case B:
Voltage drop across ammeter = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼𝑅 × 𝑅𝐴
where, 𝑅𝐴 is the internal resistance of the ammeter
Power consumed by the load = 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐼𝑅 = (𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐴 ) × 𝐼𝑅
= 𝑉𝑆 × 𝐼𝑅 − 𝑉𝐴 × 𝐼𝑅
= 𝑉𝑆 × 𝐼𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅2 × 𝑅𝐴
= Power indicated by instruments −Power loss in Ammeter
Thus, Power indicated by instrument = Power consumed by load + Power loss in Ammeter

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 122

Power Measurement in DC Circuit Contd..
 Ideally, if internal resistance of voltmeter is taken to be infinite, and for ammeter as
zero, power consumed by the instruments go down to zero. However, in practical
case, power loss in instruments is very small, as compared with load power and thus
the error introduced is negligible.
Solve the Problem:
 Two incandescent lamps with 80 Ω and 120 Ω resistances are connected in series
with a 200 V dc source. Find the errors in measurement of power in the 80 Ω lamp
using a voltmeter with internal resistance of 100 kΩ and an ammeter with internal
resistance of 0.1 mΩ, when (a) the voltmeter is connected nearer to the lamp than the
ammeter, and (b) when the ammeter is connected nearer to the lamp than the
voltmeter

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 123

Power Measurement in AC Circuit
 In alternating current circuits, the instantaneous power varies continuously as the
voltage and current varies while going through a cycle. In such a case, the power at
any instant is given by
𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 ×𝑖 𝑡
where, 𝑝 𝑡 , 𝑣 𝑡 , 𝑖 𝑡 are the instantaneous power, voltage, and current respectively
If, both the voltage and current are assumed to be sinusoidal, with current lagging by φ,
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
where, 𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑚 are the peak voltage and current values, and 𝜔 = angular frequency
The instantaneous power can be attained by,
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) = [cos 𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)]
2
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 124
Power Measurement in AC Circuit Contd..
Average value of power over a complete
cycle in such a case will be
1 2𝜋
𝑃= ‫= 𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑝 ׬‬
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
‫׬‬ [cos 𝜑 − cos(2𝜃 − 𝜑)] 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0 2
[here, 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡]
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin(2𝜃 − 𝜑) 2𝜋
= cos 𝜑 . 𝜃 −
4𝜋 2 0
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= cos 𝜑 = cos 𝜑 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜑
2 2 2
Here, V, I are the rms value of voltage and Typical waveform of v(t), i(t), and p(t)
current

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 125

Power Measurement in Polyphase Systems
 Blondel’s Theorem
The theorem states that ‘in an n-
phase network, the total power
can be obtained by taking
summation of the n wattmeters so
connected that current elements of
the wattmeters are each in one of
the n lines and the corresponding
voltage element is connected
between that line and a common
point’.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 126

Power Measurement
 Three-Wattmeter Method
Sum of the three wattmeter readings in
such a case will be
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 × 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 × 𝐼𝑌 +𝑉𝐵𝑁 ×
𝐼𝐵

Hence, summation of the three wattmeter readings display the total power consumed by the load.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 127

Power Measurement Contd..
Power consumed by the load, Two-Wattmeter Method (Star Connected System)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 × 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 × 𝐼𝑌 +𝑉𝐵𝑁 × 𝐼𝐵
Reading of wattmeter W1, 𝑃1 = 𝑉𝑅𝑌 × 𝐼𝑅 = (𝑉𝑅𝑁 −
𝑉𝑌𝑁 ) × 𝐼𝑅
Reading of wattmeter W2, 𝑃2 = 𝑉𝐵𝑌 × 𝐼𝐵 = (𝑉𝐵𝑁 −
𝑉𝑌𝑁 ) × 𝐼𝐵
Summation of the two wattmeter readings:
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 × 𝐼𝑅 + (𝑉𝐵𝑁 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 ) × 𝐼𝐵
= 𝑉𝑅𝑁 × 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 × 𝐼𝐵 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 × 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐵 (1)
From Kirchhoff’s law, summation of currents at
node N must be zero, i.e.,
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 0 It can thus, be concluded that sum of the two
wattmeter readings is equal to the total power
Thus, from Eq. (1), we can re-write,
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 × 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 × 𝐼𝐵 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 × 𝐼𝑌 consumed by the load. This is irrespective of
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela fact whether the load is balanced or not. 128
Power Measurement Contd..
 Delta-Connected System

Derivation: Self Study

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 129

 Effect of Power Factor on Wattmeter Readings
For a balanced star connected load,
Phase voltages, 𝑉𝑅𝑁 = 𝑉𝑌𝑁 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉 (say)
Phase currents, 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑌 = 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼 (say) = Line Current
Line Voltages, 𝑉𝑅𝑌 = 𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 3𝑉
Power factor = cos 𝜑
Reading of W1 (P1)= 𝑉𝑅𝑌 × 𝐼𝑅 cos(30° − 𝜑) = 3𝑉𝐼 cos(30° − 𝜑)
Reading of W2 (P2)= 𝑉𝐵𝑌 × 𝐼𝐵 cos(30° + 𝜑) = 3𝑉𝐼 cos(30° + 𝜑)
Sum of these two-wattmeter readings:
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 3𝑉𝐼 cos 30° − 𝜑 + cos 30° + 𝜑 = 3𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜑 (1)
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 3𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜑 (2)

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 130

Effect of Power Factor on Wattmeter Readings
Solving (1) and (2), Unity Power Factor
𝑃1 −𝑃2
𝜑 = tan−1 ( 3 ) at unity power factor, readings of the two wattmeters are
𝑃1 +𝑃2
equal; each wattmeter reads half the total power.
Thus, power factor,
0.5 Power Factor
𝑃1 −𝑃2
= cos[tan−1 ( 3 )] at 0.5 power factor, one of the wattmeters reads zero, and
𝑃1 +𝑃2
the other reads total power.
Zero Power Factor
at zero power factor, readings of the two wattmeters are
equal but of opposite sign.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 131

Problems
 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the power consumed by a 3-phase
balanced load. One of the wattmeters read 1500 Ω and the other 700 Ω. Find power
factor of the load, when (a) both the readings are positive, and (b) when the reading of
the second wattmeter is obtained after reversing its current coil connection.

 Two wattmeters are connected to measure the power consumed by a 3-phase load
with power factor 0.4. Total power consumed by the load, as indicated by the two
wattmeters is 30 kW. Find the individual wattmeter readings.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 132

Reactive Power Measurements
The wattmeter will read
𝑉𝑅𝑌 × 𝐼𝐵 × cos(90° + 𝜑) = 3𝑉𝐼 cos(90° + 𝜑)
= − 3𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜑
where, V is the per phase rms voltage and I is
the line current of the system.
Total reactive volt amperes of the circuit
= 3𝑉𝐼 sin 𝜑 = 3 × wattmeter reading
𝑄
Phase angle, 𝜑 = tan−1
𝑃

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 133

Potentiometers
A potentiometer is an instrument which is used for measurement of potential difference
across a known resistance or between two terminals of a circuit or network of known
characteristics.
A potentiometer is also used for comparing the emf of two cells.
A potentiometer is extensively used in measurements where the precision required
is higher than that can be obtained by ordinary deflecting instruments, or where it
is required that no current be drawn from the source under test, or where the current
must be limited to a small value.
Since a potentiometer measures voltage by comparing it with a standard cell, it can be
also used to measure the current simply by measuring the voltage drop produced by the
unknown current passing through a known standard resistance.
By the potentiometer, power can also be calculated and if the time is also measured,
energy can be determined by simply multiplying the power and time of measurement.
Thus potentiometer is one of the most fundamental instruments of electrical
measurement.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 134

Potentiometers Contd..
Some important characteristics of potentiometer are the following:
 A potentiometer measures the unknown voltage by comparing it with a known
voltage source rather than by the actual deflection of the pointer. This ensures a high
degree of accuracy.
 As a potentiometer measures using null or balance condition, hence no power is
required for the measurement.
 Determination of voltage using potentiometer is quite independent of the source
resistance.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 135

Potentiometers Contd..
 Basic DC Potentiometer
Switch ‘S’ in the operate position, galvanometer
key K kept open. Battery supplies “working
current” through Rh and the slide wire.
The value of unknown emf E can be measured
by comparing the value of E1 (a-c portion on the
slide wire) in the slide wire when K is closed.
Thus determination of the value of unknown emf
now becomes a matter of evaluating the voltage
drop E1 along the portion ac of the slide wire.
The working current on the slide wire can be
adjusted by changing the value of Rh.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 136

Potentiometers Contd..
 The slide wire has a uniform cross section and hence uniform resistance along the
entire length. A calibrated scale in cm and fractions of cm, is placed along the slide
wire so that the sliding contact can be placed accurately at any desired position along
the slide wire.
 Since the resistance of the slide wire is known accurately, the voltage drop along the
slide wire can be controlled by adjusting the value of working current.
 The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the voltage drop
across a portion of sliding wire against a standard reference source is known as
“standardisation”.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 137

Example of Standardisation
 Say the slide wire of length 200 cm and a resistance of 200 Ω. The emf of the
standard cell is 1.0186 V, switch ‘S’ is thrown to “calibrate” position and the sliding
contact is placed at 101.86 cm mark on the slide wire scale.
 The value of Rh is so adjusted that the galvanometer deflection becomes zero when
the switch ‘K’ is pressed.
 Under this condition, the voltage drop along the 101.86 cm portion of the slide wire is
equal to standard cell voltage of 1.0186 V.
 The working current now, 1.0186/101.86 = 0.01 A = 10 mA
 Keeping the setting of Rh intact, say 1.536 V is required to be measured, then the
slide wire must be placed to 153.6 cm position to attain a null deflection on the
galvanometer.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 138

Crompton’s Potentiometer
 This type of potentiometer has one dial switch with 15 steps,
each having a precision resistor. There is also a single turn
circular slide wire.
 For this case, the resistance of slide wire is 10 Ω and the dial
resistors have a value of 10 Ω each. Thus the dial has a total
resistance of 150 Ω and in addition the slide wire has a
resistance of 10 Ω. The working current of the potentiometer
is 10 mA and therefore each step of dial switch corresponds
to 0.1 V.
The following steps to follow when using this type of
potentiometer:
 The combination of dial resistors and the slide wire is set to
the standard cell voltage.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 139

Crompton’s Potentiometer
 The switch S is thrown to the calibrate position and the galvanometer key is tapped
while the rheostat is adjusted for zero deflection on the galvanometer. Initially the
protective resistance is kept in the circuit to save the galvanometer from damage.
 As the balance or null point is approached, the protective resistance is shorted so as
to increase the sensitivity of the galvanometer. Final adjustments are made for zero
deflection with the help of rheostat. This is the standardisation process for the
potentiometer.
 After standardisation, the switch is thrown to operate position thereby connecting the
unknown emf into the potentiometer circuit. The potentiometer is then balanced by
adjusting the main dial and the slide wire.
 The unknown emf is read off directly from the settings of the dial and slide wire.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 140

Module VI:

141

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela

Introduction
The physical quantity under measurement makes its first contact in the time of
measurement with a sensor. A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity
and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument.
 A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a
voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against known standards.
A transducer is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical,
electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic that converts one type of energy or physical
attribute to another (generally electrical or mechanical) for various measurement
purposes including measurement or information transfer (for example, pressure
sensors).
 The term transducer is commonly used in two senses; the sensor, used to detect a
parameter in one form and report it in another (usually an electrical or digital signal),
and the audio loudspeaker, which converts electrical voltage variations
representing music or speech to mechanical cone vibration and hence vibrates air
molecules creating sound.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 142

Electrical Transducers
 Electrical transducers are defined as the transducers which convert one form of
energy to electrical energy for measurement purposes. The quantities which
cannot be measured directly, such as pressure, displacement, temperature, humidity,
fluid flow, etc., are required to be sensed and changed into electrical signal first for
easy measurement.
 The advantages of electrical transducers are the following:
 Lesser power absorption.
 Amplification of any signal as required.
 Friction effect is minimised.
 Mass-inertia effect are also minimised.
 Remote location sensing is made possible.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 143

Classification of Transducers
 Transducers are classified into several types. However, these can be categorized into
five types. They are,
1. Classification on the basis of transduction principle used.
2. Active and passive transducers
3. Analog and digital transducers
4. Primary and secondary transducers
5. Transducers and inverse transducers.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 144

Classification of Transducers Contd..
 Classification on the Basis of Transduction Principle Used
This classification is done depending on the transduction principle i.e., how the input
variable is being converted into capacitance, resistance and inductance values. (These
are named as capacitive transducer, resistive transducer and inductive transducer
respectively).
Capacitive Transducer: Dielectric gauge (thickness/liquid level), Capacitor Microphone
(Noise/Speech & Music).
Resistive Transducer: Resistance thermometer (Temperature/radiant heat),
Potentiometer device (displacement measurement).
Inductive Transducer: Reluctance pick up (Pressure/vibration, etc.), Magnetostriction
gauge (Sound/Force).

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 145

Classification of Transducers Contd..
 Active and Passive Transducers
Active Transducer: The transducer which does not requires any external excitation to
provide their outputs are referred as active transducer.
e.g. Photo voltaic cell (Light meters/solar cells), Thermocouple (Temperature/radiation).
Passive Transducer: The transducer which requires an external excitation to provide
their output is referred as passive transducer.
e.g. Capacitive transducers (thickness), Resistive transducers (temperature), Inductive
transducers (displacement).

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 146

Classification of Transducers Contd..
 Analog and Digital Transducers  Primary and Secondary Transducers
Analog Transducer: The transducer Primary Transducer: The transducer which
which produces their outputs in analog sends the measurement and converts them
form or a form which is a continuous into another variables (like displacement,
function of time is referred as analog strain etc.) and whose output forms the
transducer. input of another transducer is called as
primary transducer.
e.g. Strain Gauge (displacement),
Thermistor (Temperature). e.g. Bourdon Tube (Pressure), Strain
Gauge (Force).
Digital Transducer: The transducer
which produces their outputs in digital Secondary Transducer: The transducer
form or a form of pulses is referred as which converts the output of first transducer
digital transducers. into an electrical output called secondary
transducer..
e.g. Turbine Meter (flow measurement) e.g. LVDT (displacement)

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 147

Classification of Transducers Contd..
 Transducers and Inverse Transducers
Transducers: A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable
into electrical variable is known as transducer.
e.g. Thermocouple (temperature)
Inverse Transducer: A measuring device which measures and converts an electrical
variable into nonelectrical variable is known as inverse transducer.
e.g. Piezo-electric crystal (Pressure/Vibration)

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 148

Selection of Transducers
Parameters to be considered in the selection of a transducer for a particular application are:
 Operating Principle: Basically the transducers are selected based on their operating
principle. Examples of operating principles used by the transducers are resistive,
capacitive, piezoelectric, inductive, up to electronic principle etc.
 Operating Range: This factor is considered so that the transducer should be able to
function within the specified range with good resolution. Every transducer should be
provided with some rating within which there will be breakdown in its function.
 Accuracy: It is one of the most desired characteristic of any transducer. If the transducer
doesn't needs frequent calibration, it must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
Because errors may occur due to the sensitivity of the transducer to other stimulations.
 Sensitivity: It is also a desired characteristic of a transducer. Every transducer should be
sufficiently sensitive to provide some output that can be sufficient and detectable.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 149

Selection of Transducers Contd..
 Stability and Reliability: The transducer should have high degree of stability during its function and
also storage life. It should also have a high degree of reliability.
 Usage and Ruggedness: The ruggedness, size and weight of a transducer should be chosen
depending on the application in which it is used.
 Transient Response and Frequency Response: The transducer should have required time domain
specifications such as, settling time, rise time, peak over shoot and small dynamic error etc.
 Loading Effects: The transducers should undergo minimum loading effect so that if can provide
accurate measurement. The parameters of a transducer are that, which characterize the loading
effect is its input and output impedance. lt is considered in order to get minimum loading effects
(Which can be neglected). For minimum loading effect the transducer should have low output
impedance and high input impedance.
 Electrical Parameters: The type and length of cable required, signal to noise ratio in case the
transducer is used with amplifiers and frequency response limitations should also be considered.
 Ability to be insensitive to unwanted signals (or the ability to be sensitive to desired signals).
 Environmental compatibility.
 Static Characteristics The selected transducer should have low hysteresis, high linearity and high resolution.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 150

Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an electrical transducer; it is used to measure mechanical surface
tension. Strain gauge can detect and convert force or small mechanical displacement
into electrical signals.
On the application of force, a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance
changes owing to the fact both length and diameter of conductor change. Also, there is
a change on the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property
of the metal is called piezoresistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also
known as piezoresistive gauges.
The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated stress in
experimental stress analysis. Secondly, many other detectors and transducers, for
example the load cell, torque meter, flow meter, accelerometer employ strain gauge as
a secondary transducer.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 151

Theory of Resistance Strain Gauges
The change in the value of resistance by the
application of force can be explained by the
normal dimensional changes of elastic
material. If a positive strain occurs, its
longitudinal dimension (x-direction) will
increase while there will be a reduction in the Length L, area A, diameter D before being
lateral dimension (y-direction). The reverse strained. The material of the wire has a resistivity
happens for a negative strain. Since the ρ.
resistance of a conductor is directly 𝐿
Resistance of unstrained gauge, 𝑅 = 𝜌 (1)
proportional to its length and inversely 𝐴
proportional to its cross sectional area, the In order to find how ΔR depends upon the
resistance changes. The resistivity of a material physical quantities, the expression for R
conductor is also changed when strained. is differentiated with respect to stress S. Thus,
𝑑𝑅 𝜌 𝜕𝐿 𝜌𝐿 𝜕𝐴 𝐿 𝜕𝜌
This property is known as piezoresistive 𝑑𝑆
=
𝐴 𝜕𝑆
− 2 +
𝐴 𝜕𝑆 𝐴 𝜕𝑆
(2)
effect.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 152

Theory of Resistance Strain Gauges Contd..
Now, dividing (2) by (1) returns, Putting the value of (4) in (3), we get,
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝜕𝐿 2 𝜕𝐷 1 𝜕𝜌
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝜕𝐿 1 𝜕𝐴 1 𝜕𝜌 = − + (5)
= − + (3) 𝑅 𝑑𝑆 𝐿 𝜕𝑆 𝐷 𝜕𝑆 𝜌 𝜕𝑆
𝑅 𝑑𝑆 𝐿 𝜕𝑆 𝐴 𝜕𝑆 𝜌 𝜕𝑆 Now, Poisson’s ratio,
It is clear from Eq. (3), that the per unit Lateral Strain 𝜕𝐷/𝐷
𝜈= =−
change in resistance is due to the Longituidinal Strain 𝜕𝐿/𝐿
∆𝐿 ∆𝐴 ∆𝜌 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐿
following: , , or, =−𝜈 (6)
𝐿 𝐴 𝜌 𝐷 𝐿
𝜋 2 Placing (6) into (5) returns,
Now, area, 𝐴 = 𝐷
4
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝜕𝐿 2𝜈 𝜕𝐿 1 𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝐴 𝜋 𝜕𝐷 = + + (7)
or, = 2. . 𝐷. 𝑅 𝑑𝑆 𝐿 𝜕𝑆 𝐿 𝜕𝑆 𝜌 𝜕𝑆
𝜕𝑆 4 𝜕𝑆 For small variations, the above relationship
𝜋
1 𝜕𝐴 2
𝐷
𝜕𝐷 2 𝜕𝐷 can be written as,
or, = = (4) ∆𝑅 ∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 ∆𝜌
𝐴 𝜕𝑆 (𝜋/4)𝐷2 𝜕𝑆 𝐷 𝜕𝑆 = + 2𝜈 + (8)
𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝜌

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 153

Theory of Resistance Strain Gauges Contd..
The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit
change in length.
∆𝑅/𝑅 ∆𝜌/𝜌 ∆𝐿
Gauge Factor, 𝐺𝑓 = = 1 + 2𝜈 + (where, 𝜀 = = Strain)
∆𝐿/𝐿 𝜀 𝐿

The Gauge factor can be written as,

𝐺𝑓 = 1 + 2𝜈

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 154

Inductive Transducers
Change in self inductance:
The variable inductance transducers
The self inductance of a coil, 𝐿 = 𝑁 2 /𝑅
work, generally, upon one of the following
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit, 𝑅 = 𝑙/𝜇𝐴
three principle: 𝐴
So, inductance, 𝐿 = 𝑁 2 𝜇 = 𝑁 2 𝜇𝐺 (G = A/l)
𝑙
(i) change in self inductance
It is clear from the above equation that the variation
(ii) change in mutual inductance in inductance may be caused by:
(a) Change in number of turns
(iii) production of eddy current (b) Change in geometric configurations, G, and
(c) Change in permeability, 𝜇

Differential Output: While the transducer is designed to provide two outputs, one of which is an
increase of self inductance and the other is decrease in self inductance, the succeeding stages of
instrumentation system measure the difference between these outputs, i.e. 2∆𝐿. This is known as the
differential output. Advantages are, increased sensitivity and accuracy; lesser impact of external
magnetic fields; lesser impact of temperature variation; effects of changes in supply voltage and
frequency are reduced.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 155
Inductive Transducers Contd..
Change in mutual inductance: Production of eddy current:
An inductive transducer working on the These inductive transducers work on the
principle variation of mutual inductance uses principle that if a conducting plate is placed
multiple coils. The mutual inductance between near a coil carrying alternating current, eddy
two coils is: currents are produced in the conducting
𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2 plate. The conducting plate acts as short
circuited secondary winding of the
Thus the mutual inductance between the coils transformer.
can be varied by variation of self –
inductances or the co-efficient of coupling. The eddy currents flowing in the plate
produce a magnetic field of their own which
acts against the magnetic field produced by
the coil. This results in reduction of flux and
thus inductance of the coil is reduced. Thus
the inductance of the coil alters with variation
of distance between the plate and the coil.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela Variable reluctance inductive transducer 156

Inductive Transducer for Pressure Measurement

Inductive transducers have been successfully

used as secondary transducers along with a
diaphragm for measurement of pressure. There
are two coils; an upper coil and a lower coil
which form the two arms of an ac bridge. The
coils have equal number of turns. The other
two arms of the bridge are formed by two equal
resistances each of value R.
The diaphragm is symmetrically placed with Under this condition, the bridge is balanced
respect to the coils and so when P1 = P2, the and the output, e0, of the bridge is zero.
reluctances of the paths of magnetic flux for If P2 > P1, the differential pressure, P = P2 -
both the coils are equal and hence inductances P1 deflects the diaphragm upwards through
of the coils are equal. a distance d. For smaller displacements of
𝑁2 the diaphragm, the reluctance of the flux
Now, initial self inductance = (Here, N = path of the upper coil is 𝑅1 = 𝑅0 + 𝐾 𝐷 − 𝑑
𝑅0
turns, R0 = reluctance of flux path) and for the lower coil 𝑅2 = 𝑅0 + 𝐾 𝐷 + 𝑑 .

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 157

Inductive Transducer Contd..
𝑁2
Hence the inductance of the upper coil, 𝐿1 = = 𝑁 2 / 𝑅0 + 𝐾 𝐷 − 𝑑
𝑅1
𝑁2
Hence the inductance of the lower coil, 𝐿2 = = 𝑁 2 / 𝑅0 + 𝐾 𝐷 + 𝑑
𝑅2

The bridge becomes unbalanced, and the approximate

2
value of output voltage is given by,
𝑁
1 𝐿2 1 𝑅0 + 𝐾 𝐷 + 𝑑 𝐾𝑑𝑒𝑖
𝑒0 = − 𝑒 = − × 𝑒𝑖 =
2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝑖 2 𝑁2 𝑁2 2(𝑅0 + 𝐾𝐷)
+
𝑅0 +𝐾 𝐷 − 𝑑 𝑅0 + 𝐾 𝐷 + 𝑑
Since, K, R0, D and ei are constant, the output voltage is directly proportional to displacement
d, of the diaphragm.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 158

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical
signals is the LVDT.

The differential output voltage is given by, 𝐸0 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 159

LVDT Contd..
Advantages:
 High range
 Lesser friction and better isolation
 Improved sensitivity
 Ruggedness
 Low hysteresis
 Low power consumption

Disadvantages:
Larger displacement; more sensitive to stray magnetic fields; issues with vibration; operates only in
ac as the input; poor dynamic response; temperature affects.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 160

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)
 It is used for measuring angular
displacements, and operates in the same
manner as a LVDT. The core of this
transducer is cylindrical iron core and may be
rotated between the windings by means of a
shaft.
 When the core is in null position the output
voltage of secondary winding S1 and S2 are
equal and opposite. Therefore at this position
the net output voltage is zero. If any angular
displacement in the core occurs from the null
position its changes the differential output The clockwise rotation of the core produces an
voltage. The greater angular displacement the increasing voltage of a secondary winding of
greater will be the differential output voltage. one phase while the counter-clockwise rotation
produces an increasing voltage of opposite
phase.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 161
Capacitive Transducers
 The capacitive transducer is the capacitor with variable
capacitance. The capacitive transducer comprises of two
parallel metal plates that are separated by the material
such as air, which is called as the dielectric material. In
the parallel plate capacitor as shown in Fig. the distance
between the two plates is fixed, but in variable
capacitance transducers the distance between the two
plates is variable.
𝐴
 Value of capacitance is given by, 𝐶 =∈
𝑑

In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the capacitance changes due to
change in the value of the input quantity that is to be measured. The capacitive transducer is
used extensively for the measurement of displacement, pressure etc.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 162

Capacitive Transducers Contd..
 Advantages of Capacitive Transducer
1. They are very sensitive.
2. Good frequency response.
3. The force requirement of capacitive transducer is very small and therefore it require
small power to operate.
 Disadvantage of Capacitive Transducer
1. The capacitive transducer are temperature sensitive.
2. The instrumentation circuit is very complex.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 163

Piezoelectric Transducers
 The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of
piezoelectric effect. When mechanical stress or forces
are applied to some materials along certain planes,
they produce electric voltage. This electric voltage can
be measured easily by the voltage measuring
instruments, which can be used to measure the stress
or force.
 Figure shows the piezo-electric crystal. The magnitude
and polarity of the induced surface are proportional to
the magnitude and direction of the applied force F. The
polarity of induced charge depends upon the direction
of applied force. The charge is given by, 𝑄 = 𝑑 × 𝐹.
where d = charge sensitivity of crystal; F = applied force

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 164

Equivalent Circuit of Piezoelectric Transducers
 The source is the charge generator. The value of charge is Q = dF. The charge
generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source, it is connected across the
capacitor CP of the crystal and leakage resistance RP. The voltage is given by,
𝑄 𝑑×𝐹
𝐸= =
𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 165

Hall Effect Transducer
 This transducer works on the principle of
Hall Effect. Fig. shows the hall effect
element when a current conducting material
is placed in the transverse magnetic field
then the difference of potential is produced
between the opposite edges of the
conductor. This effect is known as Hall
Effect. The magnitude of the voltage
depends upon the current, the strength of
magnetic field and the property of the
conductor.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 166

Hall Effect Transducer Contd..
 Let the current pass through edge 1 and 2 of the conductor and the output leads is
connected to edge 3 and 4. The edge 3 and 4 are at same potential when there is no
transverse magnetic field passing through the conductor. When a transverse magnetic
field passing through the conductor, an output voltage appears across the output
leads. This output voltage is proportional to the current and the field strength. The
output voltage is given by,
𝐾𝐻 𝐼𝐵
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑡
where KH = Hall effect constant; t = thickness of the conductor; I = current in the circuit;
B = Flux density
 The voltage produces may be used for measurement of the current I or the magnetic
field strength B.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 167

Hall Effect Transducer Applications
 Magnetic to Electric Transducer: This transducer is
used as a magnetic to electrical transducer. A
semiconductor plate is inserted into the magnetic field to
be measured. The magnetic lines of force are
perpendicular to the semiconducting plate. The
transducer gives an output voltage which is proportional
to the magnetic field density B. Also the element gives
out a continuous electric signal in direct response to the
magnetic field strength.

Measurement of Displacement: The hall effect is used for measurement of the location or displacement of
the elements. Fig. shows in which a ferro-magnetic structure having a permanent magnet. The hall effect
transducer is located in the gap adjacent to the permanent magnet. The field strength produced in the gap,
adjacent to the permanent magnet in the gap, where the hall effect element is located, is varied by changing
the position of a ferro-magnetic plate. The output voltage of the hall effect transducer is proportional to the field
strength in the gap which is a function of the position of the ferromagnetic plate from the structure.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 168

Hall Effect Transducer Applications
 Measurement of Current: The hall effect transducer used to measure the current in
conductor without the need for interrupting the circuit and without making electrical
connection between the conductor and the meter. The current passes through the
conductor and sets up a magnetic field surrounding the conductor. The magnetic field
is proportional to the current.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 169

Thermistor
 Thermistor are the semiconductor type resistance
thermometers. They have high sensitivity but highly nonlinear
characteristics. It also having positive temperature coefficients
but generally the resistor having negative temperature
coefficient are called Thermistor. Their characteristics can be
expressed as,
1 1
𝛽( − )
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0
here, RT = resistance at temperature T(K); R0 = resistance at
temperature T0; T0 = reference temperature at 25°C; 𝛽 =
constant
 Fig. shows the characteristics of NTC type thermistors. The
The nonlinear characteristics
resistance of the thermistor decrease as the operating of thermistors often creates
temperature increases. They are made from oxides of iron, problem for temperature
manganese, magnesium etc. measurement.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 170
Thermistor Contd..
 Voltage-Current characteristics: Current Time Characteristics:

The voltage current characteristics of At very low voltages the thermistor takes long
thermistor. As the current increases, the time to reach peak current. As the voltage level
voltage across the thermistor increase after increase the time to reach peak current
reaching the peak value voltage start decreases. These characteristics are shown in
decreasing, and the negative resistance region Fig. it is also known as current time
starts. characteristics.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 171
Thermistor Contd..
 Types of thermistor:
Bead thermistors. Smallest Thermistors are in the form of heads with a
diameter of 0.15mm to 1.25mm. This is the most familiar type of Thermistor
usually glass coated.
Probe Thermistor. Beads may be sealed in the tips of soild glass rods to form
probes. Glass probe have a diameter of about 2.5mm. the probes are used for
measuring temperature of liquids.
Disc Thermistor. Discs are made by pressing material under high pressure into
cylindrical flat shapes with a diameters ranging from 2.5mm to 25mm. they are
mainly used for temperature control.
Washer type Thermistor. Washer type is usually long cylindrical units. Leads
are attached to the ends of the rods. The advantage of this type is, it produce
high resistance under moderate power.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 172
Thermistor Contd.. Problem: At Ro = 1050 W at 27°C, the corresponding β =
3140. What is the temperature when the thermistor
resistance is 2330 W.
Advantages
Some of the main advantages of thermistor are given below:
1. Low cost
2. Sensitivity is high Disadvantages
3. Small in size. Some of the disadvantages of thermistor are given below:
4. Good stability. 1. Not suitable for high temperature measurement.
5. High output signal. 2. Requires external power supply.

Applications
Main applications of thermistor are given below:
1. Used for measurement and control of temperature.
2. Used for providing time delay.
3. Used as temperature compensation element in electronic equipment.
4. Used for measuring thermal conductivity of a medium

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 173

Thermocouple
 Seebeck Effect. Two wires of different metals A and B are joined
together to form two junctions and if the two junctions are at different
temperatures, an electric current will flow around the circuit. This is the
Seebeck effect. If metal A is of copper and metal B of iron, then the current
flows from copper to iron at the hot junction and from iron to copper at the
cold junction as shown in Fig.
A thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar conductors welded or fused
together at one end to form the hot or measuring junction with other end
available for connection to the cold or reference junction.
A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that converts thermal energy into
electrical energy. The thermocouple is used as a primary transducer for
measurement of temperature, converting temperature changes directly into
emf.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 174

Thermocouple Contd..
 There are two junctions T1 and T2. The junction T2 is kept at constant reference temperature and referred
as cold junction while the junction T1 is referred as hot junction. When the hot junction temperature is
greater as compared to the cold junction an emf is generated due to the temperature gradient. The
magnitude of the emf depends on the material used for the wires and temperature difference between the
two junctions. A meter or recorder is used to measure emf

Types of Thermocouple
There are several types of thermocouples available, and
different types are designated by capital letters that
indicate their composition according to American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) conventions. For
example, a J-Type thermocouple has one iron conductor
and one constantan (a copper-nickel alloy) conductor.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 175

Thermocouple Contd..
Measurement of Temperature with Thermocouple
 Fig. shows the thermal emfs for some T Type Thermocouple. Fig. shows a T type , uses copper and
common thermocouple materials. The constantan. Copper used is an element and constantan use is an
values are based on a reference alloy of nickel and copper. The copper side is positive and
temperature of 32°F. constantan side is negative. Assuming copper wires used to
connect the thermocouple to the next stage and second copper-
constantan junction is produced. The junction is called as
reference junction.
It generates a seeback voltage that oppose the voltage generated
by the sensing junction. When the both junction are at the same
temperature, the output voltage is zero. If the sensing junction is
at high temperature the output voltage is proportional to the
difference between the two junction temperatures.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 176

Thermocouple Contd..
 With Cold Junction Compensation. The For accurate measurement of hot junction temperature the
temperature cannot be delivered directly from cold junction or reference junction must kept at 0°C. If the
the output voltage, it may cause an error cold junction is at ambient temperature then a voltage
produced by the reference junction. This error corresponding to this temperature must be added to the
is overcome by placing the reference junction
in the ice bath of known temperature as measurement to obtain accurate reading.
shown in Fig. This process is called as cold The standard calibration data for all thermocouples are
junction compensation. The reference voltage based on cold junction temperature. In practice it may not
is maintained at 0°C. The reference voltage is be possible to keep cold junction at zero degree
now predictable from the calibration curve of
temperature. Hence standard data need to be corrected.
the T type thermocouple.
One way is to add the environmental temperature to the
value of temperature determined by thermocouple
measurement. In another method, thermistor may be put
in the thermocouple circuit. The voltage drop across
thermistor depends on environmental temperature which
then compensates for the error.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 177

Thermocouple Contd..
 Selection of Materials for Thermocouple

Some of the property of material used for thermocouple are given below:
1. Melting point of thermocouple materials must be higher than the measuring temperature.
2. The dissimilar materials on joining should be able to produce large emf for accuracy of measurements.
3. Temperature is determined indirectly i.e. through calibrations of emf with temperature. As far as possible,
the linear variation of emf with temperature is desired.
4. Thermocouple materials should be resistant to atmospheres in furnaces.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 178

Thermocouple Contd..
Advantages of Thermocouple
Some of the advantages of thermocouples are given below:
1. The thermocouple junction may be grounded and brought into direct contact with the material being measured.
2. The thermocouples is rugged in construction
3. It cover a wide range of temperature form –270° C to 2700° C.
4. Using extension leads and compensating cables, long distances transmission for temperature measurement is
possible.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple
Some of the main disadvantages of thermocouple are given below:
1. Temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires two temperatures be measured, the junction
at the work end (the hot junction) and the junction where wires meet the instrumentation copper wires
(cold junction).
2. Thermocouples operation are relatively complex with potential sources of error.
3. They have a lower accuracy and hence they cannot be used for precision work.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 179

Photo Diodes
 A photodiode is a two terminal PN junction device, which operates in a reverse bias. It has a transparent
window, which allows light to strike the PN junction. Figure (a) and (b) shows structure and schematic
symbol of a photodiode. The basic biasing arrangement of a photodiode as shown in Fig. (c).
A reverse biased semi-conductor diode
passes only a small leakage current (a
fraction of 1 μA in typical silicon diodes) if the
junction is not exposed to light. Under
illumination, however, the current rises almost
in direct proportion to light intensity. Thus, the
photo diode can be used in applications
similar to those in a photo-conductive cells.

When the device operates with a reverse voltage applied, it functions as a photo – conductive device.
When operating without the reverse voltage, it functions as a photovoltaic device. It is also possible to
arrange for a photodiode to change from photo-conductive mode to photo-voltaic mode. However, the
photo diode has a very important advantages over the photo – conductive cell. These advantages are its
response time is much faster, so that it may be used in applications in which light fluctuations occur at
high frequencies.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 180
Photo Diodes Contd..
A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in a sense that its reverse current
increases with the light intensity at the PN junction. When there is no
incident light, the reverse current is almost negligible and is called the dark
current. An increase in the amount of light energy produces an increase in
the reverse current for a given value of reverse-bias voltage. Figure shows
the characteristic curves for a typical diode.
It may be noted from the characteristic curve that the dark current, for this
particular device, is approximately 25 μA at a reverse bias voltage of 3 V.
Therefore, resistance of the device with the incident light,
3
𝑟𝑅 = = 120 𝑘Ω
25 × 10−6
At 20 000 lm/m2, the current is approximately 300 μA at 3 V. The resistance under this condition, 𝑟𝑅 = 10 𝑘Ω
These calculations show that the photodiode can be used as a variable resistance device controlled by
light intensity. A photodiode can be used to switch on the current at a very fast rate (in nanosecond). Thus it is
one of the fastest photo detectors.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 181
Photo Diodes Contd..
Photodiode Applications
Some of the important applications of a photodiode are as follows:
1. Photo detection (Both visible and invisible)
2. Demodulation
3. Logic circuits
4. Switching
5. Optical communication systems
6. Character recognition
7. Encoders etc.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 182

Photo Transistors
 The sensitivity of a photodiode can be increased by as large as a factor 100 by addition of junction which
makes it a N-P-N device i.e., a photo transistor.

Illumination of the central region causes the

release of electron hole pairs here. This
lowers the barrier potential across both
junctions, causing an increase in the flow of
electrons from left hand region into the
central region and on to the right hand
region.
For a given amount of illumination on a very
small area, the photo – transistor provides a
much larger output current than that is
available from a photo diode and therefore
photo – transistor is much more sensitive
than a photo diode.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 183

Photo Transistors Contd..
Applications:
 Linear light meters

 Operation of Relays

 Modulated light

 Use in shaft encoder

 Use as switching devices for digital circuits

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 184

Encoders
 Digital Displacement Transducers
Any transducer that presents information as discrete samples and that does not introduce a quantization error, when
the reading is represented in the digital form may be classified as a digital transducer.
Any transducer that generates a coded form of a measurement can be termed an digital encoder. Digital encoder
transducer enable a linear or rotary displacement to be directly converted into digital form without intermediate forms
of analog to digital conversion.
There are following types of digital encoder transducer, they are given below:
Tachnometer Encoders. This transducer has only a single output
signal which consists of a pulse for each increment of displacement.
Figure shows the tachnometer encoder. If the motion is always in
one direction, a counter could accumulate these pulses to determine
the displacement form a known starting point. Any motion in
opposite direction would also produce identical pulses, which would
produce errors. Therefore this digital transducer is usually used for
measurement of speed.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 185
Encoders Contd..
Incremental Encoders. In this transducer the incremental encoder uses
at least two signal generating elements. The two tracks in the case of
incremental encoder are mechanically shifted by ¼ cycle relative to each
other. This allows detection of motion which signal rises first. Thus an up
down pulse counter can be used to subtract pulses whenever the motion
reverse. A third output, which produces one pulse per revolution at a
distinct point, it sometimes provide for zero reference.

Absolute Encoders. It generally limited to measurement of a single

revolution. They use multiple tracks and outputs, which are readout in
parallel to produce a binary representation of the angular shaft input
position. There is a one-to-one correspondence between binary output,
position data are recovered when power is restored after an outage. The
transient electric noise causes only transient measurement errors.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 186

Encoders Contd..
 Digital Optical Encoder: Any Transducer that generates a coded reading of a measurement can be
termed an encoder. Optical Encoder uses an opaque disk with one or more circular tracks with some
arrangement of identical transparent windows (slit) in each track. An optical light source and light sensors
are used to obtain the output of the system.
Figure shows the optical encoder using an opaque
disk that has one or more circular tracks, with some
arrangement of identical transparent windows. A
parallel beam of light is projected to all tracks from
one side of the disk. The light sensor could be a
silicon photodiode, a phototransistor, or a photovoltaic
cell. The light from the source is interrupted by the
opaque areas of the track, the output signal from the
probe is a series of voltage pulses.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 187

Signal Conditioning
 Fig shows the block diagram of signal conditioning. The
input device such as transducer is used to convert the
quantity to be measured into an electrical signal. Signal
inputs accepted by signal conditioners include DC voltage
and current, AC voltage and current, frequency and electric
charge. Sensor inputs can be accelerometer,
thermocouple, thermistor, resistance thermometer, strain
gauge or bridge, and LVDT or RVDT. Specialized inputs
include encoder, counter or tachometer, timer or clock,
relay or switch, and other specialized inputs. Outputs for
signal conditioning equipment can be voltage, current,
frequency, timer or counter, relay, resistance or
potentiometer, and other specialized outputs.
 The electrical output signal generated by a transducer often
needs “conditioning” before it can be measured. The signal
may require amplification, filtering, linearization and more
before it can accurately read it. Additionally, some
transducers require an excitation source or proper biasing
to complete measurements.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 192

Signal Conditioning Contd..
 Some characteristics of each signal are related in a known way to the quantity to be measured. The
measured quantity is now encoded as an electrical signal. Now the electrical signal from the input device is
modified by suitable electronic circuit to make is suitable for operating a read-out device.
 The output number is obtained from a readout device such as meter or chart recorder, where the position of
a marker against a numbered scale is observed. The measurements of data are represented in an
instrument at any instant by a physical quantity, chemical quantity or characteristics of an electrical signal.
Each different characteristics or property used to represent data is called a data domain.
 The signal conditioning equipment may be required to perform linear processes such as amplification,
attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition or subtraction. They are also required to do non-linear
processes such as modulation, demodulation, sampling, filtering, clipping and clamping, squaring and
linearizing or multiplication by another function. These functions require proper selection of components and
reproduction of the final output for the presentation stage.
 The signal conditioning in many situation is an excitation and amplification system for passive transducer.
For active transducers it may be amplification system. In both the application, the transducer output is
brought up to sufficient level to make it useful for conversion, processing indicating and recording.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 193

Types of Signal Conditioning
 D.C Signal Conditioning System

In the calibration and zeroing network unit the

calibration of desired or required parameters
like voltage, current, resistance is calibrated in
terms of measured for example strain gauge is
used in the dc bridge whose parameters found in terms of resistance but is calibrated in terms of force pressure
displacement.
The zeroing network process for calibration such that only linear portion of the transducer characteristics is
generated. Therefore zeroing network fixes the zero point and calibration starts from here.
In DC amplifier we have amplification, integration, addition, subtraction etc. units. This unit works only when it is
supplied by power supply. The low pass is used for filtering high frequency signal.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 194

Types of Signal Conditioning Contd..
 AC Signal Conditioning System:

 It is used for variable reactance transducer

and for systems where signals have to be
transmitted via long cables to connect the
transducer to the signal conditioning
equipment.

In this the purpose of calibration and zeroing network unit is same as in DC signal conditioning system. The
carrier oscillator provides oscillating signal with certain frequency to run the AC bridge. This carrier signal is
also provided to phase sensitive demodulator circuit to multiply the signal coming from the bridge via AC
amplification. The phase sensitive demodulator senses the phase or the signal and demodulates the incoming
signal. The low pass is used for filtering high frequency signal..

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 195

Telemetry
 Telemetry systems were developed to provide long distance communications. A telemetry system consists
of three main parts, a telemeter transmitter, a receiving unit and the telemeter channel that connects the
transmitting and receiving devices.
The connecting link between transmitter and the receiver may be direct or indirect link. Based on the link the
telemetry system may be classified as given below:
 Land Line Telemetry System. The land line telemetry system transmits data with direct physical link. The
link can be wire used for telephone or power carrier line. Classification of land line telemetry system is basis
on the character of electrical signal like voltage, current, frequency, position and pulse.
 Radio Frequency (R.F) Telemetry System. In this telemetry system there is no physical link between
telemeter transmitter and telemeter receiver. It transmits the data through the radio link.

Telemetry systems can be also classified as analog telemetry and digital telemetry. If the information is in the
form of current, voltage, position, frequency then the system is called analog telemetry system and if the
information is in the forms of pulse then the system is called digital telemetry system.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 196

Smart Sensors

 When a sensor device is packaged together with a

CPU it is called a “smart sensor.” The sensors really
become smart when the tight integration of sensing and
processing results in an adaptive sensing system that
can react to environmental conditions and consistently
deliver useful measurements to a robotic system even
under the harshest of the conditions.

Figure shows the basic structure of an intelligent/smart sensor. The process is sensed by the sensor device.
Then it is applied to the analog signal conditioning. After an Analog Digital Conversion (ADC) the process
value is stored inside the memory of a controller (typically micro controller) where also some digital signal
conditioning algorithms may run. Via a bus coupling device the value or a value being calculated can be read
out from the bus. Whereas conventional sensors only support data traffic in one direction from the sensor to
the host or to the coupling field bus box but in intelligent sensors its allow data to be send in both direction.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 197

Data Acquisition System
 In most of the real world applications, the analog data must be digitized and transferred into a computer’s or
microcontroller system’s memory. The process by which the microcontroller acquires these digitized analog
data is referred to as data acquisition.

Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of

measuring an electrical or physical phenomenon
such as voltage, current, temperature, pressure,
or sound with a computer. Fig. shows a DAQ
system, it consists of sensors, DAQ measurement
hardware and a computer with programmable
software.
Sensor: It measures a physical phenomenon, such as the temperature of a room, the intensity of a light
source, or the force applied to an object etc. A sensor, also called a transducer when it converts a physical
phenomenon into a measurable electrical signal.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 198

Data Acquisition System Contd..
 DAQ Device: It acts as the interface between a computer and signals from the outside world. It primarily
functions as a device that digitizes incoming analog signals so that a computer can interpret them. The
three key components of a DAQ device used for measuring a signal are the signal conditioning circuitry,
analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and computer bus.
 Computer: A computer with programmable software controls the operation of the DAQ device and is used
for processing, visualizing, and storing measurement data. Different types of computers are used in
different types of applications.
 Bus: It serves as the communication interface between the DAQ device and computer for passing
instructions and measured data.
Data Logging. A data logger is any device that can be used
to store data. This includes many data acquisition devices
such as plug-in boards or serial communication systems
which use a computer as a real time data recording system.
Data logging is the measuring and recording of physical or
electrical parameters over a period of time.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 199

Module V:

200

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela

Electronic Instruments
Main Elements of an Electronic Instrument: Most of the
electronic instruments have the following main three elements: (i)
transducer (ii) signal modifier and (iii) indicating device.
Transducer. It is the first sensing element and is required only when
measuring a nonelectrical quantity, say, temperature or pressure. Its
function is to convert the non-electrical physical quantity into an
electrical signal. Of course, a transducer is not required if the
quantity being measured is already in the electrical form.
.Signal Modifier. It is the second element and its function is to make the incoming signal suitable for application
to the indicating device. For example, the signal may need amplification before it can be properly displayed.
Other types of signal modifiers are: voltage dividers for reducing the amount of signal applied to the indicating
device or wave shaping circuits such as filters, rectifiers or chopper etc.
Indicating Device. For general purpose instruments like voltmeters, ammeters or ohm meters, the indicating
device is usually a deflection type meter. In digital readout instruments; the indicating device is of digital design

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 201

Electronic Instruments Contd..
Electronic Versus Electrical Instruments:
Although electronic instruments are usually more expensive than their electrical instruments but they offer
following advantages for measurements purposes:
 Electronics Instruments can amplify the input signal, they have very high sensitivity. They are capable of
measuring extremely small input (low amplitude) signals.
 Due to the high sensitivity, their input impedance is increased which means less loading effect when making
measurements,
 These instruments have greater speed i.e. faster response to the input signal and flexibility,

 It can be interfaced very easily with a computer system. This advantage allows the signal to be processed
using digital signal processing techniques.

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 202

Electronic Voltmeter
 Electronic Voltmeter has become a very important tool for instrument and control engineers. An electronic
voltmeter uses rectifiers, amplifiers and other circuits to generate a current proportional to the voltage being
measured. In an electronic voltmeter, a measured alternating voltage is rectified using a diode rectifier or
decoder and a rectified direct current is produced which is the measure of the original alternating voltage.
Fig. shows the block diagram of
modern electronic voltmeter. As
seen from the diagram it
consists of input switching and
ranging circuit, amplification
circuit and analog-to-digital
conversion (rectification) circuit
and a voltmeter. The voltmeter would be a simple permanent moving coil voltmeter or an electronic
voltmeter.
A VOM (volt-ohm meter)can be used to measure voltages but it lacks both sensitivity and high input resistances.
Moreover, its input resistance is different for each range. The electronic voltmeter (EVM), on the other hand, has
input resistance ranging from 10 MΩ to 100 MΩ, thus producing less loading of the circuit under test than the VOM.
Another advantage of EVM is that its input resistance remains constant over all ranges.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 203
Electronic Voltmeter Contd..
Advantages of Electronics Voltmeters:
 Low level signal detection

 Low power consumption

 High frequency range

 Low input capacitance

 No loading errors

Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 204

Multimeter
 A digital multimeter is an electronic instrument which can measure very precisely the dc and ac voltage,
current (dc and ac), and resistance. All quantities other than dc voltage is first converted into an equivalent dc
voltage by some device and then measured with the help of digital voltmeter.
For measurement of ac voltage, the input voltage, is fed through a
calibrated, compensated attenuator, to a precision full-wave
rectifier circuit followed by a ripple reduction filter. The resulting dc
is fed to an Analog Digital Converter (ADC) and the subsequent
display system. Many manufacturers provide the same attenuator
for both ac and dc measurements.
For current measurement, the drop across an internal calibrated
shunt is measured directly by the ADC in the ‘dc current mode’,
and after ac to dc conversion in the ‘ac current mode’. This drop
is often in the range of 200 mV (corresponding to full scale).
Due to the lack of precision in the ac–dc conversions, the accuracy in the ac range is generally of the order of 0.2 to
0.5%. In addition, the measurement range is often limited to about 50 Hz at the lower frequency end due to the ripple
in the rectified signal becoming a non-negligible percentage of the display and hence results in fluctuation of the
displayed number. At the higher frequency end, deterioration of the performance of the ADC converter limits the
accuracy. In ac measurement the reading is often average or rms values of the unknown current.
Prof. T R Choudhury, NIT Rourkela 205