Hawassa University

Dayye Campus

Computer Science department

Course module of Introduction to Computer/ Computer

application

Prepared by:- Senbeto K.(MSc)

2022 E.C
Dayye Campus
 Computer Application_ICS Hawassa University Daye Campus: Department of Computer Science

Contents
Chapter One....................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction to computer................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Overview of Computer and Information Technology......................................................................1
1.2. History and Generations of computer..............................................................................................2
1.3. Characteristics of computer.............................................................................................................2
1.4. Computers Vs Human beings..........................................................................................................3
1.5. Classification of Computers.............................................................................................................4
1.6. Limitation of computers...................................................................................................................6
1.7. Application of Computer.................................................................................................................7
Chapter Two...................................................................................................................................................9
Organization of Computer Systems................................................................................................................9
2.1. Computer Systems...........................................................................................................................9
2.2. Components of Computer Systems..................................................................................................9
2.2.1. Hardware Components of Computer......................................................................................10
2.2.2. Computer Software Components............................................................................................23
Chapter Three...............................................................................................................................................28
Data Representation in Computer System....................................................................................................28
3.1. Data Representation in Computer..................................................................................................28
3.2. Numbering System.........................................................................................................................28
3.3. Converting from One Number System to Another........................................................................30
3.3.1. Converting from another Base to Decimal (base 10).............................................................30
3.3.2. Converting from Decimal to another Base (Division Remainder Technique).......................30
3.3.3. Converting a Decimal Fraction to a fractional in base B........................................................31
3.3.4. Conversion of non-decimal base to another non-decimal base..............................................31
3.4. Computer Coding System..............................................................................................................32
Chapter - Four...............................................................................................................................................35
Data Communication and Computer Network.............................................................................................35
4.1. Data communication Basics...........................................................................................................35
4.2. Data Transmission Channels..........................................................................................................36
4.3. Modes of data transmission............................................................................................................36
4.4. Computer Network.........................................................................................................................37
4.4.1. Benefit of a Computer Network.............................................................................................38
4.4.2. Types of computer Networks..................................................................................................39
4.4.3. Computer Network Configuration..........................................................................................41
4.4.4. Network Topologies...............................................................................................................43

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4.4.5. Network Protocols..................................................................................................................46

4.5. Internet and Its Application............................................................................................................46
Chapter – Five...............................................................................................................................................50
Computer Safety and Security......................................................................................................................50
5.1. Computer Security.........................................................................................................................50
5.2. Threats of Computer Systems........................................................................................................50
5.3. Techniques to Reduce Security problems......................................................................................50
5.4. Rules for Safe Computing..............................................................................................................51

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Chapter One
Introduction to computer
1.1. Overview of Computer and Information Technology

A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce results, and store
the results for future use. Computers process data to create information.

Data- is a collection of facts, unprocessed datum. It cannot give a meaning by itself. When symbols
(numbers, pictures, figures etc.) are represented based on a certain rules and standards, it forms data. Data
is an input for information system.
Information-is a processed data that has a meaning to its users. It is informative about something.
Information needs cognitive states of its users i.e. demands awareness of data.
Data Computer Information

Fig. 1.1 shows how data is converted into information

Data processing- is the transformation of data into meaningful information.

 Computer science:
Computer Science is the study of computers and computational systems. Computer scientists deal mostly
with software and software systems; this includes their theory, design, development, and application.

Principal areas of study within Computer Science include artificial intelligence, computer systems and
networks, security, database systems, human computer interaction, vision and graphics, numerical
analysis, programming languages, software engineering, bioinformatics and theory of computing.

Although knowing how to program is essential to the study of computer science, it is only one element of
the field. Computer scientists design and analyze algorithms to solve programs and study the performance
of computer hardware and software. The problems that computer scientists encounter range from the
abstract-- determining what problems can be solved with computers and the complexity of the algorithms
that solve them – to the tangible – designing applications that perform well on handheld devices, that are
easy to use, and that uphold security measures.

 Information Technology (IT)

Information Technology (IT) is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or
management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer
hardware." It deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store,
protect, process, transmit and retrieve information, securely.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)- is a generic term that covers the acquisition,
processing, storage and dissemination of information. It involves the application of IT and communication
technology in the task of information handling from the generation to the utilization levels. IT

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encompasses all forms of technology to create, store, exchange information (such as business data, video,
audio, images, motion pictures, etc.) with high-speed communications links.

1.2. History and Generations of computer

The history of computer development is often referred to the different generations of computing devices.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and
more efficient and reliable devices. Therefore, computers pass so many generations to
1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing
devices.
2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors:
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand.
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence:
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

 Assignment 1:- Write the major technologies and changes take place in each
generation history of computers.

1.3. Characteristics of computer

The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.
 Speed: - A computer is a very fast device and works at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is
capable of performing about 3-4 million simple instructions per second. Their speed is measured by
the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation. Computer speed measured in
terms of microsecond (10-6 one millionths), nanosecond (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10 -12
one trillionths).
 Accuracy: - computers are accurate. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program
the computer processes with a very high accuracy.
 Diligence: - Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human
traits of boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better

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than human beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs and can work for hours without
creating any error and without grumbling.
 Versatility: - Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it
can be broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost
every sphere – Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
 Automatic: - Once necessary information and program is fed, the computer performs processing
without human intervention.
 Storage capacity: - Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once
recorded (or stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost
instantaneously. And the time it took to retrieve or process single information is not more than a
micro or nanoseconds.
 Power of Remembering: - A computer can store and recall huge amount of information because of
its secondary storage capability.
 No I.Q:- A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can. The
difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses no
intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence, only
the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.
 No Feelings:- Computers are devoid of emotion. They have no feelings and no instincts because
they are machines. Computers cannot make judgments on their own. Their judgment is based on the
instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

In general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in organized manner so
that accessing information is very fast.

1.4. Computers Vs Human beings

Humans have rather poor memory; he needs certain support apart from his abilities and capacities.
Because of poor memory and mental tiredness humans lack in accuracy, speed, and reliability, that is why,
human needs computer as their additional support. Differences between Human and computer are given
below.
Human Computer
Can Think Cannot think by itself
Gets Mental Tiredness Never gets Tiredness
May do mistake Can’t do mistake by itself
Has limited speed Very High Speed
Has limited Memory More Amount of memory
Accuracy may be missing Never missing

“Human can do anything computer can do but a computer cannot do everything a human can do” is a true
statement based on the following table.

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Operations Performed by a Computer Corresponding Actions Performed by a Human

Hold instruction in internal storage Remember a set of instructions
Read data in machine readable form Read data in written or printed form and memorize it or
file it.
Perform arithmetic Computations Can perform arithmetic operations
Make comparisons Can make comparisons
Retrieve any data from internal memory Remember data or retrieve data from file
or secondary storage
Output the results on an output device Speak or write the result on paper

1.5. Classification of Computers

Computers can be classified into different categories based on different characteristics.
1. Based on type of data they process

Based on the type of data they process computers can be classified as:
 Analog computers
 Digital computers
 Hybrid computers
Analog
Computers that use analog signals for calculating and transmitting data are called Analog computers. It
can be defined as “A device that operates on data in the form of continuously varying physical quantities”.
They deal with continuous variables; they don’t compete directly with numbers. The values of the analog
signals are continuously changing with states in between high and low. Analog data is calculated using
the concept of “measuring values” like magnitude in terms of voltage, length, current, pressure, and
temperature. The analog data is transmitted in a continuous form that closely resembles the information it
represents. Electrical signals on a telephone line are nothing but analog data representing the original
voice.
 They are special purpose computers. However, they have limited accuracy
 Examples: Thermometer, Slide ruler, Voltmeter, Speedometer, Gasoline pomp etc.
Digital
The computers that use digital signals to calculate and transmit data are called Digital Computers. The
word digital is derived from the word “digit”. The word digit simply means numeral. Digital computers
deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate directly up on
numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols. The digital signal has only
two states in which it can be represented. They are ON and OFF or HIGH and LOW or 1 and 0. Digital
data is calculated using the concept of “counting values”. The result obtained from the digital computer is
more accurate when compared to the analog computers. They are general purpose computers.
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket calculators
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Hybrid
Hybrid computers inherit the best features of both analog and digital computers. Usually the Input is
continuous data (analog). Since Digital Processing is more accurate, processing takes place digitally. The
processed information – the output – could be either digital or analog, depending on the user preference or
the type of application.
Examples: digital camera, health monitoring machines in some hospitals,
2. Based on Size, Capacity and price
Size and capacity are also the other characteristics of computers that can be used to categorize computers.
Based on these characteristics computers can be classified as:
Super computer
The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful computer designed
for high-speed processing. They are the largest, fastest, most expensive and very powerful computers
available when compared to the types of computers discussed earlier. They occupy specially designed air-
conditioned rooms and are often used for research and to process complex scientific applications like
space technology centers (meteorology stations, astronomical observatories, inter-continental
communications, airline organizations, aircraft design), weather forecasting, oil exploration, mathematical
research etc. Unlike microcomputers, which generally have only one CPU, super computers have
hundreds of processors. CRAY-I and CYBER is typical example of super computer.
Generally, Supercomputers are:
 The largest and the most efficient computers
 Very expensive and very fast
 Supports hundreds of users at different locations

Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are more powerful in processing, faster in speed, have large memory, and very
expensive when compared to the micro and mini computers. The word mainframe refers to mean the
“Central Processor”. Their size varies depending on how many concurrent users they are serving – from
a few hundreds to thousands when used in networks and has the capacity to support many powerful
peripheral devices. Mainframe computers are used by multinational companies or by companies have
many branches all over the country like banks, airlines, insurance, etc.

Mini computer
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but
are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems. Minicomputers are being used for a large
number of business and scientific applications. They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research
centers, universities and colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.
Minicomputers can be used for general purpose applications and as a server for small networks.
Minicomputers use large hard-disk units as online secondary storage. They support many users.

Micro computers
Microcomputers are the smallest category of computer and also called as Personal Computers (PCs).
Since they are designed to be used by a single user, they have the least capacity as compared to the other
types of computers. They are also the least expensive of all types. These computers that can either fit next
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to a desk (called the Desktop) or can be carried around (called the Laptop and Notebook).
Microcomputers use microprocessor as its important device. Microprocessor is a chip used to perform
arithmetic and logical operations. These computers can be used either as a standalone machine or
connected to a network. Microcomputers are used for general purpose business applications such as
invoicing, accounting etc.

3. Classification by purpose or application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified
as special purpose or general-purpose computers.
1. Special purpose computers: - They are designed to solve a single type of problem (task), that is their
components and their functions are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific
application.

Example:
 The public telephone boxes
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
Special purpose computers:
 Designed to perform one specific task
 Instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine
 Specialization results in the given task being performed very quickly and efficiently
 It is inflexible and cannot be easily used to perform other operations.
 Past, it was expensive.
2. General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems (purposes) through the use of “store program concept”.
A program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and
then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of
problem using different program. General computers are more flexible and versatile. For example, the
personal computers (PCs) currently in wide use are general-purpose computers.
 A general-purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of
instructions
 Performs a variety of operations
 It is designed to do a wide variety of jobs rather than perform a specific activity.
 It is also called personal computers (PC’s)

1.6. Limitation of computers

Computers have the following limitations: -
1. Cannot decide how to be programmed
2. Does not provide its own inputs, unless people provide with the input
3. Interpretation of data and implementation of decision is left for human beings

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 Unlike human beings, computers are incapable to: Think, Create, Judge and Motivated

1.7. Application of Computer

 Why we use computers?
What do we usually think of when we hear the word computer? Well, most of us think that it is some kind
of a machine that just simply calculations, make and run programs and that's it. The computer is one of the
best inventions that anyone has ever come up with, why our whole world is practically run by them. From
the increasing use of computers in our lives, we might expect a totally computerized future, as these
machines can perform tasks, better and faster, that even a human being cannot do. These tasks are related
to different fields, which directly or indirectly have a great impact on our livings, but without the use of
these computers, it would have been extremely difficult or even impossible for us to perform them. The
importance of computers in our lives today is almost an essential key part of the way our lifestyles have
evolved. The followings are some of the capabilities and potential of computers that are reasons for using
computers:

 To store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 To transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 To perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 To perform repetitive process with great ease, speed and reliability;
 For research purposes;
 For diagnostic purposes;
 For weather forecasts etc.

Some Application areas of computers

Computer can be applied in the following areas: -
a. Commercial or business applications
Covers the use of computers for office work, administrative, production and business use.
Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
b. Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, and analysis
and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
 Nuclear control systems

c. Computers in education

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
For instruction and administration purpose.

Can guide a user through a course of instruction.

Can guide /provide instruction and ask questions of the user.

CAE (Computer Assisted Education), online teaching, training, conferencing, and distance
learning are good examples of computer applications in the fields of education.
d. Computers in Medicine
 Used as an aid to medical research by analyzing data produced from the trial of drugs.
 Used as an aid for diagnosis.
 Used to hold details of patients (to maintain detailed records of the medical history of
patients)
 Medical imaging is the process of creating a picture of the inside of a human (or animal)
body. Ex X-rays
e. Computers in manufacturing
 Stock and production control
 Engineering design
 Design, manufacturing and testing processes are all in computerized.
f. Computers in Biology
 Biological simulations, like molecular scale the design of therapeutic drugs, predictions of
protein structure or microscopic exercises
 Collection and analysis of biological data
 Bioinformatics: It involves using computers in the analysis of DNA, RNA and protein
sequences. It is part of a larger field of biology called Computational Biology.
 Implantable device that is mainly used for tasks like monitoring the body’s activities or
inducing therapeutic effects, all at the molecular or cellular level.

Review questions
1. Define the term computer and IT.
2. Differentiate computer generations based on the characteristics.
3. State types of computers.
4. List and explain the computer characteristics.
5. What are the applications of your mobile?
6. What are the applications areas of computers?
7. List some limitations of computers.

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Chapter Two
Organization of Computer Systems
2.1. Computer Systems

What are Computer systems?

Recall from your previous studies that you know systems like Digestive system, Circulatory system and so
on. What similarity can you understand from these systems? For example, digestive system is composed
of a group of components like mouth, stomach, and intestine and so on. You can also see that the output of
one of the components will become the input of the other component. In digestive system, mouth partly
digests, lubricates and pushes the food to the stomach as input. The stomach then performs digestion and
sends its output to the intestine which in turn does the same. From this you can understand that the
components work together in coordination in such a way that the input of one component is the output of
the other until a common goal is achieved. For example: in digestive system, the common goal is
digestion of food. Likewise, a computer system is also composed of physical components (hardware) and
non-physical component (software) that work together in coordination to achieve a common goal (data
processing).
 The primary purpose of computer systems in most businesses today is to transform data into
information that can be used by people to make decisions.

In general, a system is a group of components that work together in coordination to achieve a common
goal.

2.2. Components of Computer Systems

Computer system is a system that has two fundamental components: Hardware component and Software
component.

Hardware is the physical component of the computer system that we can see, touch and sense. It includes
devices the computer system uses to interact with the external world, to process and store the data it has
received.
Software on the other hand, is the set of instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without
software, the hardware is useless.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

Ü Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to
make a computer produce a useful output.
Ü Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Ü Hardware without set of programs cannot be utilized and is useless.
Ü To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware
Ü Hardware is a one-time expense whereas software development is very expensive and is a
continuing expense.
Ü Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
Ü A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

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Ü If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary
to each other.

2.2.1. Hardware Components of Computer

Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system that can be seen and felt. Hardware
represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components that can be seen and
touched. The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacted physical parts.

E.g. Common computer hardware components include a keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, Web
cam, printer, monitor, speakers, system unit, hard disk drive, external hard disk, optical disc drive(s), USB
flash drive, card reader/writer, memory cards, and modem.
Peripheral Devices: A peripheral device is any computer hardware (external) that is plugged /connected
into the computer. Input, output and storage devices can be considered as peripheral devices.

Fig. Typical computer hardware.

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Types of Computer Hardware

The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts based on
the need of the information flow. Information flows in the computer hardware. Based on their functions,
we can divide computer hardware into four:
i) Input devices
ii) Storage devices
iii) Output devices
iv) Processing devices (CPU)

Fig. Organization of computer hardware

[Link]. Input Devices

Input devices are used to enter data into computer. They convert the data we given to them into the
form that can be manipulated in the computer (electronic format).
Typical input devices are listed below.
 Keyboard  Track Ball
 Mouse  Graphic Tablet
 Joystick  Microphone
 Touch Screen  Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Light Pen  Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Digital Camera  Bar Code Reader (BCR)
 Scanner  Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
 Voice Data Entry

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Keyboard
A computer keyboard is a peripheral modeled after the typewriter keyboard. Keyboards are designed for
the input of text and characters and also to control the operation of a computer. computer keyboards are an
arrangement of rectangular or near-rectangular buttons, or "keys". Keyboards typically have characters
engraved or printed on the keys; in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol.
However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in
sequence

The keys on the keyboard are grouped according to their functions as follows:
No Keys Description
1 Alphanumeric keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
(Typing Keys) generally give same layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it
consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
These keys work with the special key called NumLock – located at
the left-top corner of the numeric keypad. when NumLock is on, the
numeric keypad is used to enter digits and arithmetic operators.
However, when NumLock is off, the numeric keypad is used as
cursor movement keys.
3 Function Keys The group of keys found at the top of keyboard labeled from F1 to
F12. These keys execute different commands based on the
applications that are running.
4 Cursor movement The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on the
or Navigation keys display screen that shows where data may be entered next. The
cursor movement keys, or arrow keys, are used to move the cursor
around the text on the screen. These keys move the cursor left, right,
up or down. The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move the
cursor, the equivalent of one page, up or down on the screen.
Similarly, the keys labeled Home and End move the cursor to the
beginning and end of the same line respectively.
5 Special Keys Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Shift, Alt,
Caps Lock, Ctrl,Fn, Windows, Num Lock, and Print Screen. Special
keys are keys that are used to execute some commands. They also
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work in combination with other keys to execute commands.

6 Editing keys Editing keys are the keys which are used to make our text stylish.
They change what has been entered. Editing keys include: Spacebar,
Enter (Return), Delete, Backspace, Tab, Caps Lock, etc.

Mouse
Mouse is a hand-held device connected to a computer by a cable. a device that is rolled about on a desktop
to direct a pointer on the computer’s display screen.

Fig. Mouse
As you move the mouse, the cursor or pointer on the screen moves in the same direction. Mouse usually
contain two or sometimes three buttons having different functions.
 Primary button (Left button)
 Secondary button (Right Button)
 Scroll button
The following operations can be performed using the mouse.
 Selection (Single click)
 Giving Commands (Double click)
 Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button and moving the mouse)
 Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information
is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard copy of the computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored
on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Fig. Scanner

Bar Code Reader

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines). Bar
coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or
may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an
alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

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Fig. Bar Code Reader

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character,
converts them into a machine-readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Optical Character Reader

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is
used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the
answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Joystick
Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle mounted on a base containing one or two
buttons. The vertical handle of the joystick can be rotated around 360 degrees. As the handle is rotated
the cursor also moves on the screen. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and computer
games industry.

Joystick

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Microphone
The word "microphone" (Greek mikros "small" and phone "voice" or "sound") originally referred to a
mechanical hearing aid for small sounds. Therefore, microphones have a great role in inputting sound or
voice data into the computer for processing. Without the microphone computers could not have produced
any sound nor could they have been used to manipulate music and sound.

Microphone
Touch screen
Touch screens or touch panels or touch screen panels are display overlays which have the ability to
display and receive information on the same screen. The effect of such overlays allows a display to be
used as an input device, removing the keyboard and/or the mouse as the primary input device for
interacting with the display's content.

Display in Touch Screen

ATM- Automated Teller Machine is an example of touch screen
 Touch screen can also be considered as output device as it displays selectable commands.
Therefore, touch screen is an input/output device
Touch pad
In Touchpad the cursor is controlled with the fingers. About the same size as a mouse, touchpad is a flat,
rectangular device. As fingers are moved over the surface of the touchpad the cursor moves on the screen.

Track ball
Track Ball is another pointing device and a variant of the mouse. It contains a rotating ball on top of the
stationery device. On rotating the ball, the cursor moves on the screen. The track ball contains two

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buttons and the operations are as similar for the mouse. It requires less desk space when compared to the
mouse.

Track ball
Light pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Light pen

Digital Stills Camera

Digital Stills Cameras capture an image which is stored in memory within the camera. When the memory
is full it can be erased and further images captured. The digital images can then be downloaded from the
camera to a computer where they can be displayed, manipulated or printed.

A digital camera

[Link]. Processing devices-Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU executes instructions and performs the computer's processing activities. It also controls the operation
of all parts of computer. It is also known as processor or microprocessor. It functions the same purpose as
the human brain for human being. It is called the brain of the computer.

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CPU

One of the basic features of a computer that affects its entire performance is the CPU speed. CPU speed is
measured in Hertz (Hz).

CPU has three sub-components:

 Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Memory
Control Unit: - It controls the overall operations of the computer system. As human brain controls the
body, control unit controls the computer hardware. Control Unit does not execute instruction by itself, i.e.
does not carry out instruction processing, but it directs other processing elements to execute instructions.
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The purpose of ALU is to execute instruction. It performs two operations:
 Arithmetic operation
 Logic Operation
Arithmetic operation: this includes mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc. If you give your computer the instruction 2+3, this will be included in
arithmetic operation and it is executed by Arithmetic Unit.
Logical Operation: this is concerned with the comparison of data and it is called logical
operation. It includes operators like less than, greater than, equal to, less or equal to, greater or
equal to, different from, etc. e.g. if mark>80, grade is 'A'.
Memory (Register) -is the memory found in CPU which store intermediate results of ALU. It is small
high-speed memory which is used to store temporary results and control information.

[Link]. Storage Devices

One of the unique features of computers is storage. The data and instructions that are entered into the
computer system through input units must be stored inside the computer before the actual processing can

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start. Similarly, the results produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer system before those can be passed onto the output units. Moreover, the intermediate
results produced by the computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing.
In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store the following:
 All data and instructions to be processed
 Intermediate results of processing, and
 Final results before sending them to output devices
Data can be stored on different storage media temporarily or permanently. Storage devices can be
categorized as:
1. Primary storage device
2. Secondary storage device

1. Primary Memory / Main Memory

Primary memory, also called Main memory, refers to integrated circuit that stores program instructions
and data. The CPU closely works with the main memory to perform its activities. Memory stores three
things:
 Operation system software instructions
 Application software instruction
 Data that is being processed
Depending on the type of information they store and the technology used, the primary memory can be
categorized into three:
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read Only Memory)
 Cache Memory
i. RAM (Random Access Memory)
 It is the working area used for loading, displaying and manipulating applications and data
temporarily for the users.
 Is volatile i.e., if you turn off the computer, the program & information are lost.
 Used to temporarily store the programs and data currently being used so that the computer can
quickly accesses the information.
 It is read/write memory. I.e. data/ information can be written into or read from any internal
memory address at any time.
ii. ROM (Read Only Memory)

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 As the name refers, information can be only read from the ROM. The information is burnt into the
ROM at the manufacturing stage. Programs stored in ROM can only be read, they cannot be
changed.
 The ROM is nonvolatile memory; i.e. it retains the stored information even if the power is
switched off.
 Used to store programs and instructions that the computer frequently needs for its operations.
 Its content is not lost when power to the computer is turned off.
iii. Cache memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by
operating system, from where CPU can access them. It stores instructions and data which are to be
immediately executed by the CPU.

Advantages
Ü Cache memory is faster and consumes less access time as compared to other main memory.
Ü It increases the operating speed of the system.
Ü It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
Ü It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
Ü Cache memory has limited capacity.
Ü It is very expensive and not accessible to users
2. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage (also called auxiliary storage) supplements the primary memory. They are devices that
permanently hold data and information as well as programs. CPU directly does not access these memories
instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to
main memory, and then CPU can access it.
Examples: - Floppy disk, Hard disk, Flash disk, Optical disk (CD, DVD, VCD)

Storage Capacity Measurement

Bit (Binary Digit): A bit of storage is like a light switch; it can be either on (1) or off (0). A single bit is
a one or a zero, a true or a false, an "on" or "off". The bit is the smallest unit of storage used in
computing.
Byte: is a contiguous sequence of a fixed number of bits. In recent years, the use of a byte to mean 8
bits has become nearly ubiquitous.
Byte = 8 bits = 1 character
KB (Kilo byte): A kilo byte is 210 bytes = 210 x 8 bits

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MB (Megabyte): A megabyte is 220 bytes = 220 x 8 bits

GB (Giga byte): A gigabyte is 230 bytes = 230 x 8 bits
TB (Terabyte): A terabyte is 240 bytes =240 x 8 bits

Example: If a storage device is 23 GB, find the memory capacity in

a. byte
b. bit
Solution:
a) 1 GB = 230byte

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 230 byte/1 GB
y = 23x230 byte

b) 1GB = 8 x 230 bit

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 8 x 230 bit/1 GB
y = 23 x 8 x 230 bit

[Link]. Output Devices

Output devices are used to get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or distributed to
others. It converts information from machine-understandable form to a human understandable form. The
outputs are of two types: Softcopy: displayed on monitor, projector, speaker, or similar devices and
Hardcopy: printed on paper like Printer, plotter.
 Monitor or screen: is used to visually interface with the computer and is similar in appearance to a
television. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. Today’s monitors have much better-quality
displays than any TV.

 Printers: is a device that produces a paper copy, sometimes called a hard copy of data stored in a
computer.

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 Plotter: is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for printing vector graphics.
Plotters produce high quality color graphics output by using pens for creating images. Plotters help to
draw maps from stored data. Plotters are ideal for Engineering, Drafting and many other applications
that require graphics.

 Speaker: Speaker is an output device that allows you to hear voice, music, and other sounds from your
computer. It is used in computer system to produce sound or voice output. The sound is input from
external world into computer system via microphone and is output to external world via speaker.

 LCD projector. LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device). displays optical effects to convert light from some
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other source into graphics patterns on wall. An LCD projector is a type of video projector for
displaying video, images or computer data on a screen or other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent
of the slide projector or overhead projector.

2.2.2. Computer Software Components

Computer hardware is directed by a set of instructions. Without these instructions, computers can do
nothing. These set of instructions are called software (also called programs). Software - is a set of
instructions called, a program, which tells the computer how to processes data into appropriate form or
information. We use programming languages to write these instructions. Examples of programming
languages include C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, etc.
Software is categorized into two:
 System Software and
 Application Software

[Link]. System Software

System software - is “background” software that helps the computer manage its own internal resources.
Example: Operating systems, device drivers, Utility software, programming languages, Language
translator software.
Operating system (OS)
Operating systems is system software that controls and coordinates the use of hardware among the
different application software and users. OS intermediates between the user of computer and the computer
hardware. The users give a command and the OS translates the command into a form that the machine can
understand and execute.
 Examples of operating systems—MS-DOS, Windows 7, Linux
Functions of OS
Main functions of the operating system are as follows:
 Process management, memory management, file management, device management, protection
and security, user interface

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Device Management— The device management tasks handled by OS are—(1) open, close and write
device drivers, and (2) communicate, control and monitor the device driver.
User Interface or Command Interpreter— Operating system provides an interface between the computer
user and the computer hardware. The user interface is a set of commands or a graphical user interface
via which the user interacts with the applications and the hardware.
Process Management— The process management activities handled by the OS are—(1) control access to
shared resources like file, memory, I/O and CPU, (2) control execution of applications, (3) create, execute
and delete a process (system process or user process), (4) cancel or resume a process (5) schedule a
process.
Memory Management — the activities of memory management handled by OS are—(1) allocate memory,
(2) free memory, (3) re-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed, and (4) keep track of
memory usage.
File Management— The file management tasks include—(1) create and delete both files and directories,
(2) provide access to files, (3) allocate space for files, (4) keep back-up of files, and (5) secure files.
Protection and Security— OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file attributes like
read, write, encryption, and back-up of data are used by OS to provide basic protection.

Device driver
Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now
and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device
should be controlled.

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In short, device driver is a type of system software that introduces a new device to the operating system
and facilitates the communication between the operating system and the device.

Utilities software
Utility Programs are generally used to support, enhance or expand existing programs in a computer
system. Utilities software is programs that make computing easier. They perform specific tasks related to
managing computer resources or files. There are different utility programs:
i) Troubleshooting programs: enable us to recognize and correct computer problems before they
become serious.
ii) Anti-virus programs: they protect your computer against viruses or other malicious programs
that damage computer. E.g MacAfee, Sophos, Norton, etc.
iii) File compression programs: are used to reduce the size of files or data so that it takes less
storage space or network band. E.g WinZip, WinRAR, etc.
iv) Uninstall programs: this software enable us to safely and completely remove unneeded
programs/software from your computer.
v) Backup software: with the help of this software, we can make copies of files to be used in case
of the original data is lost/damaged. This copy is called back up.
vi) Screen savers: helps to prevent your work from being seen by others if you leave your computer
idle for some time.

Language Software
- Language software: it is the other subdivision of system software which is normally used by the
programmer to develop application program. It is a generic name consisting of various programs
that serves as compliers and translators to develop program in a number of different programming
language.
- Is software which is used by programmers to develop application software and translate programs
to machine code.
Basically, there are three types of programming languages: - Machine, Assembly and high- level.
Machine language: - There is the only language that the computer understands directly. A machine
language is a set of machine instructions which consists of zeros and ones. E.g., 01010100 00110
Assembly Language: - An Assembly language is a programming language which uses mnemonics (cues
or symbols or abbreviations) to write a program. It is machine dependent. It is also known as low-level
language. An assembly language was developed as a remedy to the drawbacks of programming in
machine languages. Because it is difficult to write large program using binary sequence of instructions and
it is hard to debug errors

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So, assembly language is used as a mnemonic code rather than a machine code. E.g.
MUL- multiplying
SUB- subtracting
CLR- clearing
High-level language: - writing a program in assembly languages is easier as compared to machine
languages. But still assembly language has its own drawbacks, which is machine dependent. So, we need
other type of programming languages which are not machine dependent and more flexible. These
languages are called high-level languages.
Advantages of high-level languages: -
 Easier to learn and understand (Looks like English)
 Require less time to write and easier to debug errors.
 Can be used on different machines with little modifications.
 E.g. C++, Java, Fortran, c#, python, etc are also the most modern programming languages

Language translators
Language translator is a program that converts one or more languages to another language. Language
translators convert the programming instruction written by users into binary code that the computer
can understand. They are written for specific programming languages and computer system.
 Three types of translators are assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.
 Interpreter: - is a language translator that converts each high-level language into machine
language and executes immediately, statement by statement. It is a program that translates each
instruction of high-level language & executes the instruction before translating the next
instruction.

 Compiler: - is a language translator that converts the entire program of a high-level language
into machine language before the computer executes the program. The programming
instructions of a high-level language are called source code. The compiler translates source
code into machine language, which in this case is called the object code.
 Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.

[Link]. Application Software

Application software refers to those programs developed to meet particular user requirements for specific
application. Unlike system software, application software consists of programs that help the end-user to
perform specific and productive tasks, such as word processing or image manipulation. Application
software performs useful work for the user.

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Basically, there are four categories of application software.

1. Productivity Software: The purpose of this software is to make the users more productive at
performing general tasks. For example, Word processing, Spread sheets, Presentation
application, Database management, accounting, Graphics software etc.
 Word processing: it is a type of software which permits the user to create, edit, format, file
and print usually text documents. Eg MS - WORD, WordPerfect, WordStar, WordPad.
 Spreadsheet: it is an electronic tabular spreadsheet displayed on the computer. It provides
the user the opportunity to create, edit, format file, print, calculate, analyze data in tabular
form. E.g. FoxPro, MS-Excel, Peachtree, and so on.
 Database management: serve to create computerized data table, to insert records, to make
queries, to analyze data, and append data. [Link]-access
 Graphics software: these are a type of application software which provide the user the
workspace to create, edit, format image and graphical information.
Eg AutoCAD, Photoshop
 Presentation software: which provide the user to create edit and present presentations, eg.
MS-power point
 Accounting software: helps user to handle financial data. E.g. Peachtree
2. Home / Personal software: The purpose of this software is mainly for domestic and personal
use. For example, cook books, medical guide, gardening, etc.
3. Education / Reference software: The purpose of this software is mainly to learn any subject or
to refer for additional information. For example: Encyclopedia, Dictionaries, Computer Based
Tutorials (CBT), etc.
4. Entertainment software: The purpose of this software is for entertainment and time passing. For
example, games.

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Chapter Three
Data Representation in Computer System
3.1. Data Representation in Computer
Computer stores those data’s in a binary number system.
 Do you think computer understand words as it is?
Every computer stores numbers, letters, & other special characters in a coded form not as it is.
 Reason to use binary
 The 1st reason is that the electronic & electrical components, by their very nature, operate in a
binary mode. Information is handled in the computer by electronic/electrical components such as
transistors, semiconductors, wires, etc all of which can only indicate 2 states or conditions – on (1)
or off (0). Transistors are either conducting (1) or no conducting (0); a voltage is present (1) or
absent (0) in wire. The binary number system, which has only two digits (0&1), is most suitable
for expressing the two possible states.
 The second reason is that the computer circuits only have to handle two binary digits rather than
ten decimal digits. This greatly simplifies the internal circuit design of computers, resulting in less
expensive & more reliable circuits.
 Finally, the binary system is used because everything that can be done in decimal number system
(addition, subtraction, division & multiplication) can also be done in binary number system.

3.2. Numbering System

 There are various numbering systems
a) The Decimal Number System
 Uses number 10 as its base or radix.
 It is the most popular form of numbering system which is used by human being.
 It is also called base-ten system or natural number system.
 It includes the numbers or digits from 0-9.
 Base is defined as the total number of digits available in the number system

For example, the decimal number 4 8 5 6 is equal to:

Ones
Tens
Hundreds
Thousands

(4 * 103) + (8*102) + (5 * 101) + (6 * 100)

The weight of the nth digit of the number from the left of the decimal point is equal to:
o nth digit * 10n-1
The weight of the nth digit of the number from the right of the decimal point is equal to:
o nth digit * 10-n

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Example: 6543.286 = (6 * 104-1) + (5*103-1) + (4*102-1) + (3*101-1) + (2*10-1) + (8*10-2) + (6*10-3)

= (6 * 103) + (5*102) + (4*101) + (3*100) + (2*10-1) + (8*10-2) + (6*10-3)
= 6000 + 500 + 40 + 3 + 0.2 + 0.08 + 0.006
= 6543.286
b) Binary number System
 The most popular form which is understood by the computer.
 Its radix is 2.
 It uses two digits i.e. 0 & 1.
 Sometimes it is also called base-two system.
Example: (101)2, (011100)2, but not (1002)2
c) Octal Number System
 The base is 8
 There are only 8 digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 It was once a popular number base, especially in the digital equipment like old computer systems.
 It is rarely used today.
Example: (2341)8, (67701)8, but not (1289)8
d) Hexadecimal Number System
 The base is 16
 Has 16 single-character digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Example: (1A)16, (B5CD)16, (0EF)16

 A relationship among Binary & other number system

Decimal Hexadecimal Octal Binary

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 10
3 3 3 11
4 4 4 100
5 5 5 101
6 6 6 110
7 7 7 111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
12 C 14 1100
13 D 15 1101
14 E 16 1110
15 F 17 1111
16 10 20 0001 0000

 Group discussion:
Why do we go for binary numbers instead of decimal numbers?

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3.3. Converting from One Number System to Another

3.3.1. Converting from another Base to Decimal (base 10)
 Steps
Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit & multiply the obtained positional values by the
digits in the corresponding position.
Step 2:- Sum the products calculated in step 1. The total is the equivalent value in decimal
Example1: Convert (1001001)2 to decimal
Solution: (1001001)2 =1x26+0x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+0x21+1x20
Ans. = 73
Example2: convert (101.1)2 to decimal
Solution: (101.1)2 = 1x22 + 0x21 +1x20+1x2-1
= 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x ½
= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5
= 5.5
Example3: Convert (11001.0101)2 to decimal
Solution: 11001 = 1x24 + 1x23 +0x22+0x21+1x20 = 16+8+1= 25 (integer part)
0101=0x2-1+1x2-2+0x2-3+1x2-4 = 0+¼+0+1/16 = 0.3125 (fraction part)
11001.0101 = (25.3125)10
Ans.= (25.3125)10
Example4: Convert (234)8 to decimal
Ans. = (156)10
Example5: Convert (A1B) 16 to decimal
Ans. = (2587)10

3.3.2. Converting from Decimal to another Base (Division Remainder

Technique)
 Steps
 Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2: Record the remainder from step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number.
 Step 3: Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
 Step 4: Record the remainder from step 3 as the next digit (to the left)
 Repeat step 3 & 4, recording remainder from right to left until the quotient become zero in step 3.
Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit of the new base number

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Example 1: Convert 3010 to base 16 (hex-decimal)

Ans. 3010=(1E)16
Example 2: (35)10= (?)2
Ans. (1000011)2

3.3.3. Converting a Decimal Fraction to a fractional in base B

 Steps
 Step 1: Multiply the given decimal fraction by the base B.
 Step 2: Repeat step 1 using the multiplicand at each step the remaining fraction part is identically
zero, or until as many digit as desired have been generated. The successive integral parts are the
successive digits of the number in base B starting from the most significant end.

Example: convert (4.75)10 in to binary, octal, and hexadecimal.

Solutions:-the integer part is 4 and its binary equivalent is 100. And the fractional part is 0.75 and it
can be converted as:
Process Product Fractional part of the product Integer part of the product
0.75*2 1.5 .5 1 MSD
Write digits

0.5*2 1.0 .0 (proceed b/s of 0) 1 LSD

So, (4.75)10 = (100.11)2

3.3.4. Conversion of non-decimal base to another non-decimal base

 Steps
 Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10)
 Step 2: Convert the decimal number to the new base number.

Example: convert (111010)2 to octal.

Solution: Step 1: Convert from base 2 to base 10: (111010)2 = (58)10
Step 2: Convert (58)10 to base 8: (58)10 = (72)8
Thus, (111010)2 = (72)8
NB: direct or 3 bits grouping system is also used to convert the number. (See the table below)
A brief summary on conversion from one base to another base
[Link] From base To base Method
1 2 10 Expand binary number in powers of 2s
2 10 2 Divide the decimal number by 2 until the reminder becomes zero or impossible
to be divided by 2.
3 2 8 Group 3 binary digits together (preferable) from right to left but you can go

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from 2108
4 8 2 Each Octal digit is converted to 3 binary digits (preferable and simplest method,
add zeros to the left to complete the triplets) but you can go from 8102
5 2 16 Group 4 binary digits together (preferable and simplest method) but you can go
from 21016
6 16 2 Each hexadecimal digit is converted to 4 binary digits(preferable and simplest
method) but you can go from 16102
7 8 10 Go from 8210 or Expand the octal number in power of 8.
8 10 8 Go from 1028 or divide the decimal number by 8 until the quotient
becomes zero.
9 16 10 Go from 16210 or Expand the hex-decimal number in power of 16.
10 10 16 Go from 10216 or divide the decimal number by 16 until the quotient
becomes zero.
11 8 16 Go from 8216 (preferable and simplest method) but you can go from
81016
12 16 8 Go from 1628 (preferable and simplest method) but you can go from
16108

3.4. Computer Coding System

BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)

Binary Coded Decimal (B CD) code is one of the early computer codes. The idea of this coding scheme is
to convert each digit of a decimal number into its binary equivalent instead of converting the entire
decimal value into a binary number. This makes the conversion process easier. All decimal digits are
represented in B CD by 4 bits. Table below shows BCD equivalent of each decimal digit.
Table: BCD equivalent of decimal digits
Decimal Digits BCD Equivalent
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

 Discuss ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and UNICODE binary
coding methods.

 Exercises: 1
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1. Convert the following numbers to the decimal form.

a. (1001)2 b. (1101.11)2 c. (4603)8 d. (1A81)16
 Solutions
1. a. (1101)2 = 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*21
=8+4+0+1
= 13
b. (1001.11)2 = 1*23 + 0*22 + 0*21 + 1*21 + 1*2-1 + 1*2-2
1 1
=8+0+0+1+ 2 + 4
= 9.75
c. (4603)3 = 4*83 + 6*82 + 0*81 + 3*80
= 2048 + 384 + 0 + 3
= 2435
d. (1A8)6 = 1*162 + A*161 + 8*160
= 424
1 Find the value of y if (123y)16= (11074)8
Solution
1x163 + 2x162 + 3x161 +yx160 = 1x84 + 1x83 +0x82 +7x81 +4x80
 1x4096 + 2x256 + 3x16 + yx1 = 4668
 4096 + 512 + 48 +y = 4668
 4656 + y = 4668
 y = 4668 – 4656
 y =12
 y=C
2 Find the value of y if (1110)3=(124)y
Solution 1x33 + 1x32 + 1x31 + 0x30 = 1xy2 + 2xy1 + 4xy0
 1x27 + 1x9 +1x3 + 0x1 = y2 + 2y + 4
 27 + 9 + 3 + 0 = y2 + 2y + 4
 y2 + 2y + 4-39 = 0
 y2 + 2y - 35 = 0
 (y – 5) (y + 7) = 0
 y = 5 or y = -7
Therefore, since the base cannot be negative, the answer is y = 5

 Exercise: 2
1. For the following exercises, convert from the given base to the required base.

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No. Question Answer

1. 192 to base 2
2. 192 to base 8
3. 192 to base 16
4. (1110.11)2 to decimal
5. (100010101110.11011101)2 to octal
6. (100010101110.11011101)2 to hexadecimal
7. (ABEBE)16 to decimal
8. (ABEBE)16 to binary
9. (ABEBE)16 to octal
10. ( 256)2 to octal
11. (256.75)10 to binary
12. (256.75)10 to hexadecimal
13. (29y)16 = 670

Chapter - Four
Data Communication and Computer Network
4.1. Data communication Basics

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Definition: Data communication is a process of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in
particular time and space. Communication includes writing, talking and non-verbal communication (like
facial expressions, visual communications), electronic communications, etc.
It is also the transfer of information from one place to another. It may be manual – one person talks to
another. Or it may be mechanical or electronic gadget or device. Whatever the case, the process of
communication involves the following.
Basic components of communication
 Source- Generates data to be transmitted
 Message -Information/data to be transmitted
 Transmitter- Converts data into transmittable signals
 Transmission System- A communication Equipment (intermediate device) that carries data
 Receiver-Converts received signal into data
 Destination-Takes incoming data
 Protocol-Rules and standards that govern data communication

4.2. Data Transmission Channels

A channel is a medium that carries a signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The range of frequencies
that can be transmitted over a transmission medium is called bandwidth of a channel. The rate of data
transmission is directly proportional to the bandwidth.
There are three types of data transmission channels based on their bandwidth: -
 Narrow-band: - It is the smaller band and has slow data transmission rate.

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Example: Telegraph line

 Voice- -band: - It is the wider band and has better data transmission rate than the narrow band.
Example, Telephone lines are used for voice-band channel.
 Broad-band: - It is the widest band has used to transmit large volume of data with high speed.
Example: (Oxide cable such as TV aerial lead), circuits, satellite communication and
optical fibers are used for broad band channels.

4.3. Modes of data transmission

Data transmission process can take three possible modes depending on the direction in which signals
flows between sender and receiver.
Simplex transmission: - In this transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction: One station is
transmitter and the other is receiver.
Simplex channels are not often used because it is not possible to send back error(s) or control signals to
transmitter end. Computers rarely use this mode transmission as a receiver cannot send an
acknowledgement signals.
Eg. TV, Radio transmission, doorbell etc

Simplex

Half-duplex transmission: - Transmission is possible in both directions but only one way at a time i.e.
both stations may transmit, but only one at a time. It is possible to perform error detection and request the
sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted. Eg. Police radio (wacky talky) or talk back radio

Half
S Duplex
e
Full-duplex transmission: - In this transmission,
may transmit simultaneously. The medium n signals transmitted in both direction, both stations
carries signals in both directions at the same time.
Eg. Telephone d
Modes of Data Transmission summary:
e
r
Full Duplex
o
r
4.4. Computer Network
Computers are now found in every walk of life; in R home, in the office, in banks, in supermarkets etc.
In earlier days, computers carryout their intended e functions in a stand-alone mode. But, today, it
becomes necessary to exchange information with c other computers. A standalone is workstation
computer that cannot share information with e other computers.
i
v
e
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A computer network is a group of computers and associated peripheral devices connected by a

communication channel; capable of sharing files and other resources among several users.

Why Network needs?

 The larger the company, the greater need to share information between offices over a greater
Distance.
 Standalone PC’s are not enough to give all the utilities the user demands.
Because: Standalone PC has only
 Uses a single printer for each PC.
 Use floppies/flash disk to share documents (that is boring & easy to be corrupted)
 No internet connection, etc.
If the computer shown above was to be connected to other computers, then, it could share data with the
other computers or send documents to a printer. This connecting together of computers and other devices
is called a network, and the concept of connected computers sharing resources is called networking. See
the following diagram.

4.4.1. Benefit of a Computer Network

 Sharing of peripheral devices: Printers, Hard disk drives and Scanners are examples of
peripheral devices. All these devices cannot be connected to each and every computer as they are very
expensive. Hence, these devices can be shared by many users through a network.
 Sharing information/data: Message, Assignment, documents, audio/video, photos using e-mail and
Facebook
 Sharing of Programs: In many organizations, people use almost the same software and access the
same data E.g. word-processors, spreadsheets

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 Better Communication: In the digital world, information can be transferred within fraction of a
second over long distances. And one of the greatest features of networks is Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
system. Thus, a company can eliminate the delays encountered with standard postal services or with
telephone tag, by using E-Mail services.
 Centralizing administration/support: Easier to maintain computers if they are all set up in a uniform
manner with the same operating system, etc.
 Security of information: Before networks became a common place, an individual employee was
storing information in his or her desktop computer which was not secured. But today, such data or
information could be backed-up or duplicated on a network storage device, shared by others.

4.4.2. Types of computer Networks

Based on their geographic area coverage they may span; networks could broadly be classified in to
 Local area network (LAN)
 Wide area network (WAN)
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)

LAN
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single
building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via
telephone lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network
(WAN)
Basic LAN features:
 Confined to a building or group of buildings
 It is confined to limited geographical area (< 2km) like with in a building, in lab, in school, etc.
 It allows easy access to other computers or peripherals (because there is only short distance
between computers).
 It uses higher bandwidth (1 mbps) & cheap cable media like UTP & coaxial.
 Uses homogeneous technology with in the same LAN
 Owned by privately and controlled by a single administrator.
 Ranges from two computers up to 1000 computers with a limited distance

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MAN
Metropolitan area network (MAN) covers a much larger area than a LAN and is a public or a private
network used to connect various locations, including the sub urban. Campus networks are the example of
a MAN
Basic features:
 It covers large geographical areas than LAN such as cities, districts, Regions etc
 It is an interconnection of several LANs e.g.: if your organization has several branches in
different cities.
 It uses expensive cables (media) – fiber optic.

E.g.: Commercial Bank of Ethiopia from Addis Ababa to other branches in different cities (Adama and
Hawasa branches)

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WAN
A WAN is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists
millions or more local area networks (LANS) which can communicate to each other and access internet
(global networks)
Computers connected to a wide area network are often connected through public networks, such as the
telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in
existence is the internet.
Basic features:
 The idea of connecting computers within a target Geographical area like between
o Countries & b/n Continents
 Uses fiber optic cables, microwaves, & satellite (wireless Technology), Telephone line, modem
etc.
o E.g. Global Area network (GAN) Internet
 E-mail services and chatting

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Example: Wide area network architecture- global internetworking

4.4.3. Computer Network Configuration

Based on how the computers in a network are configured and how they access information, networks are
classified into two types: peer-to-peer and client-server

Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the computers.
All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client
and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer
determines what data on that computer is shared on the network.
Basic features:
 There is no dedicate sever
 All PCs are peers (equal) - No hierarchy
 They all work both as a client & as a server.
 There is no admin & no central storage
 There is no need of Additional Software
 Users at each PC determine their own security and acts as an administrator
 10 or fewer PCs are connected in this network
The following Figure shows a peer-to-peer network in which each computer functions as both a client and
a server. ( Peer-to-peer network computers act as both clients and servers)

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Advantages of peer-to-peer network

 Less expensive since it uses visible & cheap cable system (UTP)
 easy to install
 users act as their own Admin, plan their own security

Server-Based Networks: client/server networks

Fundamentally, at any given moment, the computer is either acting as a client or as a server.
A server is a computer that shares its resources across the network, and
A client is a computer that access shared resources.
As a network grows, a peer-to-peer network will probably no longer be able to meet the increased demand
on shared resources. To accommodate the increased demand and provide additional functionality,
most networks have dedicated servers. A dedicated server functions as a server only, not as a client.
The configuration of these servers is optimized to process requests from network clients.
Basic features of server based network
 It is the standard network model
 Optimized to process requests from network clients
 There is dedicated server (workload of individual PCs reduced)
 It has central storage and Admin support
 There is a need of additional software-NOS ( Network operating system), and Server software
Advantage
 security is the main importance
 easy to backup
 Redundancy is available (duplicating the important data into other workstations)
 Supports thousands of users (more 100)

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4.4.4. Network Topologies

A network topology is the arrangement of computers, cables, and other components on a network. It is
a map of the physical network. The most common types of standard physical topologies are Bus, Star,
Ring, Mesh and Hybrid.

Bus Topology
In a bus topology, all of the computers in a network are attached to a continuous cable, or segment, that
connects them in a straight line (See Figure below). In this straight-line topology, a packet is transmitted
to all network adapters on that segment.
Advantages of the bus topology are
 Use of cable is economical
 Media is inexpensive and easy to work with
 System is simple and reliable and is easy to extend.
Because of the way electrical signals are transmitted over this cable, the ends of the cable must be
terminated by hardware devices called terminators.
If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back and
forth across the network and all communication will stop.
An increase in the number of computers results in an increase in noise and a corresponding decrease in
network efficiency.

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Bus topology

Star Topology
In a star topology, cable segments from each computer on the network are connected to a central
component, or hub (See Figure below). A hub is a device that connects several computers together to
form star topology. In a star topology, signals are transmitted from the computer, through the hub, to all
computers on the network. On a larger scale, multiple LANs can be connected to each other in a star
topology.
An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails, only the failed
computer is unable to send or receive data. The remainder of the network functions normally.
The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to a hub, if the hub
fails, the entire network fails.

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Star topology

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle of cable (See Figure below).. The signals
travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which acts as a repeater to
boost the signal and send it to the next computer.

The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal and
sending it on to the next computer, thereby preserving signal strength.

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Ring topology
The method of transmitting data around the ring is called token passing. A token is a special series of
bits that contains control information. Possession of the token allows a network device to transmit data
to the network. Each network has only one token.
The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data on a single token
ring.

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable as shown in
the figure below. This arrangement provides redundant paths through the network so that if one cable
fails, another carries
the traffic and the
network continues to
function.

Mesh topology

Hybrid Topologies
In a hybrid topology, two or more topologies are combined to form a complete network design.
Networks are rarely designed using only one type of topology. For example, you may want to combine a
star with a bus topology to benefit from the advantages of each.
Two types of hybrid topologies are commonly in use: star-bus topology and star-ring topology.

4.4.5. Network Protocols

Like network needs hardware, it also needs software. Because each task in network is governed by a set of
rules called protocols. If the sender and receiver in NW should communicate, they must speak the same
language called protocols (the language).
E.g.: HTTP:-is hypertext transfer protocol which helps to communicate two computers application.
TCP/IP:- Transport control protocol (internet protocol) is the main protocol that helps internet
transmission. Without TCP/ IP, there is NO internet access.

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4.5. Internet and Its Application

The Internet
Internetworking is the term used to define connecting networks. As we need to connect computers to
build a network for resource sharing purposes between computers, we may also need to connect our
networks for the same reason – sharing resources between networks.
Imagine a university where there are small networks in every department that are not connected to each
other. Each department will have its own data about students and applications about their mgt etc. There
is no way data is shared between departments even though there are common stuff between departments
such as student mg’t applications, common courses, finance and administration issues, mail systems,
library applications, university rules and regulations etc.
Internetworking refers to communication between LANs over a LAN and a WAN (between LAN and
LAN, between LAN and WAN) over the internet.

The requirement to share resources is sometimes global. People need to exchange mail, to discuss about
issues, to read news, to advertise, to sell and buy, to exchange information etc. The network of networks
that connects hundreds of thousands of networks, and millions of computers around the world is called the
internet
The Internet is a network of networks that is extended all around the world. It is not owned by anyone
or any institution, but controlled and managed by the internet service provider (ISP), in our case Ethiopian
Telecom.
The Internet is a term used to describe thousands of computers connected with each other spanning over
the world. It is the largest network in existence. It is a network of networks acting as one. It is a
worldwide communication to businesses, homes, schools and governments.
Internet is also acts as a cyberspace (a virtual place that you can do a lot of things like visiting places,
chatting with friends, buying and selling products, advertise products, reading researches, etc).
With internet:
 You can communicate with friends or colleagues.
 You can communicate with one person at a time or thousands.
 You can send & receive files or information over a greater distance.
Internet:
 Global Interconnection of networks and computers
 No owner of Internet; only standards bodies
 Internet access is through ISP (Internet Service Provider)
 Internet access technologies include:
 Non-permanent (dial-up) connection
▪ Uses MODEM and telephone lines

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t
 Permanent – connection, which includes:
▪ DSL (digital subscriber line t – using telephone lines)
▪ Coaxial cable p
▪ Fiber-optic
▪ Wireless :
Some of the applications running on the
/ Internet include:
 The World Wide Web (WWW) /
 Electronic Mail (e-Mail)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) w
 Chat and Instant Messaging w
 Internet Telephony
 Video Conferencing w
 Etc.
 The World Wide Web (WWW)
.
 A vast collection of documents w stored Web Servers
 Web pages contain
 Different types of documents: text, e image, audio, video
 Links to other web pages b
 Hypertext Mark-up language (HTML) is used to design a web document
 It uses the HTTP (Hyper-Text o Transfer Protocol)
 The web is interactive – you can
options
p fill up forms on-line, run applications, select
 Web browser – program than runs on the e computer requesting for web content (e.g. Internet
Explorer) or the computer itself.
 Web server – program that runs on d the computer that hosts the web page (e.g. IIS or
Apache) or the computer itself. i
 URL (Uniform Resource Locater) – shows the exact location of a web
content/resource. a
.
c
Receiver o
D
H
P
m
a
ro
Sender Sende Sender Sender /o
t
sm
r or or or Ttah
Eo
i
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cn
M
o
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U
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 E-mail addresses are of the format:

 User_name@provider_name, e.g. Mohammed.Ayele2@[Link]
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol )
 allows a user to transfer data/files between computers on the Internet.
 Provides commands that allow users to manage files.
 Telnet
 Allows you to log into computers on the Internet and then enter commands which will be
executed as if you were entering them directly on the server.
 To use Telnet to connect to remote computer, you must know its address.
 E.g. Telnet [Link]
 Usenet News
 It is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of computer users exchange
information on a vast range of topics.
 Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users must connect to these
computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups.
 There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups. These range from academic to recreational
topics. Serious computer-related work takes place in Usenet discussions.
 Chat
 It is a way of talking online in realtime with many people at once.
 Some chat rooms are available via the Web, such as Yahoo! Chat, while others require a
separate software program for chatting with other users.
 Online chat rooms allow multiple users to join in a conversation and see what all the other
people are typing.
 Many chat rooms focus on a particular topic or interest.
 Instant Messaging
 IM is a way of communicating online with a select group of people, usually individually.
 To instant message someone, you need to know his or her screen name.
 IRC
 Kind of group chatting
 Provides a way of communicating in real time with people from all over the world. It
consists of various separate networks (or "nets") of IRC servers, machines that allow users
to connect to IRC.
 Internet Telephony
 Uses the Internet for telephone conversation
 For users who have free, or fixed-price Internet access, Internet telephony software
essentially provides free telephone calls anywhere in the world.
 To date, however, Internet telephony does not offer the same quality of telephone service
as direct telephone connections.
 Skype is a popular Internet Telephone application
 Video Conferencing
 Allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-way video and audio
transmissions.
 Differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference or multiple
locations rather than individuals.
 Applications include teaching/learning
 Teleconferencing
 Allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-way audio
transmissions.

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Chapter – Five
Computer Safety and Security
5.1. Computer Security
Computer security is a branch of computer technology known as information security as applied to
computers and networks. Etc. It is the concept of attaining a secure computing environment (i.e., an ideal
state free from risk or danger) by detecting the vulnerabilities associated with computer use. It is a general
term relating to measures designed to protect computer assets in all configurations. The protection of
information assets can be handled using technology, processes and training.
Computer Security is technique developed to safeguard information and information systems stored on
computers. Potential threats include the destruction of computer hardware and software and the loss,
modification, theft, unauthorized use, observation, or disclosure of computer data.

5.2. Threats of Computer Systems

Threat is a source of probable trouble or attack to a system that could cause losses. One of the threats in
computer system is Virus.
Computer Viruses
Computer viruses are software programs that are able to reproduce themselves. It is the intellectual
creation of a human computer programmer. If a program is not able to replicate, then it is not a virus. Most
computer viruses are damaging. Computer virus is a program that is intentionally done to harm users’
program without permission.

5.3. Techniques to Reduce Security problems

1. Antivirus software is a computer program that detects, prevents, and takes action to disarm or
remove malicious software programs, such as viruses and worms. You can help protect your computer
against viruses by using antivirus software, such as Microsoft Security Essentials.
2. Backup:-In information technology, a backup or the process of backing up refers to making copies
of data so that these additional copies may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. These

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additional copies are typically called "backups."

Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and communication capabilities
are important basic safeguards because the data can then be restored if it was altered or destroyed by a
computer crime or accident. Computer data should be backed up frequently and should be stored nearby in
secure locations in case of damage at the primary site. Transporting sensitive data to storage locations
should also be done securely.
Backups are useful primarily for two purposes. The first is to restore a state following a disaster (called
disaster recovery). The second is to restore small numbers of files after they have been accidentally
deleted or corrupted. Data loss is also very common. 66% of internet users have suffered from serious data
loss.
3. Data encryption and decryption:-Another technique to protect confidential information is
encryption (Encryption, process of converting messages or data into a form that cannot be read
without decrypting or deciphering it. The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes from the Greek
word kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”)
Data encryption is a process in which plaintext data is converted into cipher (SECRET) text so that it
cannot be read. More generally known as “encryption”.
In this process, a perfectly ordinary piece of plaintext which can be read by anyone is converted so that it
can only be read by someone with a key. One of the simplest forms of data encryption is a simple
alphabetic substitution, in which the letters of the alphabet are scrambled to create a key. One could
decide, for example, to shift the letters of the alphabet by five places so that “E” stands for “A,” “F” for
“B” and so forth for a simple key, or the letters could be assigned at random to make a piece of text more
difficult to decipher without the key.
Decryption is the process of extracting the original information from the encrypted data.
4. Passwords: Passwords are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make
use of specified computers, software, or information.

5.4. Rules for Safe Computing

These simple rules will protect /secure/ your system from computer virus infection
1. Never load unknown disks into system unless the disks are virus free
2. Do not use infected software (executable files) unless they are free of virus infection
3. Backup your data regularly to protect the data loss from any cause
4. Prevent unauthorized access
5. Lock your computer when not in use
6. Install antivirus program on to your computer and update regularly/configure to update itself
automatically if there is internet connection

Environmental factors
Temperature: integrated circuits and other devices in the computer systems are sensitive to temperature.
During normal operation, the computer generates heat, which is tolerable to the circuitry.
Measures:
 Reset the system if intermittent failure occurs;
 Keep the cooling ventilator cleans
 Keep the system disk in cool and dry place
 If possible, install air conditioner in the room

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Dust: The static electrical charge that builds up in the computer systems and the monitor attracts dust.
Dust is a major contributor for integrated circuits failure in the system. Electro mechanical devices such as
printers and disk drives have a number of moving parts that get dirty causing overheating and early
failures
Measures:
 Clean computer systems and its peripherals periodically
 Use dust covers
 Keep computer room windows closed
 No smoking near the system
 Do not touch the surface of disk drives and other internal components
 Clean the inside portion as well as the area with a vacuum cleaner
 Blow the dust in the screen with a pressurized anti-static spray
 Use soft brush to clean the screen and clean the cabinets with mild soap and then dry them with a
piece of soft cloth.

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