Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my chemistry teacher [Link] [Link]
for herconstant guidance, motivation, moral encouragement
and sympathetic attitude towards the success of this project.
I also want to thank the principal and the institution for
providing the necessary materials. I would also like to
extend my gratitude towards the lab attendant, my parents
and everyone who has helped me in completing the project
successfully.
i
Bonafide certificate
This is to certify that Soumya Ranjan Sahoo of class XII has
successfully completed the investigatory project on “TO
STUDY VARIATION OF CURRENT USING A LDR" under
the guidance of [Link] K Das This project is absolutely
genuine and doesn't not involve in any kind of plagiarism.
This is in partial fulfillment of Physics practical examination
AISSCE 2025-26.
Department of Physics
(Sambit .K Das)
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INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
i
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
ii
INTRODUCTION 01
APPLICATIONS 02
AIM & APPARATUS 03
THEORY 04
PROCEDURE 09
OBSERVATIONS 10
RESULT & CONCLUSION 12
SOURCES OF ERROR 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY 14
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INTRODUCTION
The general purpose photoconductive cell is also
known as LDR –light dependent resistor. It is a type
of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with
proportional change in the intensity of light.
There are two common types of materials used to
They the photoconductive cells.
areCadmium Sulphide (CdS)andCadmiumSelenide
(CdSe).
Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have
a ground state energy closer to the conduction band -
since the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower
energy photons (i.e. longerwavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. Two
of its earliest applications were as part of smoke and
fire detection systems and camera light [Link]
structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it from
moisture and dust and allows only light to fall on it.
1
Applications
Leadsulfide(PbS)andindium antimonide(InSb)LDRs
are used for the mid infrared spectral
[Link] are among the best far-
infrareddetectors available, and are used forinfrared
astronomyandinfrared spectroscopy.
AnalogApplications
· Camera Exposure Control
· Auto Slide Focus -dual cell
· Photocopy Machines -density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales -dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control –modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror
DigitalApplications
· Automatic Headlight Dimmer
· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
· Position Sensor
*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes,
changesdrastically for a particular light intensity.
its resistance
2
AIM & APPARATUS
AIM: To study thevariations, in current flowingin a circuit
containinga LDR, because of a variation:-
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to
‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed
distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescentlamp, (of fixed
power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.
APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor(LDR)
Connecting Wires
Source of different power rating(bulbs)
Bulb Holder
Metre scale
Multi Meter
Battery
3
THEORY
1.) LDR and its characteristics When light is incident on
it, a photon is absorbed and
thereby it excites an electron from valence band into
conduction band. Due to such new electrons coming up in
conduction band area, the electrical resistance of the
device decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-conductive
transducer has the resistance which is the inverse
function of radiation intensity.
λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters
e = charge on one electron, inCoulombs
Ew = work function ofthemetalused,inEv
Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength
greater than the value obtained in above equation
CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this
device.
is
The band gap energy ofCadmium Sulphide
2.42eVand forCadmium Selenideit [Link] to
such large energy gaps, both the materials have
extremely high resistivity at room temperature.
4
Characteristics of photoconductive cells
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance
is called as dark resistance. This resistance is typically
of the order of 1013ohms. When light falls on it, its
resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms or even
hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light,
falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial
cells were compared in our laboratory. And we found
that there is almost no response to the radiation of a
wavelength which was shorter than [Link] was very
interesting to note thatthe Cadmium Sulphide cell has a
peak response nearer or within the green color of the
spectrum within a range of520nm. Thus it can be used
nearer to the infra-red region up to750nm. It was found
ofCadmium
that the
Sulphoselenideis maximum response
in the yellow-orange range at 615nm
and also it can be used in the infra-red region up to
about 970nm.
5
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship
between the light falling on the device and the
resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell,
one is dealing with the relationship between the
incident light and the corresponding resistance of
the cell.
6
Spectral Response
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a
photoconductive cell is dependent on the
wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative
response of the photocell versus wavelength of light.
7
2.) luminous fluxvariation:
Considering the source to be a point radiating in all
directions; consider a steradian (or even a simple
sphere), take a small element dA on the steradian at a
distance ‘r’ from the source. It comprises a small part
of the energy radiated (dEr).
Now,go further to a distance ‘R’ (R>r) from the
source, consider the same area element dA, it
comprises a much smaller part of energy radiated
(dER).
[dEr> dER].
It varies inversely as the square of the distance.
8
PROCEDURE
Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using
a holder, make sure it is stable. Select the bulb with the
lowest power rating and connect it to the holder as shown in
the figure. Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter
in series. Set themultimeter to ohm section and select
suitable range and measure the resistance with a bulb on.
Similarly switch to current section and move to micro
ampere in the multimeter. This gives the value of the
current. Repeat these steps with different power sources at
differentdistances and note down observations.
9
OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using
various sources with different power ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6 V
1.) 15 watts (yellow)(wavelength = 570nm)
Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)
1. 50 142.5 40
2. 40 69 80
3. 30 41 150
4. 20 21 300
2.) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm
Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)
50
1. 51 120
40
2. 35 170
30
3. 22 270
20
4. 11 540
10
3.) 40 watts(incandescent)(mean wavelength = 610nm)
Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)
1. 50 20 300
2. 40 13 460
3. 30 8.5 700
4. 20 4.5 1330
4.) 20 watts(CFL)(white light)
Serial DISTANCE FROM RESISTANCE CURRENT
No SOURCE (Kilo ohm) (micro ampere)
(cm)
1. 50 15.5 380
2. 40 10 600
3. 30 6 1000
4. 20 3 2000
11
CONCLUSION & RESULT
The LDR resistance decreases with increase in
intensity of light and hence there is an increase in
the flow of current.
There is an increase in the current as the
distance from the source decreases.
The intensity decreases as the distance from the
source increases
The error lies within the experimental limit.
12
SOURCES OF ERROR
The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
Connections may be faulty.
The experiment should be conducted in a dark
room.
Measurements should be taken accurately.
13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT physics class XII
Art of Electronics by paul worowitz
[Link]/
[Link]/links/education-hobby/
[Link]/
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