M A T H

ST RAT EGY G UI DE
THE BOOK IS A COMPANION
OF THE AP GURU CLASSES

4
© AP Guru


SAT Instructional
Guides
1. SAT Math Classroom and Homework Book

2. SAT Reading Classroom and Homework Book

3. SAT Writing and Language Classroom and Homework Book

4. SAT Math Strategy Guide

5. SAT Reading Strategy Guide

6. SAT Writing and Language Strategy Guide

7. SAT Essay Strategy Guide

8. SAT Study and Review Guide

SAT Review Guide

© AP Guru
Dear Student,

Thank you for choosing AP Guru for your SAT prep. We hope this book provides just the guidance

you need to get the most out of your SAT studies.

This book will give you the foundation necessary to ace the test, and you’ll learn strategies and

tactics to improve your score.

We wrote this book based on our experience of working with thousands of students, and a

remarkable set of teachers and tutors from across the world. Therefore, we have to thank all of

the AP Guru students who have provided input and feedback over the years. The book wouldn’t be

half of what it is without your voice.

At AP Guru, we continually aspire to provide the best instructors, study materials, and technology

possible. We hope that you will find our commitment evident in our classes and these books. If you

have any questions or comments, please email us at info@[Link]. We look forward to reading

your comments.

Thanks again, and best of luck preparing for the SAT.

Sincerely,

Team AP Guru

SAT Review Guide

 Copyright Protection

Copyright © AP Guru

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by any

means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, web distribution

without the prior written permission of AP Guru.

© AP Guru
 Table of Contents
The Basics
1. About SAT Math  2
2. Calculator Usage 9
3. Avoid Silly Mistakes 13
4. SAT Math Strategies 19
5. Number Properties  27
6. Percentage and Ratios  36

Algebra
7. Inequalities  42
8. Linear Equations  51
9. Polynomials  59
10. Miscellaneous Algebra  63

Geometry
11. Lines and Angles  79
12. Triangles  88
13. Trigonometry  97
14. Circles  107
15. Polygons  122
16. Solid Geometry  132
17. Co-ordinate Geometry  145

Functions
18 Absolute Value  155
19. Functions  164
20. Quadratics  175
21. Graphing Functions  181

Problem Solving and Statistics

22. Complex Numbers  199
23. Word Problems  202
24. Probability  213
25. Statistics  227
 Chapter 1
ABOUT
SAT MATH
The SAT Math Test contains one 55-minute section with 38 questions (calculators ok) and one

25-minute section with 20 questions (calculators not permitted).

If you excel in math, you will find the Math Test the most straightforward section of the SAT.

For the most part, you will be dealing with straightforward math. The math itself is usually

really simple, but the questions are always complex, strange, or difficult to understand.

At the same time, we recognize that some students will find the SAT Math Test more of a

challenge. For those students, you will substantially improve your score by ensuring you know all

the foundational math skills. You need to know all the facts, formulas, and figures.

Imagine the SAT Math Test as a house and math facts as your building materials. It doesn’t

matter if you’re the best architect in the universe; without the right materials, you’re not going

to be able to build much of a home.

The chapters to follow in this book and all of our AP Guru classes will teach you the material

that you need to know. It’s important that you document every fact or formula that you do

not know or tend to forget.

SAT Math Guide 2

If you can start to identify each bit of material that makes you uncomfortable or uncertain,

you’re well on your way toward mastering the SAT Math Test.

For example, let’s say you’re asked to find the equation of a circle. There’s nothing necessarily

hard about this problem. But you either know how to do it, or you don’t. If you know the

equation of a circle formula, any problem that asks you to find the equation is going to be

simple. If you don’t, the same problem will be impossible.

This is just one of the few hundred little facts that you need to know when taking the

SAT Math Test. We can’t emphasize this point enough: if you don’t put in the work to learn,

document and review the math facts that trouble you, you’ll never get a perfect SAT math

score.

However, just learning math facts and formulas will not alone do the trick. Like almost any

other piece of information you’re trying to retain and recall, a math fact is tough to remember

when it’s “floating” in a vacuum. You learn effectively by doing two things:

1. Repeating the information

2. Using the information

Repeating is important, but of the two, the second is much more effective. If you see something

once and then never repeat it and never use it, there’s almost zero chance that you’ll remember

it. If you repeat it a bunch of times but never actually put it to use, it’ll still be tough to

remember. It’s only once you use information in context (repeatedly) that it really makes any

sort of impression on your brain.

If you get an SAT Math Test problem wrong, there’s a good chance that you may not know

the proper procedure to get to the right answer. You might not know how to find the area of

3 © AP Guru
an equilateral triangle, how to set up an average equation, or how to deal with common ratios,

or... the list goes on. But you can get there through discipline and a lot of organization.

From this day forward, you’re going to use the following procedure any time you get an SAT

Math Test problem wrong or don’t know how to solve it:

1. Immediately go to the answer explanation for the appropriate homework or test

2. Read the answer explanation, step by step

3. If you do not understand the answer explanation, ask any of us at AP Guru to ex-

plain the question and the underlying concept to you

4. Follow the recommended procedure yourself and attempt to solve the problem

5. Document that fact or formula

This process can seem exhausting at times, but it is well worth it. Many students who thought

themselves “bad at math” walk away with an entirely different point of view after using this

method. They were never “bad at math” they simply didn’t know many math facts. Once they

figured out what they didn’t know and memorized those concepts, their scores and confidence

increased!

After teaching SAT to thousands of students, AP Guru can usually categorize students’ aptitude

to math into these two categories:

1. I hate Math - These students do not count math as one of their favourite subjects

and dread the SAT Math Test (especially the non-calculator section of the test).

2. I Love Math - These are the students who love math and find the Math Test the

easiest section of the SAT. They are invariably aiming for 800 on the SAT Math Test.

SAT Math Guide 4

Group 1: I Hate Math
In a perfect world, you’d know every fact, figure, strategy, and technique for each SAT Math

Test problem, and you’d be able to apply this material in under 75 seconds per problem, on

average (that’s how time much you’re given to complete the math portion of the test).

This isn’t an unrealistic goal, and it’s one that we’ll be working toward. But in the meantime,

keep in mind that certain problems will always be harder or weirder for you than others.

As you may already know, the SAT Math Test is generally organized from “easy” to “hard.” So,

many students assume that question #30 will always be harder than question #25. But here’s

the thing: these problems might be harder statistically, but they might be way easier for you

personally!

Have you heard the saying, “One person’s trash is another person’s treasure?” That applies here.

The same problems that might be simple for you might be nightmares for someone else, and

vice versa. The “easiness” and “hardness” of every problem on the SAT Math Test are totally

subjective. It all depends on you: what you know, and what you don’t.

Also, remember that “hard” does not mean “time.” Hard just means that most students will get

the question wrong. Some of the “hardest” problems take about three seconds to solve if you

know the facts behind them. Conversely, some “easy” problems still take a while to solve. Or, they

may seem impossible to solve if you don’t know the key facts.

Focusing first on the problems you know how to solve is a good use of time. These are your

“low hanging fruit” – the questions you can easily pick off without too much effort. Here’s the

step-by-step process of how to tackle your low-hanging fruit:

1. If you can solve the problem right away (within a minute), go for it

5 © AP Guru
 2. If you are SURE you can solve a problem, but you think that it might take you a while,

circle the problem number and move on. You'll get to it later.

3. If you have NO IDEA how to solve a problem, put a star next to it, then move on.

These are the problem that you’ll solve last.

Move through all the problems in each section as quickly as possible using this process. Do not

stop. Do not take breaks.

When you’ve made your way through a section, you’ll have already answered the problems you

know. Now it’s time to go back to the start of the section and start answering all the problems

you circled the ones you were sure you can answer. You know how to solve these questions, but

they will just take more of your time. That is okay since you have already solved all the easy

questions that were there to be solved in this section. Those were the lowest hanging fruit.

If after you finish all the circled problems time remains, repeat this process and begin attacking

all the starred problems.

Make sure you have filled in an answer choice for each and every question on the Math Test.

There are no negative points awarded, so it would be foolish to leave answer choices blank,

even if you are not sure whether the answer you selected is correct. NEVER finish your test

without ALL the bubbles filled in.

That’s all there is to it!

Group 2: I Love Math

Every student strives for a perfect score on the SAT. Beyond being “perfect,” have you ever

stopped to consider why scoring an 800 on the SAT Math Test is useful? It’s important to know

why an 800 Math score is useful since this will fuel your motivation to get a high score.

SAT Math Guide 6

Aiming for an 800 on the SAT Math Test helps you compensate for weaknesses in how you

perform on other sections of the SAT. By and large, universities consider your composite score

more so than your individual section scores.

There are two scenarios where an 800 on the SAT Math Test is important.

1. If you’re planning to pursue a quantitative or science major like math, physics, statis-

tics, or chemistry.

2. If you’re applying to a highly selective technical university like MIT or Caltech.

College admissions are all about comparisons between applicants. A school wants to admit the

best, and you’re competing with other students in the same “bucket” as you. By applying with

the intent of majoring in math or science, you’re competing against other math and science

folks: people for whom the SAT Math Test is relatively easy or, in some cases, extremely easy.

Consider these examples: For Harvard, Princeton, MIT, and Caltech, the 75th percentile SAT Math

Test score is 800. That means at least 25% of all students at these schools achieved an 800 on

that portion of the test.

Even more surprising: the 25th percentile score for SAT Math at MIT and Caltech are 750

and 770, respectively. This means if you score a 750 on your SAT Math, you’re well below

average for these schools!

Working your way to an 800 score shows schools that you’re at an equal level (at least on this

metric). Even if it takes you a ton of work, all that matters is the score you achieve at the

end.

I’m not going to lie. For many students I teach SAT Math is super easy. Most of them get 800

on pretty much every practice test, and official SAT they ever take. Whether you like it or not,

7 © AP Guru
you’re competing against people like them. And if you apply with a 700 on Math, schools like

MIT, Harvard, and Princeton are going to doubt your ability because SAT Math is supposed

to be trivially easy for you.

SAT Math Guide 8

 Chapter 2
CALCULATOR
USAGE
You’re allowed to use a calculator on Section 4 of the SAT, but re-
member to use it as a tool, not as a crutch.

Calculators aren’t allowed in section 3 of the SAT Math Test because the CollegeBoard wants to

test your ability to solve arithmetic problems without “hacking” the questions.

On Section 4, however, while you are allowed to use a calculator, is designed to be totally

solvable within the time limits, without the use of any calculator support whatsoever. Therefore,

your calculator should be seen as a tool, but not as a crutch.

While a similar graphical calculator will do, we recommend buying a TI-83/84 graphing

calculator, not for its graphics functionality (which we’ll explain shortly), but because it is reliable

and has other functions that allow you complete math calculations quickly.

Keep in mind that some calculators are not allowed when taking the SAT. You can read more

about the calculator policy at:

[Link]

9 © AP Guru
ACCEPTABLE AND PROPER USE OF CALCULATORS
You should always use your calculator for ARITHMETIC, but never use your calculator for MATH.

There’s a big difference between the two. Arithmetic is the stuff you’d do using your fingers to

count.

For EXAMPLE,:
- 38 X 15.6

- 43 squared

- 43 rooted

- 237.3 + 323.8

Calculators are godsends when it comes to doing the above arithmetic. They make you faster

and more accurate. Never do arithmetic in your head. Sure, 2+3 is fine, but if it gets to be

something taking you longer than half a second, you need your calculator.

It bears repeating: Do not waste your time or your mental energy doing arithmetic in your

head. Yes, yes, we’re all proud that you can add and multiply so quickly in your own brain -

now quit it.

While we encourage you to do arithmetic with your calculator, do not EVER, EVER do MATH on

your calculator. What do we mean by “math?” Here are some things we consider math:

- Graphing two equations using the line graphing tool to determine their intersection point

- Trying to solve a multi-variable equation

- Figuring out what equations to use in the first place

Your calculator will never be able to “figure out how to solve a problem” faster than you will,

especially when you’re well trained in concepts tested on the SAT. If you rely on your calculator,

you’ll never learn the right tricks and strategies necessary to truly understand this section.

SAT Math Guide 10

For instance, let’s say you’re trying to solve a problem like this:

What’s the average of x and y, if

18x - 32y = 19, and -17x + 33y = -17?

You have two options here. Option 1: Try using your calculator to do the “math” by plugging

both equations in, seeing the intersection, figuring out the values of X and Y, and then getting

down to business. Unfortunately, this method provides you with ample opportunities to screw

things up, and it will also take forever.

Instead, consider Option 2: Doing the math in your head. Take a look at the two equations and

remember to begin with the end in mind.

You’re looking for the average of X and Y, right? So, this: (X+Y)/2

We don’t even need to know what X or Y is individually – just what they equal when they’re

added up and divided by two.

Next, look at these two equations provided by the test. If you add them together (add the

left and right sides), you’ll get the following:

18x - 32y - 17x + 33y = 19 - 17

Which simplifies to:

X + Y = 2

Now divide both sides by 2:

(X + Y)/2=1

The answer to this question is 1.

11 © AP Guru
If you’d tried to use your calculator to complete this math, it would have taken forever!

Once you get used to using your brain to do math, and to reserve your calculator for simple

arithmetic, you’ll be set!

So, here’s one more reminder: DO NOT EVER USE YOUR HEAD FOR ARITHMETIC

Your first instinct when it comes to calculations must be to use your calculator.

When in doubt, use a calculator. Sure, you can do 16 + 76, or 3 x 27, or 81 - 22 in your head,

but why risk it? Just use that beautiful machine and do the arithmetic there where it’s impossible

to make a mistake, and where you’re not using any of your precious mental energy.

Every calculation you solve in your head is burning up your brain’s future capacity for focus and

calculative ability. Using your brain for arithmetic is like running a bunch of sprints right before

you start a marathon…you might be in better shape the next day, but you’ll be much slower

during the race.

SAT Math Guide 12

 Chapter 3
AVOID SILLY
MISTAKES
The most common SAT Math Test mistakes students make are
“silly” mistakes. In this section, we’re going to focus on these
kinds of mistakes and how to avoid them. Remember that if you
make silly mistakes on the test, it doesn’t matter how “good” you
are at math.

Whether you’re a math whiz, or you totally hate math, one thing’s guaranteed: you have lost a

lot of points on math tests due to “silly mistakes.” These seemingly small mistakes add up in a

big, big way, and they can be extremely pernicious factors that impact your overall SAT Math

Test performance.

You should not brush off silly mistakes such as “forgetting to add 5 at the end” or picking

“radius” rather than “diameter” just because you know how to solve a problem correctly. The

reason you got a problem wrong does not change the fact you got it wrong.

Sure, you “could have” gotten the problem right “if you didn’t make that silly mistake,” but then

again, a panda bear could have invented the first car if he went back in time, turned himself

into a human, and beat Henry Ford to the chase. Could haves are stupid.

13 © AP Guru
Instead, focus on the reality of the situation and become aware. If you’re making silly

mistakes during practice tests, you’re even more likely to make them during the real test. So,

let’s fix that ASAP.

The tricks in this chapter should eradicate most, if not all, of your silly mistakes. These are not

math tricks, but they’re probably more important than any math trick you’ll ever learn.

So, what exactly are silly mistakes? The primary source of these kinds of errors is students

confusing questions with prompts. On the SAT, the question and the prompt are two entirely

different things.

PROMPT: THE ENTIRE SET OF WORDS, NUMBERS, AND PHRASES THAT MAKE UP A MATH PROB-

LEM. HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A PROMPT:

If the radius of a certain circle is three times the radius of another circle, and if the radius

of the larger circle is equal to the area of a square with a side length as long in inches as

the square root of 169, then what is the area of the smaller circle?

QUESTION: THE PRECISE QUESTION YOU’D BE ABLE TO ANSWER IF YOU ALREADY HAD ALL THE

INFO THAT THE PROMPT PROVIDED. HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE QUESTION:

What is the area of the smaller circle?

When taken alone, the question is almost much simpler and shorter than the prompt. Most

students are so focused on the prompt that they forget to answer the question.

Students often find really difficult elements of the prompt and then choose those elements as

answers rather than double-checking to narrow in on the actual question.

SAT Math Guide 14

Here’s what we mean. In the above prompt, you would take some time to figure out the radius

of the smaller circle. Once you find it (169/3), you might be very tempted to say, “Yes! I found

the radius! 169/3! Boom!”

Not so fast. Read the question again. You’re looking for the area of the smaller circle, not the

radius.

But here’s the thing: The SAT will always include solutions to the difficult elements of the

prompt alongside the actual answer in answer choices.

So, if your first answer is 169/3 and you see it as an option, you may be tempted to pick it.

If you did, you’re cooked!

Hopefully, you see the difference between the prompt elements and the actual answer. Like

all AP Guru students, you’ve experienced this scenario many times before: you’ve found the

“hard part” of the problem and then selected it as an answer, forgetting to answer the actual

question!

Fortunately, there’s a very, very simple method you can use to prevent this mistake from

happening in the future. From now on, try the following when tackling math problems:

1. Do all the hard work to find your answer the same way you normally would, using all

the strategies you normally use.

2. Drop your pencil.

3. Read the prompt again and identify the question.

4. Make sure that you’ve answered the question, and not just figured out the most

difficult element of the prompt.

5. Once you’re sure you’ve actually answered the question, pick your pencil back up and

15 © AP Guru
 circle the right answer.

6. 6. If you have more work to do, solve the actual question, which is usually very simple

and only takes 5-10 seconds.

THE CROSS-OUT METHOD

Now you have the tools you need to avoid any silly mistakes related to questions and prompts.

The other kind of silly mistake we see regularly is caused when students miss essential

information or read the information incorrectly. Enter the cross-out method, a good technique

to ensure you understand the important information you need to solve the problem. Using the

method is simple, but a little bit arduous at first. Here’s how it works:

1. Cross out every single piece of information in the prompt as you use it, but do not cross

it out until you actively process it!

2. Do not answer the question until the entire prompt is crossed out - every single word

and number - from start to finish.

At first, this may sound extremely time-consuming, and maybe it sounds unnecessary. In reality,

it makes you move faster (and much more accurately) through a problem because it forces you

to actively process information.

EXAMPLE: If a certain triangle and a certain circle have the same area, and if the height

and the base of the triangle are the same, and if the height of the triangle is 3, then what is

the radius of the circle?

First, you may draw a circle and a triangle next to each other. Go ahead and cross out those

details, so the prompt now looks like this:

SAT Math Guide 16

 If a certain triangle and a certain circle have the same area, and if the height and the

base of the triangle are the same, and if the height of the triangle is 3, then what is the

radius of the circle?

Next, you indicate that they have the same area. So, you write this down: πr2 = ½BH indicating

that the area of the circle is the same as the area of the triangle.

Now the prompt looks like this:

If a certain triangle and a certain circle have the same area, and if the height and the

base of the triangle are the same, and if the height of the triangle is 3, then what is the

radius of the circle?

Next, the prompt says that the height and base of the triangle are the same, so you can

change the equation to this: πr2 = ½HH. You can also simplify: πr2 = ½H2

Now the prompt looks like this:

If a certain triangle and a certain circle have the same area, and if the height and the

base of the triangle are the same, and if the height of the triangle is 3, then what is the

radius of the circle?

Now you see you can plug 3 in for the height! πr2 = ½(3)2

Crossing out that information revises the prompt again:

If a certain triangle and a certain circle have the same area, and if the height and the

base of the triangle are the same, and if the height of the triangle is 3, then what is the

radius of the circle?

17 © AP Guru
All that’s left is to solve for the radius! r = √(4.5/π).

Now the prompt looks like:

If a certain triangle and a certain circle have the same area, and if the height and the

base of the triangle are the same, and if the height of the triangle is 3, then what is the

radius of the circle?

And you’re done! That’s all there is to it.

Until you try this for yourself, you might not realize how effective it truly is. When you use the

cross-out method, you realize you:

1. Cannot possibly miss information. It’ll never happen again. You’re not allowed to cross

out a word unless you use it, and you’re not allowed to answer a question until all the

words are crossed out.

2. Will be much more proactive in solving your problems. The simple act of visually pro-

cessing and actively using every word in your problem will be enormously helpful.

Math is a visual art, and by actively processing problems and forcing yourself to rewrite all

the information you receive, you’ll create more useful, visual models of every single problem you

have to solve.

SAT Math Guide 18

 Chapter 4
SAT MATH
STRATEGIES
Some strategies are so powerful that they can single-handedly
increase your SAT Math Test score by more than 100 points. At AP
Guru, we absolutely recommend students use these three strate-
gies time and again.

If you learn just three strategies and build them into your routine, you’ll notice a ludicrous shift

in your math performance. These strategies can be applied to the majority of your SAT Math

Test questions.

1. STEALING THE ANSWERS

The SAT is a multiple-choice exam (apart from a few Grid-In Questions). On the Math portion,

this has a profound implication: the correct answer is sitting right in front of you. Why would

you ever go through the horrible work of actually solving a math problem or working harder

than you need to when you can just cherry-pick the right answer instead?

All problems that allow you to steal answers have something in common: they point to the

answer choices. Whenever you can steal answers, you’ll see language like this:

1. “What is a number that satisfies these conditions?” In other words, “there’s only one

number, and it’s in the answer choices…so plug the choices in and figure it out…”

19 © AP Guru
 2. “Which of the following…” Sometimes, the question literally says, “Of these answers, one

does X, Y, or Z.” In those cases, you know it’s stealing time!

3. “What is the largest/smallest possible value of…” The problem is saying, “there are a

few values that work, but the largest/smallest is in the answer choices, and you can

4. just plug them in to see if they work.”

5. “What could be a value of…” Most problems involving “possibility” that also contain the

words “could” or “might” will allow you to steal answers.

Just like any other strategy, this one takes a bit of practice before it’s totally useful. The more

You practice, the better you’ll become at identifying when you can steal or eliminate. Examples

are always the best way to learn, so let’s launch right into the good stuff.

EXAMPLE 1:
Andrea manages a company that currently has 116 customers, which is 8 more than twice the

number of customers the company had 1 year ago. How many customers did the company have

1 year ago?

A. 50

B. 54

C. 61

D. 66

Solution: The best way to approach this problem is to take each answer choice, double it, and

add 8. Start at the top and see which one works. For example, option A would be 50 x 2 =

100. Add 8 to it that would be 108. Therefore, it is not the answer. Option B would be 54 x 2 =

108. Adding 8 gives you 116. There we have it. B is the correct answer (there can’t be two right

answers to a math problem, so there’s no need to test options C or D). That was easy!

SAT Math Guide 20

 EXAMPLE 2:
Candies Per Price at Carrie’s Price at Tamika’s
Box (n) Chocolate Shop (C) Treat Shop (t)
5 $1.50 $2.25
10 $2.50 $2.75
15 $3.50 $3.25
20 $4.50 $3.75
25 $5.50 $4.25
30 $6.50 $4.75

Which of the following equations gives the relationship between the price in dollars, C, and the

number of candies, n, in a box of candies at Carrie’s Chocolate Shop?

A. C = 0.2n + 0.5

B. C = 0.3n

C. C = 0.5n + 1.5

D. C = n - 3.5

Solution: Test each possible equation out until you find one that matches. Answer choice A works

here. It works for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 candies per box. Again, there can’t be more than

one right answer. So, it’s A, and you can move on.

EXAMPLE 3:
Which of the following (x,y) pairs is the solution for the system of equations

x + 2y = 4 and -2x + y = 7

A. (-2.3)

B. (-1.2,5)

C. (1,1.5)

D. (2,1)

21 © AP Guru
Solution: Like before, plug each answer in, and you’re good to go! One will work, the others

won’t. Start with A. If we plug the X and Y values in, we get: -2 + 6 = 4 for the first equation.

Check! For the second, we get 4+3 = 7. Check!

It works! The answer is A. Boom. We’re done. Testing in the rest would be a waste of time.

2. PLUGGING IN NUMBERS
Many SAT Math Test problems don’t deal in concrete numbers - they deal in variables.

FOR INSTANCE: "A certain table has a width four times as great as its length” or “The amount

of strawberries sold, S, is twice the amount of blueberries sold, B.” And so on and so forth.

In both cases, and all cases like them, you’re not dealing with numbers you’re dealing

with the idea of numbers. That makes things unnecessarily difficult, and who likes when things

are difficult? We don’t, and neither should you.

Math is about numbers. When you do math without numbers, it’s hard. When you do math with

numbers, it’s easy. With that in mind, our goal is to use real numbers whenever we possibly can

and to make them up if they don’t exist.

Always follow this Golden Rule: If you don’t need to know the value of anything in any given

math problem, make the value up. It doesn’t matter whether it’s the value of x, the side

length of a square, the number of students in a class, whatever. If you don’t need to know it

specifically, then make it up and plug it in.

Whenever you read an SAT Math Test problem, simply ask: is there a certain number I don’t

need to know? If so, can I make it up? If you can, do it.

SAT Math Guide 22

Keep these things in mind:

1. If you don’t need to know the exact value of something, you should make it up

2. It’s most common in ratio and percentage problems

3. You never have to use this strategy—but it’s extremely helpful. So if you ever get totally

stuck on a problem, pull yourself back and see if you might be able to make up values

for one of the variables or mystery numbers. You just might!

Let's see the strategy in action using a few solved examples:

EXAMPLE 4:
If the average of X and Y is m, and m doesn’t equal 0, then which of the following is the

average of X, Y, and 2m?

A. m

B. 4m/3

C. 3m/21

D. 2m

Solution: Now, you could solve this the difficult way—using algebra and numbers that aren’t real.

Or you could take the massive shortcut and simply make up the values of x and y!!!

For this problem, you don’t need to know what the values of x and y actually are, so you can

just make up any random values:

X=7

Y=13

Using the plugged in, made up numbers, you see that the average of x and y is 10. So that

means that: M=10.

The question asks: “what’s the average of x, y, and 2m?” The answer is the average of 7, 13,

23 © AP Guru
and 20. That is 40/3. By plugging m = 10 into the answer choices, we figure the right answer

is B.

EXAMPLE 5:
When the positive integer x is divided by 7, the remainder is 4. Which of the following

expressions will yield a remainder of 3 when it is divided by 7?

A. X + 2

B. X + 3

C. X + 4

D. X + 6

Solution: At first, this problem seems weird and confusing. Unless, that is, we make up a

number to represent X. What if we make X = 4. Then 4 divided by 7 has a remainder of 4

(and a quotient of “0”).

Now that we have an X, let’s test the answers:

A. 4+2=6. 6 divided by 7 has a remainder of 6 (quotient 0, remainder 6). Doesn’t

work

B. 4+3=7. 7 divided by 7 has a remainder of 0 (quotient 1, remainder 0). Doesn’t work

C. 4+4=8. 8 divided by 7 has a remainder of 1 (quotient 1, remainder 1). Doesn’t work

D. 4+6=10. 10 divided by 7 has a remainder of 3 (quotient 1, remainder 3). Works

Here’s the amazing thing: so long as you follow the rules of the problem, the plug in strategy

always works! Following the rules of the problem is important, though. If I picked “x=5,” this

wouldn’t have worked, since 5 divided by 7 doesn’t have a remainder of 4. But try ANY number

that has a remainder of 4 when divided by 7 (try 11, 18, or 25), and you’ll get the same

answer—D.

SAT Math Guide 24

3. CREATING VARIABLES
So what happens if you can’t come up with real numbers? What if there are defined values in

the problem you’re solving that you need to work with? And what if the answer choices don’t

help you to solve the problem?

That’s where the third and final strategy comes in. The hardest part of solving any SAT

Math Test problem is figuring out what you’re trying to solve in the first place. Always ask

yourself: can I create a variable to stand in for a certain value?

As we’ve mentioned, math is a visual science and requires manipulation of values. All of algebra

boils down to “manipulating equations” so that the thing you want isolated is on one side of the

= sign, and everything else is on the other side.

Almost every SAT Math Test problem boils down to an algebraic equation – once you have an

equation in your hands, a problem is far less difficult to solve. Of course, to create an equation,

you need one thing: A VARIABLE.

Without variables, there are no equations. What would be the point of saying 9 = 9, or 4+5=9?

These aren’t “solvable” because there’s nothing to figure out.

When you are stuck on a problem, and you can’t figure out what to do, it’s usually because you

don’t have any variables to manipulate, and without variables, no real mathematics can take

place.

Let’s walk you through this idea with an EXAMPLE.. Suppose you have a problem: 5 less than 2

times a number is the same as 4 times that number.

"What is the number?”

25 © AP Guru
This problem may seem somewhat complicated without assigning the unknown number a variable.

So, assign it one! Then all you need to do is convert the entire sentence into algebrese, the

language of algebra.

“The number” is now X.

Let's try to solve it now. The equation translates to: 2X – 5 = 4X. The number is -5/2.

By actively processing problems and forcing yourself to rewrite all the information you receive,

you’ll create more useful, visual models of every single problem you have to solve.

SAT Math Guide 26

 Chapter 5
MATH
FUNDAMENTALS
Math fundamentals deals with number properties, their
classifications and basic operations on numbers.

Here are the types of numbers used most often:

1. REAL NUMBERS: Any number that is possible including negatives and fractions.

Cannot be irrational

EXAMPLE: 0, 1, -2, 1/2, √25......

2. WHOLE NUMBERS: Any number without fractions or decimals. Cannot be negative.

EXAMPLE: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4...

3. NATURAL NUMBER: Any number that is a positive whole number

EXAMPLE: 1, 2, 3, 4...

4. INTEGERS: Any whole numbers and negatives of any whole numbers.

EXAMPLE: ... -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ...

5. RATIONAL NUMBER: Any number that can be written by dividing one integer by

another - in plain English, any number that can be written as a fraction or ratio. (An easy

27 © AP Guru
way to remember this is to think of rational’s root word “ratio.”)

EXAMPLE: 1/2, 2.5, 4.12, 1/3

6. IRRATIONAL NUMBER: Any number that cannot be written as a simple fraction

(because the decimal goes on forever without repeating).

EXAMPLE: 3.14159265... , √-2

Every number has a decimal expansion. For example, 2 can be written 2.000... However, you

can easily spot an irrational number because the decimal expansion goes on forever without

repeating. Here’s how all types of numbers fit together:

REAL NUMBERS

RATIONAL
NUMBERS

INTEGERS

WHOLE
NUMBERS IRRATIONAL
NUMBERS

NATURAL
NUMBERS

SAT Math Guide 28

EXAMPLE:

- -2 is an integer, rational and a real number

- 6.675 is rational and real. (terminating decimals or decimals that end are rational.)

- √ 5 = 2.2360679775 is irrational and real. (Nonrepeating decimals that go on forever are

irrational.)

EXAMPLE 1:
If a is an odd integer and b is an even integer, which of the following is an odd integer?

A. 3b

B. a + 3

C. 2(a + b)

D. a + 2b

Solution: Answer choice D is correct. Twice b will be even because an even number x an even

number = an even number. And the final result will be odd because of an odd number (a) + an

even number (2b) = an odd number.

You could also solve this by double-checking these rules by using your own numbers. If you

assign an odd number to a and an even number to b, you can test out each option in about

the same amount of time.

So, for this question, you could have said a was 3, and b was 4. Then option D would have

looked like this: 3 + 2(4) = 11

FACTORS
FACTORS are integers you multiply together to get another integer. When finding the factors

of a number, ask yourself, “What numbers can be multiplied together to give me this number?”

Every number greater than 1 has at least two factors because every number can be divided

29 © AP Guru
by 1 and itself.

EXAMPLE: What are the factors of 6?

- 2 and 3 are factors of 6, because 2 x 3 = 6.

- 1 and 6 are also factors of 6, because 1 x 6 = 6.

So the factors of 6 are: 1, 2, 3, and 6.

SOME SHORTCUTS TO FIND AN INTEGER’S FACTORS

1. An integer is divisible by 2 if it ends in an even number.

EXAMPLE: 10, 92, 44, 26, and 8 are all divisible by 2 because they end in an even

number.

2. An integer is divisible by 3 if the same of its digits is divisible by 3.

EXAMPLE: 42 is divisible by 3 because 4 + 2 = 6, and 6 is divisible by 3.

3. An integer is divisible by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5.

EXAMPLE: 10, 65, and 2,320 are all divisible by 5 because they end in either 0 or 5.

4. An integer is divisible by 9 is the same of the digits is divisible by 9.

EXAMPLE: 297 is divisible by 9 because 2 + 9 + 7 = 18, and 18 is divisible by 9.

Any factors that are the same for two (or more) numbers are called COMMON FACTORS.

EXAMPLE: What are the common factors of 12 and 18?

- The factors for 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.

- The factors for 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18.

SAT Math Guide 30

The common factors of 12 and 18 are 1, 2, 3, and 6. The largest factor that both numbers share

is called the GREATEST COMMON FACTOR, or GCF for short. The GCF of 12 and 18 is 6.

MULTIPLES AND LCM

When we multiply a number by any whole number (that isn’t 0), the product is a MULTIPLE of

that number. Every number has an infinite list of multiples.

Any multiples that are the same for two (or more) numbers are called COMMON MULTIPLES.

What is the smallest multiple that both 2 and 5 have in common? The smallest multiple is 10.

We call this the LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE, or LCM.

EXAMPLE: Susie signs up to volunteer at the animal shelter every 6 days. Luisa signs up

to volunteer at the shelter every 5 days. If they both sign up to volunteer on the same

day, when is the first day that Susie and Luisa will work together?

This is the same as saying, "Find the LCM for 5 and 6."

Susie will work on the following days: 6th, 12th, 18th, 24 th and 30 th. 30 is the first number divisible

by 5, so the LCM is 30. The first day that Susie and Luisa will work together

is on the 30th day

PRIME NUMBERS

The SAT loves to test students on prime numbers, so you should expect to see one question per

test on prime numbers. Be sure to understand what they are and how to find them.

31 © AP Guru
 A PRIME NUMBER IS A NUMBER THAT IS ONLY
DIVISIBLE BY TWO NUMBERS—ITSELF AND 1.

The only even prime number is 2.

Questions about primes come up fairly often on the SAT and understanding that 2 (and only 2)

is an even prime number will be invaluable for solving many problems.

EXAMPLE 2:
A prime number x is squared and then added to a different prime number, y. Which of the

following could be the final result?

I. An even number

II. An odd number

III. A positive number

A. I only

B. II only

C. III only

D. I, II, and III

Solution: This question relies on your knowledge of both number relationships and primes. You

know that any number squared (the number times itself) will be an even number if the original

number was even, and an odd number if the original number was odd.

Next, we are adding that square to another prime number. Knowing that 2 is a prime number,

let’s replace x with 2.

2 x 2 = 4.

SAT Math Guide 32

Now if y is a different prime number (as stipulated in the question), it must be odd,

because the only even prime number is 2.

So let’s say y = 3.

4 + 3 = 7. The end result is odd.

THIS MEANS II IS CORRECT.

But what if both x and y were odd prime numbers? Let’s try this next and say that x = 3

and y = 5.

So, 3 x 3 = 9 and 9 + 5 = 14.

The end result is even. THIS MEANS I IS CORRECT.

Our results show that it is possible to get a positive number result as well since both our results

were positive. THIS MEANS III IS CORRECT TOO. The correct answer is D.

If you forgot that 2 was a prime number, you would have picked D, I and III only, because

there would have been no possible way to get an odd number. Remembering that 2 is a prime

number is key to solving this question.

EXAMPLE 3:
How many prime numbers are between 30 and 50, inclusive?

A. Two

B. Three

C. Four

D. Five

33 © AP Guru
Solution: This might seem intimidating or time-consuming, but you do NOT need to memorize a

list of prime numbers. First, consider all numbers between 30 and 50. Eliminate all even numbers

from the list, as you know the only even prime number is 2.

Next, eliminate all numbers that end in 5. Remember that prime numbers are only divisible by

themselves and 1. Any number that ends in 5 or 0 is divisible by 5. So, now your list looks like

this: 31, 33, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49

This smaller list is much easier to work with, but we need to narrow it down even further. First,

start eliminating numbers divisible by 3: 33 and 39 are gone.

We are left with 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 49.

Eyeball each number to see if it has any factors. You can eliminate 49 since it has a factor 7.

You are left with 5 prime numbers: 31, 37, 41, 43, and 47. The correct answer is D.

EXPONENTS

AN EXPONENT IS THE NUMBER OF TIMES THE BASE NUMBER IS MULTIPLIED BY ITSELF. THINGS TO

REMEMBER ABOUT EXPONENTS:

1. Any base without an exponent has an "invisible" exponent of 1.

EXAMPLE: 8 = 81
2. Any base with an exponent 0, equals 1.

EXAMPLE: 60 = 1
3. Be careful when calculating negative numbers with exponents.

EXAMPLE: -32 = -(32) = -(3 x 3) = -9

SAT Math Guide 34

 vs
(-3)2 = (-3) x (-3) = 9

You can simplify expressions with more than one exponent by combining the exponents -

the only requirement is that the base must be the same. It looks like this:
xa x xb = xa+b

xa ÷ xb = xa-b

4. When there is an exponent inside the parenthesis and another outside the parentheses,

this is called a POWER OF A POWER. A power of a power can be simplified by multiply-

ing the exponents. It looks like this:

(v a)b = v a x b

EXAMPLE: (4 2) 3 = 42x 3 = 4 6

A negative exponent in the numerator becomes a positive exponent when moved to the

denominator. It looks like this:

1
x-m =
xm

EXAMPLE: Solve for X in 45 = 85-x

Since the bases are different, we need to work some magic to rewrite the equation so the

bases are the same.

4 = 22 and 8 = 23

Substitute 22 and 23 into the original equation: (22)5 = (23)6-x

35 © AP Guru
Using the “power to a power” rule, we simplify: 210 = 218-3x

Like before, drop the bases and make an equation with the exponents.

10 = 18 - 3x
3x = 8
x = 8/3

SAT Math Guide 36

 Chapter 6
PERCENT CHANGE
AND RATIOS
For some reason, the SAT is absolutely obsessed with percentage
problems, and as a result, many students have trouble. The
following set of formulas will help eradicate your trouble once and
for all.

First, let's cover the basics of percentages:

1. If you want to find 35% of a number, simply multiply the number by 0.35. Done.

2. If you want to convert a percentage into a percentage coefficient, simply divide the

number with a percentage sign next to it by 100. For instance, 5% x 100 = 0.05.

3. 50% is not equal to 0.50%. Pay attention to where decimals are located.

Sometimes the SAT will mess with your head by trying to make you reverse or confuse a

percentage conversion. If your answer is 60%, then look for either 60% or 0.60 in the answer

choices. Not 0.60%. Just keep that in mind – the SAT does this all the time.

With that out of the way, you already know everything you need to know about the simplest of

the percentage calculations. However, things always get a little more complicated on the SAT.

37 © AP Guru
The Ultimate Percentage Change Formula
If you’re looking for the easiest, most standardized way to solve SAT Math Test percentage

problems involving any sort of change, here’s the ultimate formula:

(ORIGINAL #) (1.00 +/- PERCENTAGE CHANGE) = FINAL #

But first, let’s explain something: what’s the deal with the “1.00” in the equation? Why do we

need that “1.00 plus or minus the coefficient,” instead of just the coefficient?

Multiplying a number by 1.00 is the same as finding 100% of the number, which is the same as

keeping the number intact. Therefore, we start every percentage-change formula with the 100%

already built-in.

- If you’re decreasing a number by 6%, it’s: (1.00 - 0.06), which leaves you with 0.94/94%.

- If you’re increasing a number by 150%, it’s: (1.00 + 1.50), which leaves you with 2.50/250%.

EXAMPLE: John buys a shirt for 50% off. The price of his new shirt is $70. How much

was the shirt before the discount?

Original Number = Unknown

Percentage Change: Minus 50%

Final Number = 70

So, to solve the problem, plug the numbers into the Ultimate Percentage-Change Formula.

(Original Price) (1.00 - 0.50) = (70)

Original Price = 70 / (0.50)

Original price = $140.

SAT Math Guide 38

Now, you might think that was a very easy problem, and it was. Here’s a tougher that proves

how versatile this method is.

EXAMPLE 1:
John goes to a store and sees a jacket for 30% off. He decides to buy it. When he gets to

the counter, the clerk takes another 20% off the already discounted price. The clerk rings the

jacket up, and there is a 9% tax rate. John ends up paying $390. What was the original price

(rounded to the nearest dollar) of the jacket before any discounts or taxes?

A. $639

B. $688

C. $701

D. $709

Solution: The first thing you need to realize is that there isn’t a single operation that happens

to this jacket’s price - there are three:

1. It is decreased in price, by 30%.

2. It decreases in price a second time, by 20%.

3. Its twice-discounted price is now increased, by 9%.

Because there are three percentage-based changes happening to the jacket, we need to use the

ULTIMATE PERCENTAGE-CHANGE FORMULA three times, and NOT just once.

REMEMBER: you cannot just add % changes together and do them in one step. If a $100 jacket’s

price is raised by 10%, then decreased by 10%, is it the same thing as not changing the price

of the jacket at all? HECK NO! You can’t just add 10% and then subtract 10% because you

are talking about 10% of two DIFFERENT NUMBERS!

To solve the problem at hand, we’ll need to start backwards. Since we know the final price of

39 © AP Guru
the jacket is $390, our first task is to find the price of the jacket “pre-tax.”

Tax transaction: (Original Price) (1.00 + .09) = $390

So before taxes, the Purchase Price = $357.80

Now let’s use that number for our next step:

Second discount: (Original Price) (1.00 - 0.20) = $357.80

we get, Original Price = $447.25

Now we have one last transaction:

First discount: (Truly original price) (1.00 - 0.30) = $447.25

Original Price = $ 638.93

The correct answer is A.

RATIOS AND PROPORTION

Ratio-based problems make up a huge share of all SAT Math Test problems, and they can be

tricky. Here’s the first way that the SAT will try to force you to slip up.

Suppose you’re asked a question like this: If there are half as many chickens are there are pigs

on a farm, then what fraction of the animals on the farm are chickens?

One of the answer choices you’re offered will inevitably be this: ½. That might seem to make

sense. After all, the ratio of chickens to pigs is 1:2, so aren’t half of the animals just chickens?

NO, NO, NO!

SAT Math Guide 40

The actual answer is 1/3.

THINK ABOUT IT: If there is one chicken that means there must be two pigs. So in total, 1

chicken + 2 pigs = 3 animals. Chickens are 1/3rd of the animals on the farm.

REMEMBER: Ratios are NOT quite the same thing as fractions. They serve a very different role.

Just knowing the distinction will help you.

From now on, every time you think about, see, or write ratios, imagine an “implied x.”

If you hear that the ratio of girls to boys in a school is 3 to 5, you should see this in your

head as 3x : 5x. At this point, you have no idea how many boys or girls there actually are, but

that doesn’t matter.

There could be 3 girls or 300,000,000,000.

One of three things must happen to determine how many boys and girls are at the school:

1. You’re told what the ratio multiplier, or imaginary x, actually is

2. You’re told the actual number of boys OR girls

3. You’re told the total sum of boys and girls

Once you understand that ratios “MOVE IN GROUPS,” this entire concept will become much easier

for you. For example, if the ratio of flies to beetles on your bug farm is 9 to 7, then the ratio

of flies to beetles is 9x : 7x.

Since 9x + 7x = 16x, you know that bugs will come in “groups” of 16. You can have 16 bugs, or

32, or 48, or 64 – but you can never have just 7 bugs, or 17, or 31 if you did, then the ratio

itself wouldn’t exist.

41 © AP Guru
 Chapter 7
INEQUALITIES
The beauty of inequalities on the SAT is that they allow you to do
all of the same things that you can with equations:

2x + 5 > 7
2x > 2 subtract 5 from both sides
x > 1 divide both sides by 2

The only - although incredibly significant - difference is that you must flip the sign of the

inequality whenever you multiply or divide by a negative! Inequalities can be manipulated like

equations and follow very similar rules, but there is one important exception.

If you add/subtract/multiply the same number to both sides of an inequality, the inequality

remains true. But if you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number,

the inequality becomes reversed.

This is quite easy to see because we can write that 4 > 2. But if we multiply both sides of

this inequality by −1, we get −4 > −2, which is not true. We have to reverse the inequality,

writing as −4 < −2 in order for it to be true.

This leads to difficulties when dealing with variables because a variable can be either positive

or negative.

42 SAT Math Guide

COMBINING INEQUALITIES
Many SAT inequality problems involve more than one inequality. To solve such problems, you may

need to convert several inequalities to a compound inequality, which is a series of inequalities

strung together, such as 2 < 3 < 4.

To convert multiple inequalities to a compound inequality, first line up the variables, then combine.

EXAMPLE: If x > 8 , x < 17, and x + 5 < 19, what is the range of possible values for x.

First, solve any inequalities that need to be solved. In this example, only the last inequality

needs to be solved:

x + 5 < 19

x < 14

Second, simplify the inequalities so that all the inequality symbols point in the same direction:

8 < x

x < 17

x < 14

Third, line up the common variables in the inequalities.

8 < x

x < 17

x < 14

Notice that x < 14 is more limiting than x < 17 (in other words, whenever x < l4, x will always

be less than 17, but not vice versa.). That is why you choose 8 < x < 14 rather than 8 < x < 17

as the compound inequality that solves the problem. The correct answer is 8 < x < 14

© AP Guru 43
 Sometimes a problem with compound inequalities will require you to manipulate the inequalities

in order to solve the problem. You can perform operations on a compound inequality as long as

you remember to perform those operations on every term in the inequality, not just the outside

terms.

EXAMPLE
` 1:
If 1 > 1 - ab > 0 which of the following must be true?

a > 0
I.
b
a
II. < 1
b
III. ab < 1

A. I only

B. II only

C. I and II only

D. I and III only

You can manipulate the original compound inequality as follows, making sure to perform each

manipulation on every term:

1 > 1 - ab > 0

0 > -ab > -1 Multiply all three terms by -1

0 < ab < 1 and flip the inequality signs.

Therefore you know that 0 < ab < 1. This tells you that ab is positive, so a must be positive
b
(a and b have the same sign). Therefore, it must be true. However, you do not know whether
a
< 1, so II is not necessarily true. But you do know that ab must be less than 1, so III
b
must be true. THEREFORE, the correct answer is D.

44 SAT Math Guide

 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

Related to extreme values are problems involving optimization, specifically, minimization or

maximization problems. In these problems, you need to focus on the largest and smallest possible

values for each of the variables, as some combination of them will usually lead to the largest or

smallest possible result.

EXAMPLE 2:
If 2y + 3 < 11 and 1 < x < 5, what is the maximum possible value for xy?

You need to test the extreme values for x and for y to determine which combinations of

extreme values will maximize xy:

2y + 3 ≤ 11 2y ≤ 8 y ≤ 4

E X TREM E VALUE S FOR X E X TREM E VALUE S FOR Y

The lowest value for x is 1 There is no lower limit to y.

The highest value for x is 5 The highest value for y is 4.

Now consider the extreme value scenarios for X, Y, and XY:

1. Since Y has no lower limit and x is positive, the product XY has no lower limit.

2. Using Y’s highest value (4), test the extreme values of x(1 and 5).

3. The first extreme value generates a product XY = (1)(4) = 4. The second extreme value

generates XY = (5)(4) = 20.

Clearly, XY is maximized when X = 5 and Y = 4, with a result that XY = 20.

© AP Guru 45
 EXAMPLE 3:
If -7 < a < 6 and -7 < b < 8, what is the maximum possible value for ab?

Once again, you are looking for a maximum possible value, this time for ab. You need to test

the extreme values for a and for b to determine which combinations of extreme values will

maximize ab.

EXTREME VALUES FOR A EXTREME VALUES FOR B

The lowest value for a is -7. The lowest value for b is -7.

The highest value for a is 6. The highest value for b is 8.

Now consider the extreme value scenarios for a > b, and ab:

a b ab
Min -7 Min -7 (-7) x (-7) = 49
Min -7 Max 8 (-7) x 8 = -56
Max 6 Min -7 6 x (-7) = -42
Max 6 Max 8 6 x 8 = 48

This time, ab is maximized when you take the extreme negative values for both a and b,

resulting in ab = 49. Notice that you could have focused right away on the first and fourth

scenarios because they are the only scenarios that produce positive products.

GRAPHING LINEAR INEQUALITIES

Graphing linear inequalities is similar to graphing linear equations, but the process involves two

major differences. The first difference is with regard to the line itself, depending on whether it

is an inclusive or non-inclusive inequality.

46 SAT Math Guide

 1. For inequalities that are inclusive (≤ or ≥), a solid line is used.

2. For inequalities that are non-inclusive (< or >), a dashed line is used.

3. The next aspect of graphing an inequality involves shading a region.

4. If an inequality reads y is less than or y is less than or equal to, the area below the

line will be shaded.

5. If an inequality reads y is greater than or y is greater than or equal to, the area

above the line will be shaded.

If you’re ever unsure about which side of inequality to shade, you can always choose a point

to test. Consider the inequality y > x − 4. Let’s say that we’re unsure about which side of the

inequality to shade. We can choose the value of (0,0) and plug it into the equation:

0 > 0 − 4

0 > − 4

With these values inserted, the inequality holds true, so we want to shade the side of the line

on which the origin (0,0) falls. Any point can function as your test point; the origin is just an

example. The following are graphs of linear inequalities.

y y
5 5

x x
-5 0 5 -5 0 5

-5 -5

y ≥ 3x + 6 y ≥ -2x + 4

© AP Guru 47
 SYSTEMS OF INEQUALITIES

Systems of inequalities are similar to systems of equations with regard to the algebraic

operations needed to solve them, with the exception of the multiplication and division of

negative numbers. The main difference occurs when one arrives at the solution – specifically

how it is seen in the final equation and the corresponding graph. Instead of having a specific

value for each variable in the system, a solution to a system of inequalities has a range of

values for each variable.

EXAMPLE 4:
“Jane is selling cookies and brownies for a fundraiser. Each brownie is $2.50 and each cookie is

$1.85. Jane wants to make at least $80 and sell at minimum 10 brownies.”

If c refers to the number of cookies Jane sells and b to the number of brownies she sells,

which of the following systems of inequalities models the word problem?

A. 2.50b + 1.85c ≤ 80

b ≥ 10

B. 2.50b + 1.85c ≥ 80

b ≥ 10

C. 2.50c + 1.85b ≤ 80

b ≥ 10

D. 2.50c + 1.85b ≥ 80

b ≥ 10

SOLUTION: First, let’s make sure that the correct coefficients are used for the variables c and

b, or in other words, that the correct prices for the cookies and brownies are represented.

According to the word problem, each brownie (b) costs $2.50, and each cookie (c) costs $1.85, so

48 SAT Math Guide

the first inequality should include the terms 2.50b and 1.85c. Only answer choices A and B do

this.

The only detail that distinguishes A from B is in the direction of the inequality sign used in the

first inequality. So, which is true - do we want the sum of the variables to be greater than or

equal to or less than or equal to 80? Keep in mind what the 80 is representing in this context:

the amount of money that Jane wants to make at the fundraiser. What type of wording is

used to convey this amount? We’re told that Jane wants to make “at least” eighty dollars.

This tells us that we want the variables to equal or be greater than 80, making B the correct

answer.

EXAMPLE 5:
Bob rides his bike to and from school. It takes him more than four minutes but less than six

minutes to bike the first 3 blocks to school, and he is able to get to school in less than 20

minutes.

If x represents the number of minutes it takes Bob to ride the first three blocks to school and

y represents the number of minutes it takes him to ride the rest of the way to his school, which

of the following systems of inequalities models the word problem.

A. 4 < x < 6

x + y < 20

B. 4 ≤ x ≤ 6

x + y < 20

C. 4 < x < 6

x - y < 20

D. 4 ≤ x ≤ 6

x - y < 20

© AP Guru 49
 Solution: Let’s focus on the x-variable first. We’re told that it takes Bob “more than 4 minutes

but less than 6 minutes” to ride the first 3 blocks to school. This language indicates a non-

inclusive inequality; “more than 4 minutes” does not include exactly 4 minutes as a possibility. So,

we can ignore answer choices C and D, because they use inclusive inequalities.

How do answer choices A and B differ? Their first inequalities are identical, but A uses the sum

of x and y in its second inequality, and B uses the difference between x and y in its. Which

models the problem? Consider what x and y represent in relation to 20.

Both variables are measuring the amount of time it takes Bob to ride his bike a certain distance

to school, and the 20 represents how Bob “is able to get to school in under 20 minutes.” We

need to add the variables together to find the total time it takes Bob to ride his bike to school

and then state the amount of time is less than 20. Finding the difference between the two

variables does not relate to the phrasing of the word problem. A IS THE CORRECT ANSWER.

50 SAT Math Guide

 Chapter 8
LINEAR
EQUATIONS
Linear equations are equations in which all variables have an
exponent of 1 and whose graph is a line.

A linear equation has the form:

y = mx + b

Y represents every y-value on the line, m represents the slope (the ratio of RISE/RUN), and b

represents the y-intercept (where a line crosses the y-axis). If you know the y-intercept, you

know the value of y at the point where the line crosses the y-axis, and therefore, you also

know the x-value there because it is always 0! If you know both the y-intercept and the slope

of a line, you can graph the line.

But why stop at one line? We can take two linear equations and study them together, such as:

ax + by = c
dx + ey = f

This is known as SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS. Because each of the linear questions

51 © AP Guru
represents a line, we can ask, “If I draw two lines, where do they intersect?” The process of

finding the answer is called SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS.

There are three ways of doing it.

1. GRAPHING
We can solve simultaneous equations by GRAPHING each linear question and then finding

where the lines intersect.

EXAMPLE: Graph the simultaneous equations to find the solution.

x + y = 5
2x - y = 4

First rewrite each of the equations into the y = mx + b form to better graph each equation.

First equation: y = -x + 5
Second equation: y = 2x -4.

Then, graph the equations by siding the y intercept and slope from each.

y
5
4
3
2
1 x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

SAT Math Guide 52

From the graph, we can see that the two lines intersect at (3, 2) - that is the solution of the

simultaneous equations..

EXAMPLE: Graph the simultaneous equations to find the solution.

2x + y = -2
2x + y = 3

In order to graph these more easily, change the first equation from 2x + y = -2 to

y = -2x -2, and change the second equation from 2x + y = 3 to y = -2x + 3.

Then, we graph the two equations.

y
5
4
3
2
1 x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

There are no intersection points, SO THERE IS NO SOLUTION TO THE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS.

HOW CAN THERE BE NO SOLUTION? LET’S LOOK BACK AT THE ORIGINAL TWO LINEAR

EQUATIONS. THE FIRST LINEAR EQUATION IS 2X + Y = -2 AND THE SECOND LINEAR

EQUATION IS 2X + Y = 3. IN OTHER WORDS, THE EQUATIONS TELL US THAT THE

EXPRESSION 2X + Y WILL EQUAL TO -2 AND 3 AT THE SAME TIME. OF COURSE, THIS

LOGICALLY DOESN’T MAKE SENSE BECAUSE SOMETHING CANNOT EQUAL TWO DIFFERENT

NUMBERS! THAT’S WHY THERE IS NO SOLUTION TO THESE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS.

53 © AP Guru
EXAMPLE: Graph the simultaneous equations to find the solution.

4x - 2y = 6
2x - y = 3

We can change the first equation from 4x - 2y = 6 to y = 2x - 3, and change the

second equation from 2x - y = 3 to y = 2x - 3.

y
5
4
3
2
1 x

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Graphing the two equations, we realize that they are the exact same line!

In this case, we can see that the two lines overlap each other and intersect at every point

along the line,

SO THERE ARE AN INFINITE NUMBER OF SOLUTIONS TO

THE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS.

2. SUBSTITUTION METHOD
We can also use algebra to solve simultaneous linear equations - one way is known as the

substitution method. In the SUBSTITUTION METHOD, we find the solution by rewriting one

equation and then substituting it into the other equation. This is the method we at AP Guru

recommend our students use.

SAT Math Guide 54

EXAMPLE: Solve the simultaneous equations by using the substitution method.

4x + y = 7
3x + 2y = 9

First, rewrite equation as y = -4x + 7

and substitute it into equation : 3x + 2(-4x + 7) = 9

Now, we can solve for x: 3x - 8x + 14 = 9

-5x = -5
x = 1

Substituting x = 1 into either or , we find that y = 3,

SO THE SOLUTION IS (X, Y) = (1, 3).

3. ADDITION METHOD
The third way to solve simultaneous equations is by using ADDITION METHOD. The goal of the

addition method is to eliminate either the x or y variable by adding their opposite. First, we

multiply all the terms of one equation by a constant that will get one of the variables to add

up to zero. Next, add the two equations together, to eliminate a variable, and then solve the

simultaneous equations.

We can multiply the terms of both equations if that is what is necessary to solve the problem.

Just find the least common multiple of the X’s or the Y’s and multiply each term accordingly to

eliminate the variable.

55 © AP Guru
EXAMPLE: Solve the simultaneous equations by using the addition method.

4x - y = -7
-3x + 2y = 9

First, number the equations.

4x - y = -7
-3x + 2y = 9

Then multiply each term, in equation by 2 and call it equation

1
:

WE MULTIPLY BY 2 BECAUSE THEN

-2Y IN WILL CANCEL OUT 2Y
8x-2y = -14
IN IN THE NEXT STEP

Now add equation and equation together:

8x - 2y = -14
-3x + 2y = 9

8x + (-3x) + (-2y) + 2y = -14 + 9

5x = -5
x = -1
Substitute x = -1 into either equation, we find that y = 3,

A GOOD TRICK
On the SAT math section, you’ll see countless problems that ask things like:

1. What is the value of X + Y?

2. What is the value of A - B?

3. What is the average of Z, X, and Y?

SAT Math Guide 56

 4. How much money did Ben and Chris raise together?

5. How many babies did the mother rabbit and the mother lion have in total?

In all of the above examples, it’s very tempting to find the values of X, Y, A, B, Z, Ben, and so

on, but it’s also the worst imaginable strategy.

Before you solve for the value of any one variable, see if you’ll have an easier time finding the

value of both. Some of the time, it won’t even be possible to find a single individual value.

FOR EXAMPLE, on a question like this: Two separate triangles have interior angle values of x,
z, 17, d, 45, and 60, what is the value of x + z + d?

You can’t possibly figure out what x, z, or d equal independently. All you know is that both

triangles combined have interior angle values of 180 + 180 = 360. So if you subtract 17, 45, and

60 from 360, you’ll have your answer.

Other problems could be solved by substitution and/or hard math, but simply figuring out what

everything equals together solves them much more easily.

EXAMPLE: What’s the value of A + B + C if

3A + 6B + 19C = 12,
A + 2B + 7C = 9,

and 25A + 21B + 3C = 8?

At first, that problem seems like a total nightmare…until you stack them up and simplify

everything

57 © AP Guru
 3A + 6B + 19C = 12
A + 2B + 7C = 9
25A + 21B + 3C = 8
29A + 29B + 29C = 29
=> A + B + C = 1

We have literally no idea what A, B, or C equal - and we should'nt care.

Once you start looking for ways to use this strategy, you’ll realize that it’s useful all the

time. Yes - there are a few problems here and there that actually force you to find the values

of each independent variable, but they are rare.

SAT Math Guide 58

 Chapter 9
POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is an algebraic expression comprised of more than
two terms, usually of like bases and different powers. Polynomials
frequently include integer terms as well.

3x2 + 2x - 4
x4 - 6x2 + x - 10
7x3 + x2 + x + 1

1. Adding/Subtracting Polynomials
The key to adding polynomials is identifying the various like bases and then proceeding to add

their coefficients. For instance, let’s add the following polynomials:

(x2 + 2x −1) + (3x − 2x2 + 4)

Drop the parentheses, making the expression

x2 + 2x − 1 + 3x − 2x + 4

Next, identify the like terms. In this particular case, the like terms include x2, x, and the

integer term. Add the coefficient of each like base together to create the new term.

-x2 + 5x + 3

59 © AP Guru
2. Multiplying Polynomials
When it comes to multiplying polynomials, the most important thing to remember is that each

term from one polynomial will need to be multiplied with each term from the other polynomials.

Such an EXAMPLE of polynomial multiplication is (Y + 3 − Y2) (2Y − 1 + 2Y2)

First, multiply the first term from the first polynomial with each term in the second polynomial;

this results in

Y x 2Y = 2Y2 Y x -1 = -Y Y x 2Y2 = 2Y3

Next, multiply the second term in the first polynomial with each term in the second polynomial;

this results in

3 x 2Y = 6Y 3 x -1 = -3 3 x 2Y2 = 6Y2

Then, multiply the third term in the first polynomial with each term in the second polynomial;

this results in

-Y2 x 2Y = -2Y3 -Y2 x -1 = Y2 -Y x 2Y2 = -2Y4

From here, we combine all terms into a polynomial,

2Y2 − Y + 2Y3 + 6Y - 3 + 6Y2 − 2Y3 + Y2 − 2Y4

Now, combine like base terms to simplify further.

− 2Y4 + 9Y2 + 5Y − Y - 3

SAT Math Guide 60

3. Dividing Polynomials
When dividing polynomials, it is important to identify like bases and use the rule of exponents

to simplify the terms which contain variables. Similarly to multiplying polynomials, when dividing

polynomials each term in the dividend must be divided by each term in the divisor.

One way to accomplish division with polynomials is to perform long division, which is also known

as synthetic division. An EXAMPLE of using long division with polynomials is as follows:

(12x2 + 2x + 4) ÷ (2x + 1),

Dividend: 12x2 + 2x + 4
Divisor: 2x + 1

Performing this division will result in finding the quotient.

(2x + 1) 12x2 + 2x + 4

In order to start dividing, look at the first term in the divisor and the first term in the

dividend. In this particular case, 2x goes into 12x2, 6x times. In other words 2x x 6x = 12x2.
Now multiply 6x to each term in the divisor.

6x
(2x + 1) 12x2 + 2x + 4

From here, subtract the multiplied-out terms from the terms in the dividend.
6x
(2x + 1) 12x2 + 2x + 4

12x2 - 12x
0 - 4x + 4

61 © AP Guru
Now, look at the second term in the dividend and see how many times the first term in the

divisor can go into it. In this particular case, 2x goes into 2x one time.

Thus we have:
6x + 1
(2x + 1) 12x2 + 2x + 4

12x2 - 12x
0 - 4x + 4

From here, multiply the second terms of the quotient with the divisor and subtract from the

dividend.
6x + 1
(2x + 1) 12x2 + 2x + 4

12x2 - 12x
0 - 4x + 4
- 2x + 1
- 6x + 3

Since there are no terms left to subtract from, we place the remainder (-6x + 3) over the

divisor in the quotient to create the final polynomial,

6x + 1 + - 6x + 3
2x + 1

SAT Math Guide 62

 Chapter 10
MISCELLANEOUS
ALGEBRA
There are a few additional algebra topics often tested on the SAT. Expect
each of the following to show up at least once on each SAT Math Test.

ZERO IN THE DENOMINATOR - UNDEFINED

Math convention does not allow division by 0. When 0 appears in the denominator of an

expression, then that expression is undefined. How does this convention affect quadratic

equations?

EXAMPLE: What are the solutions to the following equation?

x2 + x - 12
x - 2
= 0

We notice a quadratic equation in the numerator. Since it is a good idea to start solving

quadratic equations by factoring, we will factor this numerator as follows:

(x - 3)(x - 4)
x - 2
= 0

If either of the factors in the numerator is 0, then the entire expression becomes 0. Thus, the

solutions to this equation are x = 3 or x = - 4.

63 © AP Guru
Rationalizing of Denominator
The SAT generally does not include in its answer choices any mathematical expressions in which

a radical ( ) appears in the denominator of a fraction. Accordingly, if your calculations yield

a radical in the denominator, you should be prepared to take one last step: rationalize the

denominator.
3 2 3 2
→ Multiply by to get
2 2 2

If the radical includes two terms, either added or subtracted, your job becomes significantly

more difficult. Fortunately, there’s a method that can help you.

EXAMPLE: What is the value of 2

2 - 2

In this problem, the multi-part denominator poses an algebraic challenge. Try to multiply both

the numerator and denominator by the denominator, and you are still left with a messy radical

in the denominator. Algebraically, the solution is to employ the difference of squares:

2 2 + 2
x
2 - 2 2 + 2

4 + 2 2
2
22 - 2

4 + 2 2
2

2+ 2
When rationalizing denominators with addition or subtraction in them, the difference of squares

rule is a nearly magical way to transform the expression.

SAT Math Guide 64

 DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTIONS

Variation mathematically shows how two or more variables are related.

Direct Variation
As one value increases, the other value increases. Decreases in one variable produce a decrease

in the other.

If x varies directly with y, then x/y = K

(K = Constant of Variation)

EXAMPLE:

- 10 doughnuts cost $6.00. How much will 15 doughnuts cost?

- Set up proportion 6/10 = x/15

- x = $9.00 or use 6/10 as the constant of variation.

- The constant stays the same no matter what amount is purchased.

- If you want 15, then $0.6x15 = $9.00

- If you want 45, then $0.6 x 45 = $27.00

Inverse Variation
A change in one variable produces an inverse or opposite change in the other.

Y x X = K or Y = K/X
(K = Constant of Variation)

As one variable increases, the other variable has to decrease to maintain the constant value.

65 © AP Guru
 y
.Y x X = K 25

1 x 18 = 18 20
2 x 9 = 18
3 x 6 = 18 15

6 x 3 = 18 10

9 x 2 = 18
5
18 x 1 = 18
x
5 10 15 20 25

Graph of y = 1 = x-1
x
y
25
As x decreases,
y increases.
20

15

10
As x increases,
y decreases.
5

x
5 10 15 20 25

EXAMPLE 1:
Travelling at a constant rate of 50 mph, a trip takes 2 hours. How long (in minutes) will the trip

take if you travel at 60 mph?

A. 90

B. 100

C. 110

D. 120

SAT Math Guide 66

You should recognize right away that this is an inverse. As the rate of travel increases, the time

decreases. One way to solve for the correct answer is to find the constant of variation → the

distance. Once you find distance, you can solve for time.

D = 50 mph x 2 hours = 100

100 = 60 mph x t

100/60 = t = 1 2/3 hours = 1 hour 40 mins.

The correct answer is B.

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY

SAT Math Test problems can deal with the growth or decline of populations of bacteria or other

organisms. They are modeled on the following equations:

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH EXPONENTIAL DECAY

f (t) = a x ert f (t) = a x e-rt
y y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2

a = Constant specified in problem e = Numerical constant ≈ 2.718

r = Rate of growth/decay t = Time

67 © AP Guru
The key difference between growth and decay is that growth has an exponential increase, while

decay has an exponential decrease.

EXAMPLE 2:
A scientist places an initial population of 3.5 x 104 bacteria on a plate containing glucose.

She knows that this type of bacteria, when supplied with abundant glucose, can double every

2 hours. When she checks on the bacteria at the same time the next day, approximately how

many bacteria should she expect to find, assuming the bacteria do not run out of glucose to

eat?

A. 9.27 x 1012

B. 9.27 x 1014

C. 9.35 x 1014

D. 9.35 x 1016

SOLUTION: This is an exponential growth question, so we need to start with the correct formula.

f(t) = a x ert

Next, we should organize the information we’re given:

a = 3.5 x 104 (Initial population)

t = 12 (The scientist checks on the bacteria at “the same time the next day,” so 24 hours have

passed. The rate of this problem is given as applying every 2 hours, though, so we have 12

2-hour periods’ worth of bacteria growth to account for).

r = 2 (Population is said to “double” every 2 hours).

We’re solving for the number of bacteria after 24 hours have passed - in mathematical terms,

f(t). Plugging the given information into the exponential growth formula, we can solve for the

unknown variable.

f(t) = 3.5 x 104 x e2x12

SAT Math Guide 68

 f(t) = 3.5 x 104 x e24
f(t) = 9.27 x 1014
The correct answer is B

EXAMPLE 3:
A special lizard population is in danger of becoming extinct. In 1920, the blue speckled lizard

population contained 3.78 x 107 individuals. It has decreased by 2% every year since. If the

rate of decay continues in this fashion, in what year will the population be roughly 6.25 x 106?
A. 2008

B. 2010

C. 2012

D. 2014

SOLUTION: Identify all known information

1. Initial year = 1920

2. Initial population (a) = 3.78 x 107

3. Decaying exponential problem (R) - “decreasing by 2%” represents the rate of decay

4. Final population f(t) = 6.25 x 106

In mathematical terms we have: P = ae-rt

6.25 x 106 = 3.78 x 107e-0.02t
Divide by 3.78 x 10.

0.165 = e-0.02t

Take the natural log of both sides. (The natural log and e cancel each other out).

ln (0.165) = ln (e-0.02t)
ln (0.165) = -0.02t
t = 90

69 © AP Guru
From here, to find the year, we will need to add t to the initial year.

Y = t + 1920
= 2010
B is the correct answer!

EXAMPLE 4:
Tina works at a university where the student population has seen growth over the last 50 years.

In 1950 the student population was 500, and on average, every year it increases by 4%. If the

university continued to grow in this way, how many students were in the class of 2015?
A. 6732

B. 6744

C. 6740

D. 6791

SOLUTION:

1. “Growth” represents an exponential growth problem.

2. “In 1950, the student population was 500” gives the starting time and population.

3. “Every year” represents our time unit. We will need to calculate the specific time by sub-

tracting the initial time from the time in question: 2015 − 1950 = 65

4. “Increases by 4%” represents the rate.

In mathematical terms, we have:

P = aert
P = 500e0.04 x 65
P = 500e2.6
P = 6732
The correct answer is A.

SAT Math Guide 70

 RATES AND WORK

One common type of word problem on the SAT Math Test is the rate problem. Rate problems

come in a variety of forms, but all are marked by three primary components: rate, time, and

distance/work.

These three elements are related by the following equations:

- RATE X TIME = DISTANCE (RT = D)

- RATE X TIME = WORK (RT = W)

The SAT makes rate situations more complicated by involving more than one person or vehicle

traveling. To deal with this, you will need to consider multiple RT = D relationships.

EXAMPLE: Harvey runs a 30-mile course at a constant rate of 4 miles per hour. If Clyde runs

the same track at a constant rate and completes the course in 90 fewer minutes, how fast did

Clyde run?

Both Harvey and Clyde ran the same course, so the distance they both ran was 30 miles.

Additionally, you know Clyde ran for 90 fewer minutes. If Harvey ran t hours, then Clyde ran

(t - 1.5) hours:
R X T = D
(miles/hr) (hr) (miles)

HARVEY t - 1.5 30
CLYDE 4 t 30

Now you can solve for t:

4t = 30
t - 7.5

71 © AP Guru
If t= 7.5, then Harvey ran for 7.5 - 1.5 = 6 hours. You can now solve for Harvey’s rate. Let

r equal Harveys rate:

r x 6 = 30
r = 5

Relative Rates
Relative rate problems are a subset of multiple rate problems. The defining aspect of these

problems is that two bodies are traveling at the same time. There are three possible scenarios:

1. The bodies move towards each other.

2. The bodies move away from each other.

3. The bodies move in the same direction on the same path.

5 mph 6 mph X Y
30 mph 45 mph 8 mph 5 mph

Two people decrease the Two cars increase Persons X and Y decrease

distance between the distance between the distance between

themselves at a rate of themselves at a rate of themselves at a rate of

5 + 6 = 11 mph. 30 + 45 = 75 mph. 8 - 5 = 3 mph.

EXAMPLE 5:
Imagine that two people are 14 miles apart and begin walking towards each other. Person A

walks 3 miles per hour, and Person B walks 4 miles per hour. How long will it take them to

reach each other?

A. 1

B. 2

C. 3

D. 4

SAT Math Guide 72

SOLUTION: The time that each person walks is exactly the same (t hours), and the total distance

they walk is 14 miles. If one person walks d miles, the other walks (14 - d) miles. The chart

would look like this:

R X T = D
(miles/hr) (hr) (miles)

A 3 t d
B 4 t 14 - d

The rate at which they’re getting closer to each other is 3 + 4 = 7 miles per hour. In other

words, after every hour they walk, they are 7 miles closer to each other. Now you can create

one RT = D equation:
R X T = D
(miles/hr) (hr) (miles)

A+B 7 t 14

7t = 14
t = 2
The correct answer is B. You may very well have answered this question intuitively. But as the

questions become more difficult, this method only becomes more valuable.

EXAMPLE 6:
Car X is 40 miles west of Car Y. Both cars are traveling east, and Car X is going 50% faster

than Car Y. If both cars travel at a constant rate and it takes Car X 2 hours and 40 minutes

to catch up to Car Y, how fast is Car Y going?

A. 20 miles per hour

B. 30 miles per hour

C. 40 miles per hour

D. 50 miles per hour

73 © AP Guru
SOLUTION: The multiple RTD chart would look like this:

R X T = D
(miles/hr) (hr) (miles)

CAR X 1.5r 8/3 d

CAR Y r 8/3 d + 40

Instead, you can answer this question with one equation. If Car X is initially 40 miles behind

Car Y, and they both travel until Car X catches up to Car Y, then the distance between them

will have decreased by 40 miles. That is your distance. The distance between the two cars is

decreasing at a rate of 1.5r - r = 0.5r, and the time they travel is 8/3 hours:

0.5r x 8/3 = 40
r = 30

You defined the rate Car Y was traveling as r, so if r = 30, then Car Y was going 30 miles per

hour. The correct answer is B.

Work Problems
Work problems are just another type of rate problem. Instead of distances, however, these

questions are concerned with the amount of work done.

Work takes the place of distance. Instead of RT = D, use the equation RT = W.

Be sure to express a rate as work per time (W/T), NOT time per work (T/W).

For EXAMPLE: if a machine produces pencils at a constant rate of 120 pencils every 30

seconds, the rate at which the machine works is 120 pencils/30 seconds = 4 pencils/second.

SAT Math Guide 74

 EXAMPLE 8:
Martha can paint 3/7 of a room in 4.5 hours. If Martha finishes painting the room at the

same rate, how long will it have taken Martha to paint the room?

A. 8.3 hours

B. 9 hours

C. 9.5 hours

D. 10.5 hours

SOLUTION: The first step in this problem is to calculate the rate at which Martha paints the

room. You can say that painting the entire room is completing 1 unit of work. Set up an RTW

chart:
R X T = W
(rooms/hr) (hr) (room)

MARTHA r 9/2 3./7

Now you can solve for the rate:

r x 9 = 3
2 7

r = 2/21

The division would be messy, so leave it as a fraction. Martha paints 2/21 of the room every

hour. Now you have what you need to answer the question. Remember, painting the whole room

is the same as doing 1 unit of work. Set up another RTW chart:

R X T = W
(rooms/hr) (hr) (room)

MARTHA 2/21 t 1

( 21 ) t = 1
2

t = 21
2
75 © AP Guru
The correct answer is D. Notice that the rate and the time in this case were reciprocals of each

other. This will always be true when the amount of work done is 1 unit.

Working Together
More often than not, work problems will involve more than one worker. When two or more

workers are performing the same task, their rates can be added together.

For instance, if Machine A can make 5 boxes in an hour, and Machine B can make 12 boxes in

an hour, then working together the two machines can make 5 + 12 = 17 boxes per hour.

Likewise, if Lucas can complete 1/3 of a task in an hour and Serena can complete 1/2 of that

task in an hour, then working together they can complete 1/3 + 1/2 = 5/6 of the task every hour.

If, on the other hand, one worker is undoing the work of the other, subtract the rates. For

instance, if one hose is filling a pool at a rate of 3 gallons per minute, and another hose is

draining the pool at a rate of 1 gallon per minute, the pool is being filled at a rate of 3 - 1 =

2 gallons per minute.

EXAMPLE 8:
Machine A fills soda bottles at a constant rate of 60 bottles every 12 minutes and Machine B

fills soda bottles at a constant rate of 120 bottles every 8 minutes. How many bottles can both

machines working together at their respective rates fill in 25 minutes?

A. 300

B. 400

C. 500

D. 600

Solution: To answer these questions quickly and accurately, it is a good idea to begin by

SAT Math Guide 76

expressing rates in equivalent units:

60 bottles
RateMachine A = = 5 bottles/minute
12 minutes

120 bottles
RateMachine B = = 15 bottles/minute
8 minutes

That means that working together they fill 5 + 15 = 20 bottles every minute. Therefore, in 25

minutes, they can together fill up 20 x 25 = 500 bottles. THE CORRECT ANSWER IS C.

EXAMPLE 9:
Alejandro, working alone, can build a doghouse in 4 hours. Betty can build the same doghouse

in 3 hours. If Betty and Carmelo, working together, can build the doghouse twice as fast as

Alejandro, how long would it take Carmelo, working alone, to build the doghouse?

A. 6

B. 7

C. 8

D. 9

Solution: Let c represent the number of hours it takes Carmelo to build the doghouse.

Alejandro can build 1/4 of the doghouse every hour, Betty can build 1/3 of the doghouse every

hour, and Carmelo can build 1/C of the doghouse every hour.

The problem states that Betty and Carmetlo, working together, can work twice as fast as

Alejandro. That means that their rate is twice Alejandro’s rate:

RateB + RateC = 2(RateA)

77 © AP Guru
 1 1 1
+ c = 2( )
3 4

1 1 1 1
-
c = 2 3
=
6
c = 6
The correct answer is A.

SAT Math Guide 78

 Chapter 11
LINES AND
ANGLES
Here's a quick breakdown of the different types of angles:

TYPE OF DEFINITION EXAMPLE

ANGLE(S)

ACUTE Measures less

54°
ANGLE than 90°

OBTUSE Measures greater 130°

ANGLE than 90°

RIGHT Measures exactly

ANGLE 90° 90°

25°
COMPLEMENTARY Two angles whose
ANGLE sum is 90°. 65°

79 © AP Guru
 TYPE OF DEFINITION EXAMPLE
ANGLE(S)

SUPPLEMENTARY Two angles whose A

B
ANGLE sum is 180°
A+B=180°

Angles formed by two

VERTICAL
intersecting lines; they
ANGLES a° b°
have equal measures.

TRANSVERSAL LINES
A transversal line is a line that cuts through two parallel lines.

A transversal line creates eight angles. But by

studying the angles, we can see that many OR

of the angles are congruent!

In the diagram below, line R is a transversal line that cuts through lines P and Q,

which are parallel to each other.

2 P
1 3
4 Q
6
5 7
8
R
We know that ∠1 is congruent to ∠3 because they are vertical angles.

SAT Math Guide 80

For the same reason, we know that the following angles are also congruent:

2 P
∠2 = ∠4 1 3
∠5 = ∠7 4 Q
6
∠6 = ∠8
5 7
8
R

But what else do we know? Because P and Q are parallel, the transversal forms

CORRESPONDING ANGLES - angles that are in the same position in relation to the transversal

and therefore congruent. Thus, the following corresponding angles are congruent:

2 P
1
∠1 = ∠5 3
4 Q
∠2 = ∠6
6
∠3 = ∠7 5 7
8
∠4 = ∠8 R

Furthermore, because P and Q are parallel and cut by the transversal, it means that ∠1 is

congruent to ∠7 because they are ALTERNATE EXTERIOR ANGLES. Alternate exterior

angles are on opposite sides of a transversal and outside the parallel line. Thus, the following

alternate exterior angles are congruent:

2 P
1 3
∠1 = ∠7 4 Q
∠2 = ∠8 6
5 7
8
R

Similarly, because P and Q are parallel, it means that ∠3 is congruent to ∠5 because they are

ALTERNATE INTERIOR ANGLES - angles that are on opposite sides of a transversal and

inside the parallel line. For the same reason, ∠4 is congruent to ∠6.

81 © AP Guru
 2 P
1 3
∠4 = ∠6 4 Q
6
∠3 = ∠5
5 7
8
R
So, putting all information together:

∠1, 3, 5 and 7 are congruent;

∠2, 4, 6 and 8 are congruent.

The opposite of all of this is also true: if you don't know if two lines are parallel - look at the

alternate interior or exterior angles. If they are congruent, the lines are parallel.

EXAMPLE 1:
Statement A: ∠3 + ∠4 + ∠5 = 131°
2 3

1 4
Statement B: ∠6 + ∠7 + ∠8 = 131°
8 5
7 6
Refer to the figure and two statements. Evaluate ∠1 + ∠2.

A. 82°

B. 98°

C. 180°

D. 262°

Let’s consider the first statement by itself. ∠2, ∠3, ∠4, and ∠5 together form a straight angle,

so their degree measures a total 180°.

∠2 + ∠3 + ∠4 + ∠5 = 180°
∠2 + 131° = 180°
∠2 = 49°

SAT Math Guide 82

Without further information, no other angle measures, including that of ∠1, can be found. So,

let’s consider the second statement. ∠1, ∠6, ∠7, and ∠8 together form a straight angle, so their

degree measures a total 180°.

∠1 + ∠6 + ∠7 + ∠8 = 180°
∠1 + 131° = 180°
∠1 = 49°

We’ve found both ∠1 and ∠2, so all we have to do is add them together to solve the problem:

∠1+ ∠2 = 49° + 49° = 98°

The correct answer is B.

l
EXAMPLE 2: 2
1
Statement A: ∠2 = 89°
4
3
Statement B: ∠3 = ∠6
m

6
5
Given the above figure and two statements, which of the
8
7
following is true?
t

A. Line m is perpendicular to line t

B. Line m is not perpendicular to line t

C. ∠4 = ∠7

D. ∠1 = ∠6

Statement A alone establishes by definition that line l is not perpendicular to line t, but it does

not establish any relationship between line m and line t.

83 © AP Guru
By Statement B alone, we know line l is parallel to line m because alternating interior angles

are congruent., line l is parallel to line m. ∠2 and ∠6 are corresponding angles formed by a

transversal across parallel lines, so ∠6 = ∠2 = 89°. ∠6 is not a right angle, so line m is not

perpendicular to line t and B is the correct answer.

A
E
EXAMPLE 3:
2
Consider the line diagram shown 1
3 C
4
at right. Which of the following pieces
B 6
5
of information is enough to prove that 7
8
AB is parallel to CD?
D F

A. ∠1 = ∠3

B. ∠4 = 120° and ∠8 = 60°

C. ∠5 = 120° and ∠6 = 60v

D. ∠2 = ∠6 = 100°

By learning that ∠4 = 120° and ∠8 = 60°, we have enough information to determine that ∠1 =

60° (because it forms a straight angle with ∠4 ) and that ∠7 = 120° (since it forms a straight

angle with ∠8 ). At this point, we can see that the pairs of corresponding angles, angles 1 and

8 and angles 4 and 7, match in value. This means that AB is parallel to CD. The correct answer

choice is B.

EXAMPLE 4:
Question 4: E
D

A B C

∠ABD = 60°. What is ∠DBE?

SAT Math Guide 84

 A. 30°

B. 45°

C. 60°

D. 90°

The sum of ∠ABD, ∠DBE, and ∠EBC equally 180° because they are all on the straight-line AC

∠ABD + ∠DBE + ∠EBC = 180°

We know that ∠ABD = 60° and that ∠EBC = 90°, so we can substitute in those values.

60° + ∠DBE + 90° = 180°

∠DBE = 30°

The correct answer is A.

Standard Position of Angles

An angle is said to be in STANDARD POSITION if its vertex is positioned at origin and one line

is at the positive -axis. The line on the -axis is called the INITIAL SIDE, and the other line is

called the TERMINAL SIDE.

y

Terminal side θ x

Initial side

The rotation from the initial side to the terminal side is a measure of an angle. The

counterclockwise rotation is considered positive. An angle in the clockwise direction is taken as

negative. CO-TERMINAL angles are the two angles that have the same terminal side.

85 © AP Guru
 Radians and Degrees

RADIANS and DEGREES are units to measure angles. The conversion between these two units

can be done using the following equation.

1 1 1 1
degree = radian OR degree = radian
360 2π 180 π

To convert from degrees to radians and vice versa, we need the following:
180
Deg. = Rad. x
π
π
Rad. = Deg. x
180

For example, if we need to convert 50 degrees to radians, we need to multiply the degree

measure by π , i.e.
180

50° = 50 x π rad. = 5π rad.

180 18

Similarly, if we need to convert radians into degrees, we need to multiply the radian measure

by π.
180

Some important conversions are:

π π
30° = rad. 45° = rad.
6 4

π π
60° = rad. 90° = rad.
3 2

180° = π rad.

SAT Math Guide 86

 y

A
x
O B

EXAMPLE: In the xy-plane, O is the center of the circle, and the measure of radians.

What is the value of a?

By the distance formula, the length of radius OA is √√32 + 12 = 2

Thus, SIN (∠AOB) = 1

2

Therefore ∠AOB is 30°, which is equal to 30 ( π ) = π radians.

180 6

Hence, the value of a is 6.

EXAMPLE: In a circle with center O, central angle AOB has a measure of 5π radians. The
4
area of the sector formed by central angle AOB is what fraction of the area of the circle?

A complete rotation around a point is 360° or 2π radians. Since the central angle AOB has

measure  5π radians, it represents

4

5π x 1
4 2π
 

= 5 of a complete rotation around point O.

8

Therefore, the sector formed by central angle AOB has area equal to 5/8 the area of the entire

circle. The answer is 5/8 or in decimal form .625.

87 © AP Guru
 Chapter 12
TRIANGLES
ISOSCELES THESE MARKS MEAN
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE THE SIDES ARE
TRIANGLE 2 EQUAL SIDES, EQUAL.
3 EQUAL SIDES, 2 EQUAL ANGLES
3 EQUAL ANGLES,
ALWAYS 600
600

600 600 SCALENE

TRIANGLE THESE MARKS
NO EQUAL SIDES, MEAN THE ANGLES
NO EQUAL ANGLES ARE EQUAL.

RIGHT
TRIANGLE
HAS A RIGHT
90 0 ANGLE (900)

OBTUSE
TRIANGLE ACUTE
ALL ANGLES ARE MORE TRIANGLE
THAN (900) 900 ALL ANGLES ARE LESS
900
THAN (900)

Angles of a Triangle
The angles in any given triangle have two key properties:

1. The sum of the three angles of a triangle equals 1800∆.

960 3a

X 500 a

What is x? Since the sum of the three angles What is a? Since the sum of the three angles
must be 1800, you can solve for x as follows: must be 1800, you can solve for x as follows:
180-96-50 = x = 340. 90 + 3a + a = 180->a = 22,50.

SAT Math Guide 88

 2. Angles correspond to their opposite sides.

This means that the largest angle is opposite the longest side, while the smallest angle is

opposite the shortest side.

Sides of a Triangle A

Consider the following “impossible” triangle ∆ABC and what 10

3
it reveals about the relationship between the three sides impossible

of any triangle. C 14 B

The triangle can never be drawn with the given measurements. Why? Consider that the

shortest distance between any two points is a straight line.

According to the triangle shown, the direct straight line distance between point C and point

B is 14; however, the indirect path from point C to B (the path that goes from C to A to B) is

10 + 3, or 13, which is shorter than the direct path! This is clearly impossible. The leads to the

following Triangle Inequality Law:

THE SUM OF ANY TWO SIDES OF A TRIANGLE MUST BE

GREATER THAN THE THIRD SIDE

Therefore, the maximum integer distance for side BC in the triangle above is 12. If the length

of side BC is not restricted to integers, then this length has to be less than 13.

Note that the length cannot be as small as we wish, either. It must be greater than the

difference between the lengths of the other two sides. In this case, side BC must be longer

than 10 - 3 = 7. This is a consequence of the same idea.

89 © AP Guru
 THE RIGHT ANGLE THEOREM

A right triangle is a triangle with one right angle (900). Every right triangle is composed of two

legs and a hypotenuse. The HYPOTENUSE is the side opposite the right angle.

Given the lengths of two sides of a right triangle, you

a c
determine the length of the third side using
b
the Pythagorean Theorem.

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM: A 2 + B2 = C2

Special Right Angle Triangles

Certain right triangles appear over and over on the SAT: the 30-60-90 right triangle and the

45-45-90 right triangle. It pays to memorize these common combinations in order to save time

on the test. Instead of using the Pythagorean Theorem to solve for the lengths of the sides,

you should know the following Pythagorean triples from memory.

1. THE 45-45-90 TRIANGLE

By 45-45-90, we mean the three angles of a right triangle are 450, 450 and 900. The lengths of

the legs of every 45-45-90 triangle have a specific ratio.

450 -> 450 -> 900

leg leg hypotenuse

1 : 1 : √2

x : x : x√2

EXAMPLE: Given that the length of side AB is 5, what are the lengths of sides BC and AC?

SAT Math Guide 90

 A

450

450 C
B

Solution: Since AB is 5, use the ratio 1:1:√2 for sides AB : BC : AC to determine that the multiplier

x is 5. You then find that the sides of the triangle have lengths 5:5:5√2.

2. THE 30-60-90 TRIANGLE

The most popular of all right triangles is the 30-60-90 triangles. The lengths of the legs of ev-

ery 30-60-90 triangle will have the following ratio, which you must memorize:

300 -> 600 -> 900

short leg long leg hypotenuse

1 : √3 : 2

x : x√3 : 2x

EXAMPLE 1:
Find the lengths of sides a and c of the triangle shown?
c
a
A. a = 7.5√3 cm; c = 7√3 cm
300
B. a = 3.5√3 cm; c = 7√3 cm 10.5 cm

C. a = 7.5√3 cm; c = 7 cm

D. a = 3.5√3 cm; c = 7 cm

Solution: We know that one side is 10.5 cm long and that that side is across from the 600 angle.

In the side ratio, that side is x√3.

Therefore, the value of x is 10.5 10.5 √3 10.5√3

= x = = 3.5√3 cm
√3 √3 √3 3

91 © AP Guru
The length of the side marked ‘a’ is the length of the side across from the 300 angle. That side

is x in the side ratio and is equal to 3.5√3. Similarly, The side ‘c’ is the 2x in the proportion.

Therefore its value is 7√3.

The correct answer is B.

EXTERIOR ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE

An EXTERIOR ANGLE of a triangle is equal in measure to the sum of the two non-adjacent

(opposite) interior angles of the triangle.

a + b + c = 180
c
a+c

EQUALS (sum of angles in a triangle).
m
Su

x
b + x = 180

a b x
(supplementary angles).

Therefore, x = a + c.

This property is frequently tested on the SAT! In particular, look for exterior angles within more

complicated diagrams.

EXAMPLE 2:
Which of the following expresses Z in terms of x and Y?
y
A.
z
A. 2x + 3y − 180
x
B. x + 2y − 180
y
C. 180 − x − y
x y
D. 360 − 2x − 3y

SAT Math Guide 92

Solution: Each of the three triangles we are focusing on would all add up to 1800. We have

three different triangles and three missing angles, so their equations would look like:

180 - x − y
180 − x − y
180 - y - z

We know that all of those equations will find us one of the three unmarked angles. We also

know that those three angles add up to 1800.

So when we add the equations together and set them equal to 1800, we get:

(180−x−y) + (180−x−y) + (180−y−z) = 180

540 − 2x − 3y - z = 180
−2x − 3y - z = −360
−z = −360 + 2x + 3y
z = 360 − 2x − 3y

The correct answer is D.

AREA OF A TRIANGLE

TRIANGLE AREA is another important concept in the SAT exam. It is defined as the half of the

product of base and height i.e.

1
Area of a triangle A = base height OR A = 1 BH
2 2

Note that it is not necessary that always the bottom side be a base. You can consider any side

as the base and define height accordingly. See the figures below.

93 © AP Guru
 height base

he
ig
h t
base

Another important formula that can save you significant time is the area of an equilateral

triangle with a side of length S is S2√3

4

The formula is derived because an equilateral triangle can

300 300
be split into two 30-60-90 triangles, If the side length of the s s
s 3
2
equilateral triangle is S, then S is also the hypotenuse of
600 600
each of the 30-60-90 triangles, so their sides are as shown s s
2 2
in the diagram.

The equilateral triangle has a base of length S and a height of length (S√3)/2. Therefore its

area is

1 x (S) x S√3 = S2√3

2 2 4

SIMILAR TRIANGLES

One final tool that you can use for SAT triangle problems is the similar triangle strategy. Often,

looking for similar triangles can help you solve complex problems.

The two triangles are said to be similar if their corresponding angles are equal. Once you find

that two triangles have two pairs of equal angles, you know that the triangles are similar. If

two sets of angles are congruent, then the third angles must be congruent, since the sum of the

angles in any triangle is 1800. It is not necessary that the lengths of these sides also be equal.

SAT Math Guide 94

The sides of the similar triangles can be expressed in terms of a ratio. For example, if the

triangles ABC and PQR are similar, then the ratio of the side AB to the side BC is equal to the

ratio of the side PQ to the side QR. For example:

AB PQ
=
BC QR

Ratio of Areas
If two triangles are similar, the ratio of their areas is square of the ratio of their sides. If two

similar triangles have corresponding side lengths in ratio a:b, then their areas will be in ratio

a2:b2.

The lengths being compared do not have to be sides - they can represent heights or perimeters.

In fact, the figures do not have even have to be triangles. The principle holds true for any

similar figures: quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc.

C D
EXAMPLE: In the figure, AE || CD and segment AD
5
B
intersects segment CE at B.
10
8
What is the length of segment CE?

A E

Solution: Angles ABE and DBC are vertically opposite angles, and, therefore, they have the same

measurement. Since segment AE is parallel to segment CD, angles A and D are equal to each

other. Since all angles are equal in triangles ABE and DBC, triangle ABE is similar to triangle

DBC, with vertices A, B, and E matching up to vertices D, B, and C, respectively.

Solving this you get CB = 4, and so CE = CB + BE = 4 + 8 = 12.

95 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE 3: A
A summer camp counselor wants to find a length, x,

in feet, across a lake as represented in the sketch

x feet B D
above. The lengths represented by AB, EB, BD,

and CD on the sketch were determined to be

1800 feet, 1400 feet, 700 feet, and 800 feet, respectively. E
C
Segments AC and DE intersect at B, and ∠AEB and ∠CDB have the same measure. What is the

value of x?

A. 1200

B. 1600

C. 2000

D. 2400

Solution: The question tells you that ∠AEB and ∠CDB have the same measure. Since ∠ABE and

∠CBD are vertical angles, they measure the same. Triangle EAB is similar to triangle DCB because

the triangles have two pairs of corresponding congruent angles. Since the triangles are similar,

the corresponding sides are in the same proportion:

CD BD
=
x EB

Substituting the given values of 800 for CD, 700 for BD, and 1400 for EB, gives:

800 700
=
x 1400

Therefore, x = 1600. The correct answer is B.

SAT Math Guide 96

 Chapter 13
TRIGONOMETRY
The word TRIGONOMETRY is Greek; tri means three, gon means angle and meter means to

measure. Combining all these three words, we get, “three angle measure”. The logic behind this is

that trigonometry involves the measurements inside a triangle, which has three angles.

SOHCAHTOA

Trigonometry is based upon three primary relationships within a triangle. The mnemonic

SOHCAHTOA has been commonly used to help students memorize the associations between the

sine, cosine, and tangent in a right triangle. These trigonometric identities are used to find

missing components of a right triangle.

SOH: Sine of θ equals the Opposite side divided by the Hypotenuse

Opp
sin θ =
Hyp

CAH: Cosine of θ equals Adjacent side divided by the Hypotenuse

Cos θ = Adj
Hyp

TOA: Tangent of θ equals Opposite side divided by the Adjacent

Tan θ = Opp
Adj
97 © AP Guru
The Sine, cosine and tangent of some common angles are shown in the table below:

θ | Ratios sinθ cosθ tanθ

300
1/2
√3/2 1/√3
450 1/√2 1/√2 1
600
√3/2 1/2 √3
900 1 0 ∞

Trigonometry ratios can be expressed in terms of each other as well. The ratio of the sine of
θ to the cosine of θ is equal to the tangent of θ:

tanθ = sinθ
cosθ

You may also encounter some inverse trigonometric ratios in an SAT exam. These are:

Cosecant: cosecθ = 1 = Hypotenuse = c

sinθ Perpendicular b

Secant: secθ = 1 = Hypotenuse = c

cscθ Base a

Cotangent: cotθ = 1 = Base = a

tanθ Perpendicular b

EXAMPLE 1:
Simplify sin(x)cot(x)csc(x)
A. cot(x)

B. sec(x)

C. csc(x)

D. sin(x)

SAT Math Guide 98

Solution: Write the cotangent and cosecant in terms of sines and cosines.

= sin x 1 1
tan x sin x
1
=
tan x

= cot x
The correct answer is A.

EXAMPLE 2:
p
In the xy-plane, O is the center of the circle, and the measure of ∠AOB is
-a radians. What is

the value of a?

A. 4
A( 3, 1)
B. 6

C. 8

D. 12

Solution: By the distance formula, the length of radius OA is

√(√3)2+12 = 2
Thus Sin(∠AOB) = 1/2
p p
) = - radians.
Therefore, ∠AOB=300, which equals to 30( -
180 6

Hence, the value of a is 6. The correct answer is B.

UNIT CIRCLES

We know that in a right triangle, an angle cannot be larger than 900 (as the sum of all angles

is 1800). So, whenever you’ve been given an angle greater than 900 in a trigonometry problem,

draw it in the coordinate plane.

99 © AP Guru
Consider the following angles:

2000 3200
140
0

400

The convention is that an angle in the counterclockwise direction is considered positive. The

coordinate plane has four quadrants helpful in dealing with such angles. The angles drawn

above are simplified in terms of their own quadrants below:

400 400
400
400

We can conclude that

- Angle 1400 is the same as angle 400, except that angle 1400 is in the second quadrant

- Angles 2200 and 3200 are the same as angle 400, except that angles 2200 and 3200

are drawn in the third and fourth quadrant respectively.

This means, in terms of the trigonometric functions, the magnitudes of 400 and all other drawn

angles are the same, but the sign of trigonometric functions are different, depending on the

quadrant. The signs of the trigonometric functions, as per the quadrant are given below:

sine + sine +
cosine - cosine +
tangent - tangent +
ii i
iii iv
sine - sine -
cosine - cosine +
tangent + tangent -

SAT Math Guide 100

Now, when θ = 300, sinθ is 0.5.

Now, what value of θ, will sinθ = -0.5?

In the diagram in the previous page, we can see sinθ is negative in the third and fourth

quadrant, so there are two possible values of θ i.e.

θ = 1800 + 300 & θ = 3600 - 300

θ = 2100 & θ = 3300

EXAMPLE 3:
Which of the following is equivalent to Cos ( 3π
- )?
10

A. - Cos ( π/5 )

B. Sin ( π/5)

C. - Sin (π/5 )

D. Sin ( π/10 )

Solution: To answer this question correctly, you need to both understand trigonometry and

radians. Sin and cos are related by the equation

sin π -x)
x = Cos ( -
2

Cos (3π is, you need to change 3π into the form

-
In order to find out what the equivalent to
-) 10 10
π
-2 - x to do that, you need to set up an equation:
3π = π - x

- -2
10
Then solve for x,
3π - π = x

10 2 - -
π
= x
5 -
101 © AP Guru
 π
Cos ( 3π ) = Cos ( π - π ) = sin ( )
- - -
Therefore,
10- 2 5 5

B is the correct answer.

EXAMPLE 4:
4
In a right triangle, one angle measures x0, where Sin x0 = -5 . What is Cos (900-x0)?

A. 0.4

B. 0.6

C. 0.8

D. 1

Solution: There are two ways to solve this. The quicker way is if you know the complementary

angle relationship for sine and cosine, which is sin(x0) = cos(900−x0).

Therefore, cos(900−x0) = 4/5 or 0.8.

However, you can also solve this problem by constructing a diagram using the given information.

It’s a right triangle (which it has to be to use sine/cosine), and the sine of angle x is 4/5.

Opposite Side
if Sin = then the opposite side is 4 long, and the hypotenuse is 5 long:
Hypotenuse

Since two of the angles of the triangle are of

90-x
5
measure x0 and 900, the third angle must have
4
the measure 1800 − 900 − x0 = 900 − x0.
x 900

From the figure, cos(900−x0), which is equal the ,

Adjacent Side
is also or 0.8. The correct answer. is C
Hypotenuse

SAT Math Guide 102

 GRAPHING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Every trigonometric function has a certain characteristic graph. The following are those graphs

1
sin x -
2
0
x
-2π -3π -π -π π π 3π 2π
- - - -
2 2 2 2
1
--
2

-1

1
-
cos x 2
x
0
-2π -3π -π -π π π 3π 2π
- - - -
2 2 2 2
1
--
2

-1

tan x
0
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

-4

Here are a few points to remember about the above graphs:hs

- The sin and cos graphs have a few similarities, while the tan graph is a bit different.

For example sin and cos graphs repeat after every 2π radians, while tan graph re-

peats after every π radians.

- The sin and cos graphs extend horizontally, while the tan graph extends vertically.

103 © AP Guru
 - The tan has a special graph, as each of its periods is separated by a vertical asymp-

tote. We know tan is a ratio of sin and cos functions. Therefore, vertical asymptote

occurs at cos x=0.

Some other important properties are summarized in the table below:

Property sin x cos x tan x

Domain Real numbers Real numbers Real numbers

except π/2+kπ

Range [-1 ,1] [-1 ,1] Real numbers

Period 2π 2π π

Function Type Odd function Even function Odd function

For y = sin (x),

- There is an amplitude of 1, because the graph extends 1 unit up and 1 unit down.

- The period is 2π because the graph repeats itself every 2π units.

Now, if we have y = 2sin(x),

- The amplitude is increased from 1 to 2,

- The period will remain the same (since nothing is getting multiplied with x).

This graph is shown below.

3

-90 90 180 270 360

-1

-2

-3

SAT Math Guide 104

Therefore, we can say the whatever number is multiplied with the trigonometric function will

give us the amplitude. If we are looking at y = -sin(x), the graph will be flipped upside down

(reflected in x-axis) due to a negative sign:

-15 -10 -5 5 10 15

-1

Now, let’s suppose y = sin(3x). Since there is a change in the function internally; therefore, the

period will not be the same now (it will be reduced):

-15 -10 -5 5 10 15

-1

For a function, y=sin(Bx), the formula to calculate period is:

P = 2π
|B| -

. 2π
Therefore, the period of y = sin(3x) is
-3

The above formula is also true for cos.

For tan, the formula is redefined as:

π
P =
-
|B|

105 © AP Guru
 π
- If we have a function, f(x)=cos(x- -2 ), then we will shift the graph of f(x)=cos(x) graph
to the right by π units.
-
2

π
- If we have a function, f(x)=cos(x)+ -2 , then we will shift the graph of f(x)=cos(x) graph
up by π units.
-
2

As done in the functions chapter, the general transformed form of a trigonometric function is:

y = A f(Bx+C) + D

where f is any trigonometric function, A is amplitude, B is used to find the period using equation

, C can be used to find the phase shift using equation Original Period and D is a vertical shift.
|B|

Changing the values of A and D bring vertical changes in the graph while changing the values

of B and C will bring the horizontal changes.

SAT Math Guide 106

 Chapter 14
CIRCLES
E
NC
RE
FE
UM
RC

D
OR
CI

CH

ER
ET
AM

ALL THE POINTS THAT MAKE UP A CIRCLE

DI

CH

ARE EQUAL DISTANCE FROM THE CENTER.

OR
D

Circumference (c): The distance around a circle

(the perimeter of the circle)

Chord: A line segment whose endpoints are on a circle

Pi (П): The ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter:

circumference c
П= or П=
diameter d

Because we don't know pi's exact value, we use

two approximations:
22
3.14 → OR → —
7

107 © AP Guru
The formula for finding the circumference of a circle is:

circumference = 2 • П • radius

To find the AREA of a circle, use the following formula:

area = П • radius2

EXAMPLE 1:`
Points X and Y are two different points on a circle. Point M is located so that line segment

XM and line segment YM have equal length. Which of the following could be true?

I. M is the center of the circle

II. M is on arc XY

III. M is outside of the circle

A. I only

B. II only

C. I and II only

D. I, II, and III

X
Solution: Option I considers the possibility that M could be the center

of the circle if lines XM and YM are equal. We know this must be M

true because M being the center point of the circle would make lines

XM and YM radii of the circle, which would mean that they were equal.
Y

Option II presents us with the possibility that point M lies X

somewhere on the arc of XY. Well, if point M rested exactly

halfway between X and Y, then straight lines drawn from

M

X to M and Y to M would certainly be equal.

Y

SAT Math Guide 108

Option III presents us with the possibility that M X

lies somewhere on the outside of the circle. So long

M
as M lies at a distance halfway between X and Y,

this scenario would still work. So option III is also correct.

Y

This means that all of our options (I, II, and III) are possible. The correct answer is D.

Revolutions
A full revolution, or turn, of a spinning wheel is equivalent to the wheel going around once. A

point on the edge of the wheel travels one circumference in one revolution.

For EXAMPLE, if a wheel spins at 3 revolutions per second, a point on the edge travels a dis-

tance equal to 3 circumferences per second. If the wheel has a diameter of 4 feet, then the

point travels at a rate of 3 x 4π = 12π feet per second.

EXAMPLE 2:`
Sophia is riding her bicycle across a basketball court. She knows her bicycle wheel has a radius

of 1 ft and that the basketball court is about 94 ft long. Approximately how many times does

her bicycle wheel rotate over the course of her ride across the basketball court?

A. 28 times

B. 30 times

C. 36 times

D. 45 times

Solution: Each time Sophia’s bicycle wheel makes a full rotation, she travels a linear distance of

one circumference across the court. The circumference of her wheel is

C = dП = 2rП = 2(1)П = 2П

109 © AP Guru
Now divide the length of the entire basketball court by the diameter of the wheel in order to

find the number of revolutions/turns/circumferences Sophia’s wheel must complete to get her to

the other side.

94 ft 30 revolutions
≈
2π ft/rev

The correct answer is B.

Arc Length
Often, the SAT will ask you to solve for a portion of the distance on a circle, instead of the

entire circumference. This portion is termed an ARC.

EXAMPLE: What is the length of arc AXB?

B
X
12
60º
A C

Arc AXB is the arc from A to B, passing through the point X. To find its length, first find the

circumference of the circle.

C = 2πr = 24π

Since the arc is defined by the central angle of 600, and the entire circle is 3600, then the arc

is

60
1 of the circle
360
=
6

Therefore, the measure of arc AXB = 1 (24π) = 4π.

6
SAT Math Guide 110
 EXAMPLE 3:` S T

R U

In the figure above, square RSTU is inscribed in the circle. What is the degree measure of arc

ST?

A. 45
B. 60

C. 90 S T
D. 120

Solution: If you draw a line connecting points R and T,

you will have a perfect semi-circle, or 1800.º. R U

S T
Now, the arc we are looking for spans exactly half of

that semi-circle This means that the arc degree measure of

ST is 900. The correct answer is C.

R U

Perimeter of a Sector
If you know the length of the radius and the central (or inscribed) angle, you can find the

perimeter of the sector.

EXAMPLE 4:`

A B C

111 © AP Guru
In the figure above, the smaller circles each have a radius of 3. They are tangent to the larger

circle at Points A and C and are tangent to each other at point B, which is the center of the

larger circle. What is the perimeter of the shaded region?

A. 6π

B. 9π

C. 12π

D. 15π

Solution: Let's start with the two circles in the middle. We know that each circle has a radius

of 3 and that our shaded perimeter spans exactly half of each circle. So the circumference for

each small circle is:

C = πr = 3π

And there are two small circles, so we must double this number:

2 x 3π = 6π
So the interior perimeter is 6π.

Now, let’s find the outer perimeter, which is the circumference for half the larger circle. If the

radius of each of the small circles is 3, then that means the diameter of each small circle is 6.

This means that the full circumference of the larger semicircle is:

C = πr = 6π

Our outer perimeter equals 6π, and our inner perimeter equals 6π. To get the full perimeter, we

must add them together.

6π + 6π = 12π

The correct answer is D, 12π.

SAT Math Guide 112

 EXAMPLE 5:` R
L
S
The two semicircles in the figure above have the centers at R and S respectively. If RS = 12,

what is the total length of the darkened curve?

A. 8 π
B. 9 π
C. 12 π
D. 15 π

Solution: Here, we could simply imagine that line RS is the diameter of a complete circle. (Why

are we allowed to do this? Because we have the sum of two radii and two half circles, so com-

bined, they would become one circle.) If RS is a diameter of a circle whose complete circumfer-

ence we must find, let us use our circumference formula.

c = 2πr = 12π
The correct answer is C, 12π.

EXAMPLE 6:`
80º

Point O is the center of both the circles in the figure above. If the circumference of the larger

circle is 36 and the radius of the small circle is half the radius of the larger circle, what is the

length of the darkened arc?

A. 10
B. 8
C. 6
D. 4

113 © AP Guru
Solution: We are trying to find the length of an arc circumference, which means that we need

two pieces of information - the arc degree measure and the radius.

Well, we already have the degree measure, so we’re halfway there, but now we need the radius

(or diameter) of the smaller circle. We are told that it is half the radius of the larger circle, so

we must find the radius of the larger circle first.

All that we are told about the larger circle is that it has a circumference of 36. Luckily, we can

find its radius from its circumference.

C = 2πr
36 = 2πr
r = 18
π

Because we know that the smaller circle has a radius that is half the length of the radius of

the larger circle, we know that the radius of the smaller circle is:

r = 1 x 18 = 9
2 π π
Carc= 2πr(
arc degree )
360º

Carc= 2π 9 ( 80º ) = 4
π 360º

The correct answer is D.

SAT Math Guide 114

Area of a sector
Often, the SAT will ask you to solve for the area of a sector of a circle, instead of the area

of the entire circle. You can find the area of a sector by determining the fraction of the entire

area that the sector occupies. To determine this fraction, look at the central angle that defines

the sector.

EXAMPLE: What is the area of sector ACB (the striped region) below?
B
60º
3
A
C

First, find the area of the entire circle:

A
= πr2 = π32 = 9π

Then, use the central angle to determine what fraction of the entire circle is represented by the

sector. Since the sector is defined by the central angle of 600, and the entire circle is 3600, the

sector occupies 600/3600, or one-sixth, of the area of the circle. Therefore, the area of sector

ACB = (9π) = 1.5π

EXAMPLE `
7:

Dave claims to have only eaten 1200, of a circular apple pie that has a radius of 7.8 cm. When

looking at the leftover pie from the top, it is found that 23.14π cm2 of the flat plate underneath

the pie is exposed in the area that Dave ate. Did Dave truly eat 1200, of the pie?

A. Yes, he ate exactly 120º, of the pie.

B. No, he ate less than 120º of the pie.

C. No, he ate more than 120º of the pie.

D. We do not have enough information to answer the question..

115 © AP Guru
Solution: The question asks us to find the proportion of the pie that Dave ate - the area of a

sector. Since we are given radius, we can find the area of the circle.

Apie = π x (7.8 cm)2

Apie = 60.84π cm2

Now, we must divide the area of pie that Dave ate (which is given directly in the question) by

the area of the whole pie to determine the proportion of pie he really ate.

23.14π
= 0.38
60.84π

0.38 of a pie will translate to = 0.38 * 360º = 136.8º.

Therefore, Dave actually ate more than 120º of the pie but not 360º of the pie. The correct an-

swer is C.

EXAMPLE 8:`

The circle has an area of 25π and is divided into 8 congruent regions. What is the perimeter

of one of these regions?

A. 10 - 25 π

B. 10 + 0.5 π

C. 10 + 1.25 π

D. 10 + 5 π

Solution: The bigger circle has an area of 25π.

SAT Math Guide 116

 Area = πr2 = 25π
r = 5

Now, we must find the arc measurement of each wedge. To do so, let us find the full

circumference measurement and divide by the number of wedges (in this case, 8).

The full circumference is C = 2πr = 10π which, divided by 8, is:

10π 5π
ArcWedge= =
8 4

Now, let us add that arc measurement to twice the radius value of the circle in order to get the

full perimeter of one of the wedges.

5π
5 + 5 +
4
5π
10 +
4

So the correct answer is C.

EXAMPLE 9:` B

A C
O

In the figure above, triangle ABC is inscribed in the circle with center O and diameter AC. If

AB = AO, what is the degree measure of ∠AOB?

A. 15°

B. 30°

C. 45°

D. 60°

117 © AP Guru
Solution: We are told that lines AO and AO are equal. Based on our knowledge of circles, we

also know that AO and AO are equal.

This means that AB = AO = BO, which means that the triangle is equilateral. So, the angle

measure of ABO = 600. The correct answer is D.

Clock Math
The SAT may ask you to apply your knowledge of circle geometry to situations specific to

clocks. Don’t let these questions throw you off: at this point, your knowledge of circles includes

everything you need to solve them, even if they seem somewhat unfamiliar.

`
EXAMPLE 10:
What is the measure, in degrees, of the acute angle formed by the hands of a twelve-hour

clock that reads exactly 3:10?

A. 30°

B. 35°

C. 40°

D. 45°

Solution: One hand is pointing at the 2, while the other is pointing at the 3, so they’re 1/12 of a

3600 circle apart (there are 12 numbers on a typical clock), right? = 360/12 = 30, so the answer

must be 30, right?

Not so fast. One has to account for the 10 minutes that have passed. 10 minutes is 1/6 of an

hour, so the hour hand has also moved 1/6 of the distance between the 4 and the 4, which adds

5 (1/6 of 30). The total measure of the angle, therefore, is 35, and the correct answer is B.

SAT Math Guide 118

EXAMPLE `
11:

On a standard analog clock, what is the angle between the hands when the clock reads 11:20?
Give the smaller of the two angles.

A. 60°
B. 70°
C. 75°
D. 80°

Solution: To find the degrees of a clock hand, first find the angle between each hour-long

section. As calculated for the last question, the angle between each hour is 600.

At 11:20, the hour hand has gone one-third of the way between the 11 and the 12. Thus, there are

two-thirds of 30° between the hour hand and the 12. (2/3) 30° = 20°. There are 60° between 12

and 2, where the minute hands is, which means there’s a total of 20° + 60° = 80° between the

hands. The correct answer is D.

Equation of a Circle
The standard equation for a circle is in the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2, where the circle

with radius r has its center at (h, k). Let’s consider an EXAMPLE:

EXAMPLE 12: `

In which quadrant(s) will the circle with equation (x + 8)2 + (y − 15)2 = 49 be contained?

A. I only

B. II only

C. II and III only

D. IV only

Solution: Begin by finding the center of the circle. The center of the circle is at (-8, 15), which

119 © AP Guru
is in Quadrant II. The radius of this circle is 7.

Now, we need to consider the four points seven units in the positive/negative x-direction and

positive/negative y-direction. These will be on the line of the circle and mark the farthest points

in those directions. If all of those points are located in Quadrant II, we know that the entire

circle is located in that quadrant.

Let’s consider those points now:

UP: (-8,15 + 7) = (-8,22)

Down: (-8,15 - 7) = (-8,8)

LEFT: (-8 - 7,15) = (-15,15)

RIGHT: (-8+7,15) = (-1,15)

All those points are in Quadrant II, and B is the correct answer.

EXAMPLE `
13:

Find the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y2 + 8x + 7 = 0.

A. Centre is (-4,0) and radius is 9
B. Centre is (0,-4) and radius is 9
C. Centre is (-4,0) and radius is 3
D. Centre is (0,-4) and radius is 3

Solution: There is no Y term, so we have to complete the squares only for the X terms

x2 + 8x + ___ + y2 = -7

We need to fill in the ___ to complete the square. The middle term is 8 and therefore the last

SAT Math Guide 120

variable should be 16. Adding 16 on both sides:

x2 + 8x + 16 + y2 = -7 + 16
(x + 4)2 + y2 = 9

Comparing this equation to the equation of a circle: (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2,

We get (h,k) -> (-4,0) and r = 3.

The correct answer is C.

121 © AP Guru
 Chapter 15
POLYGONS
The polygons tested on the SAT include the following:

- Three-sided shapes (Triangles)

- Four-sided shapes (Quadrilaterals)

- Other polygons with n sides (where n is five or more)

This chapter will focus on polygons of four or more sides. In particular, we will focus on

the following four-sided polygons, or quadrilaterals: trapezoids, parallelograms, and special

parallelograms, such as rhombuses, rectangles, and squares.

Quadrilaterals
The most common polygon tested on the SAT, aside from the triangle, is the QUADRILATERAL

(any four-sided polygon). Almost all SAT polygon problems involve the special types of

quadrilaterals shown below.

PARALLELOGRAM
Opposite sides and opposite TRAPEZOID
One pair of opposite
angles are equal
sides are parallel. In this
case, the top and bottom
sides are parallel, but the
tight and left sides are not.

RECTANGLE
All angles are 900, RHOMBUS
and opposite sides are equal All sides are equal.
Opposite angles
are equal

SQUARE Rectangles and Rhombuses are special types of parallelograms.

All angles are 90 ,
0

All sides are equal. Note that a square is a special type of parallelogram that is
both a rectangle and a rhombus.

SAT Math Guide 122

Regular and Irregular Polygons
A regular polygon is one that has sides of equal lengths and equal angles. For example,

equilateral triangles, squares, pentagons are regular polygons.

X0 X0 X0
X0

XX0 0 X0
X0 X0

An irregular polygon is one that does not have equal sides or angles. The most basic example is

a rectangle. Other irregular polygon examples are trapezoid, parallelogram, and kite shapes.

AREA OF POLYGON

Most of the polygon-based questions on the SAT Math Test will demand you identify the area

and the perimeter of a figure. In order to calculate the AREA OF A PARALLELOGRAM,

multiply the base by the height. (This formula applies to rectangles, rhombuses, and squares, too.)

A = base x height
h
or A = bh

A parallelogram has the same formula as a rectangle because it is made up of the

same parts, so it must have the same area. If you cut apart a parallelogram and
rearrange its parts, you can make it into a rectangle.

{
high

base

123 © AP Guru
In order to calculate the AREA OF a TRAPEZOID, use the formula:

b1
base1 + base2
A = h h
2
b2

We calculate a trapezoid much like a rectangle or square. If you cut a trapezoid in half
horizontally, the height of each part is now half of what it was. When one part is flipped
over, it looks like a parallelogram. We've cut the height in half and put the bases together
to get the full length, which is how we end up with this formula:
1
A = h (b1 + b2)
2
b2
=
b1 b1 b2

EXAMPLE 1:

In the figure, WXYZ is a rectangle with WA = BZ = 4. The area of the shaded region is

32. What is the length of XY?

x y
A. 8
B. 10 2
C. 16
w z
D. 20 a b

Solution: First, let us fill in the given information:

x y

w z
4 a b 4
Now if we call the longest base q, the shortest base will be q−4−4, or q−8. (Why? Because

the shortest leg is equal to the longest leg minus our two given lengths of 4).

SAT Math Guide 124

 1
Areatrapezoid = h (b1 + b2)
2

1
32 = 2(q + q - 8)
2

32 = 2q - 8
20 = q

The length of XY (which we designated q) is 20. The correct answer is D.

EXAMPLE 2: B C
In the figure above, CDE is an equilateral triangle and ABCE is
D
a square with an area of 1. What is the perimeter of

polygon ABCDE? A E
A. 4

B. 5

C. 6

D. 7

Solution: We are told that ABCE is a square with the area of 1. This means that AB, BC, CE, and

AE are ALL equal to 1. We also know that CED is an equilateral triangle, which means that each

side length is equal. Since we know that CE = 1, we know that CD and DE both equal 1 as well.

So the perimeter of the polygon as a whole - which is made of lines AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA -

is equal to:

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5

The correct answer is B.

125 © AP Guru
Area of Compound Polygons
The best way to find the area of a complex polygon is to split the polygon into smaller

shapes, find the area of each small shape, and finally add those areas together.

ExaMPLE: Find the area of the following compound shape.

2in 3in
3in
7in
8in 8in

12in

We first break it up into smaller quadrilaterals:

2in 3in
3in
7in
8in 8in

12in
In other words, we have three smaller quadrilaterals that look like this:

2in 3in

7in
8in 8in
8 - 3 = 5in.

Calculating the area of each of the quadrilaterals and adding them all up looks like this:

Area = 2 x 8 + 7 x 5 + 3 x 8
A = 16 + 35 + 24
A = 75 in2

SAT Math Guide 126

EXAMPLE 3:
2
The area of the figure above is 9/4. What is the perimeter 1
of the figure?
1
A. 5.5
B. 6
C. 6.5
D. 7

Solution: Begin by breaking up our figure into smaller, more manageable polygons.
2

1 1

x
1

We know that the larger rectangle will have an area of: 2 * 1 = 2.

The smaller rectangle will have an area of: 1 * x = x
We are told that the total area is 9/4

2 + x = 9/4
x = 1/4
Let us add all of the lengths of our exposed sides to find our perimeter:

1 + 2 + 1 + 0.25 + 1 + 0.25 + 1 = 6.5

The correct answer is C.

ANGLES OF A POLYGONS

The sum of the interior angles of a given polygon depends only on the number of sides in the

polygon. The sum of the interior angles of a polygon follows a specific pattern that depends on

n, the number of sides that the polygon has.

127 © AP Guru
 Sum of Interior Angles of a Polygon = (n - 2) x 1800

For example, a triangle has three sides, therefore, the sum of its angles is,

S = (3-2) x 1800 = 1800

For a quadrilateral, S = (4-2) x 1800 = 3600

For a pentagon, S = (5-2) x 1800 = 5400
For a hexagon, S = (6-2) x 1800 = 7200

To find the individual interior angle, θ, of a regular polygon, simply divide the sum of angles, S,

by the number of sides, n, i.e.

(n-2)
θ = x 1800
n

EXAMPLE 4:

A regular polygon with n sides has equal angles of 1200. How many sides does the figure have?

A. 4
B. 5
C. 6
D. 7

Solution: The formulae for angles of a polygon is:

(n-2)
θ = x 1800
n

Here, θ = 1200
(n-2)
120 = x 180
n

n = 6
The correct answer is C.

SAT Math Guide 128

EXAMPLE 5:
In the figure, ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, and its center is point O. What is the value of x?

A. 30 C D

B. 40 B
x0
0 E
C. 60
D. 80 A F

Solution: Because this hexagon (n = 6) is regular, we can find the degree measure of each

of its interior angles.

(n-2)
θ = x 1800
n

θ = (6-2) x 1800
6

θ = 1200

Now the line BO is at the center of the figure, so it bisects the interior angle CBA. The
angle CBA is 1200, which means that angle x will be 600.

The correct answer is C.

EXAMPLE 6:
x0 y0

paper

In the figure above, a shaded polygon that has equal sides and equal angles is partially
covered with a sheet of blank paper. If x + y =80, how many sides does the polygon
have?

129 © AP Guru
 A. 7
B. 8

C. 9

D. 10

Solution: We are told that the larger polygon has equal sides and equal angles. We can also see

that the yellow coloured figure is a quadrilateral. We know that a quadrilateral is 3600, so let us

subtract our givens from 3600.

X + Y = 800
3600 − 800 = 2800

Again, we know that the polygon has all equal angles, so we can find each angle of the polygon

by dividing by 2. Each angle of the polygon is 1400.

(n-2)
140 = x 180
n

14n = 18(n-2)
9 = n

The correct answer is C.

DIAGONALS OF a POLYGONS

The diagonals of a polygon are the line segments from one vertex of the polygon to the other

(non-adjacent) vertex. For an n-sided polygon, the number of diagonals (d) can be found using

the following:
n (n-3)
d =
2

SAT Math Guide 130

 10(10-3)
A decagon has d = = 35 diagonals.
2

Note that triangles have no diagonals. Also note that the product n(n-3) is divided by two

because each diagonal has two ends, so it would count each one twice.

The properties of some common polygons are summarized in the table below:

Polygon # of Sum of Area Distinct

Sides Interior Angles Formula Features
Square 4 3600 A = L2 - All sides are equal.

- All angles are 900

Rectangle 4 3600 A = LxW - Opposite sides are equal.

- All angles are 90

- All sides are equal.

Diag1 x Diag2
Rhombus 4 3600 A = - All opposite angles are
2
equal

Trapezoid 4 3600 h
A = (b1 + b2) - Top and bottom sides
2
are parallel

131 © AP Guru
 Chapter 16
SOLID
GEOMETRY
SOLID GEOMETRY is the name for geometry performed in three dimensions. Instead of

flat shapes like circles, squares, and triangles, solid geometry deals with spheres, cubes, and

pyramids (along with any other three-dimensional shapes). And instead of using perimeter and

area to measure flat shapes, solid geometry uses surface area and volume to measure its three

dimensional shape.
A SPHERE — IS A
A CIRCLE— IS A
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
FLAT OBJECT.
OBJECT.
THIS IS
THIS IS
PLANE GEOMETRY
SOLID GEOMETRY

The following are solid geometry shapes generally tested on the SAT:

1. Cubes
A CUBE is created by the connection of six square faces. The formula for the volume of a

cube is as follows. Volume is a representation of the amount of space that the shape takes up.

You can also think of it as the amount of liquid that could fill the three-dimensional shape.

Vcube = l w h = s3

SAT Math Guide 132

The surface area can be thought of as the wrapping around the object. In the case of the

cube, the surface area is the sum of the area of the faces.

Surface Area = 6s2

Questions about cubes may also ask you to solve for lateral area (for example: how much space

must be painted in a room for its walls to be repainted.) You just want to calculate the surface

area of four sides.

Lateral Surface Area = 4s2

EXAMPLE 1:
Johnny is painting a room in his house where the walls are all square. One wall takes roughly

two gallons of paint and one gallon of paint covers 32 ft2. If there are four walls in the

room that Johnny is painting, approximately how many square feet does he paint?

A. 216 ft2

B. 224 ft2

C. 256 ft2

D. 264 ft2

Solution: Putting words into equations,

1 gallon = 32 ft2

1 wall = 2 gallons

Therefore, 1 wall = 2(32 ft2) = 64 ft2

Now, since there are four walls, the total square feet required is 4 x 64 = 256 ft2

The correct answer is C.

133 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE 2:
What is the maximum number of rectangular blocks measuring 3 inches by 2 inches by 1 inch

that can be packed into a cube shaped box whose interiors measures 6 inches on an edge?

A. 24

B. 28

C. 30

D. 36

Solution: You're trying to fit smaller rectangles into a larger rectangle, so you're dealing with

volume, not surface area. Find the volume of the larger rectangle (which in this case is a cube):

You can use the formula for the volume of a cube: s3 => 63 = 216

Now find the volume of one of the smaller rectangular solids: LWH => (3)(2)(1) = 6

And divide the larger rectangular solid by the smaller to find out how many of the smaller

rectangular solids can fit inside the larger:

216
- = 36 6

The correct answer is D.

2. Cuboid or Rectangular Prism

The cuboid is often called a rectangular solid or a rectangular and triangular.

Volume = l w h
Surface Area = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh = 2(lw + lh + wh)
Lateral Surface Area = 2lh + 2wh = 2(lh + wh)

SAT Math Guide 134

EXAMPLE 3:

Sally has a fish tank shaped like a rectangular prism. It has a width that is three times its

length and twice its height. If the tank is 75% full when holding 3375 cm3 of water, what are

the dimensions of the tank?

A. l = 10 cm, w = 30 cm, h = 15 cm

B. l = 12 cm, w = 36 cm, h = 12 cm

C. l = 8 cm, w = 24 cm, h = 15 cm

D. l = 15 cm, w = 15 cm, h = 25 cm

Solution: Since the tank is 75% full and the volume is 3375 cm3 when 75% full, the entire volume

of the prism is = 4500 cm3

Additionally, we are given that: w = 3l -> l = w

3

w = 2h -> h = w
2

Therefore, V = l w h

4500 = w x w x w = w3
3 2 6

w3 = 2700
w = 30
l = w = 10
3

h = w = 15
2

The correct answer is A.

135 © AP Guru
3. Triangular Prisms
Triangular prisms are made up of nine lines and six vertices. They contain two triangular

faces and three rectangular faces.

Volume = 1 a c h a
2
h
c
a = height of the triangular base

c = side length of triangle

h = height of the prism

Surface Area = 2(A t) + Al1 + Al2 + Al3

At = area of the triangle faces

Al1, Al2 and Al3= the areas of each of the rectangular faces

EXAMPLE 4:
Diane is creating a triangular prism and wants to know how many jelly beans can fill the

object. The triangular base has a side length of 4 in and a height of 3 in. The height of the

prism is 10 in and 20 jellybeans fill 25 in3. Approximately how many jellybeans will fill the

prism?

A. 48

B. 52

C. 60

D. 64

Solution First, let's calculate the volume of the prism.

Volume = 1 a c h = 1 4 3 10 = 60 in3
2 2

Knowing the volume of the prism, we can proceed to solve for how many jellybeans will fill it.

SAT Math Guide 136

We know that 20 jelly beans fill 25 in3 of space, so we can set up a proportion to solve for

how many jelly beans fill 60 in3 of space:

20 jelly beans =
x jelly beans
25 in 3
60 in3

x = 48 jellybeans

Approximately 48 jellybeans would fit in the prism described, so A is the correct answer.

4. Pyramids
There are two different types of pyramids determined by the shape of their base: triangular or

square. For triangular base pyramids, the three-dimensional object is created by four triangular

faces. Rectangular based pyramids are created from four triangular faces and one rectangular

face.

Volume = 1 Area (Base) H H

3 h

Area = Area of the Base

H = height of the pyramid b

EXAMPLE 5:
Hannah has a die in the shape of a triangular pyramid. The side length of one of the

triangular faces is 2 cm and its height is 1.732 cm. The height from the base of the pyramid to

the top of the pyramid is 4 cm. How much volume does the die have?

A. 2.236 cm3

B. 2.309 cm3

C. 2.405 cm3

D. 2.525 cm3

Solution: The following information is given:

137 © AP Guru
 b = 2

h = 1.732

H = 4

Volume = 1 2 1.732 4 = 2.309 cm3

6

The correct answer is B.

5. Cylinders
In order to determine the surface area of a CYLINDER, sum the areas of the three surfaces:

The area of each circle is πr2, while the area of the rectangle is length x width. Looking at

the figures below, we can see that the length of the rectangle is equal to the circumference of

the circle (2rπ), and the width of the rectangle is equal to the height of the cylinder. Therefore,

the area of the rectangle is 2nr x h.

To find the total surface area of a cylinder, add the area of the circular top and bottom, as

well as the area of the rectangle that wraps around the outside.

AreaCyclinder = 2 Circles + 1 Rectangle = 2(πr2) + 2πrh

The volume of a cylinder measures how much “stuff” it can hold inside. In order to find the

volume of a cylinder, use the following formula.

VolumeCyclinder = πr2h

SAT Math Guide 138

EXAMPLE 6:
A can of peaches has a label that stretches all around it. If the height of the can is 5 inches

and the length across the can is 3 inches what is the area of the label?

A. 8π in2

B. 10π in2

C. 12π in2

D. 15π in2

Solution: Area of the label means the lateral area of the cylinder -> Just the area of the centre

portion -> 2πrh

Substituting values, we get the answer to be 15π in2. The answer is D.

EXAMPLE 7:

3 4 4 3
B C D E
3 3 4 4
4 5 4 4
Which of the rectangular solids shown above has a volume closest to the volume of a right

circular cylinder with radius 2 and height 4?

A. B

B. C

C. D

D. E

Solution: A right circular cylinder with a radius of 2 and a height of 4 will have a volume of:

V = πr2h => π(2)2(4) = 16π or 50.27

The volumes for the rectangular solids are found by:

V = lwh

139 © AP Guru
 - Solid B has a volume of (4)(3)(3) = 36

- Solid C has a volume of (5)(4)(3) = 60

- Solid D has a volume of (4)(4)(4) = 64

- And solid E has a volume of (4)(4)(3) = 48

So the answer is D, 48

6. Spheres
SPHERES can be described as the three-dimensional equivalent of a circle. They have perfect

symmetry, which means that all lines drawn from the center of the sphere to any point on the

edge possess an equal length.

Volume = 4 πr3
r
3

Surface Area = 4πr2

EXAMPLE 8:
Jenny gave Melissa a basketball for her birthday and she wrapped it in decorative paper. If

the basketball has a diameter of 12 inches how much paper does Jenny use?

A. 112π in2

B. 124π in2

C. 144π in2

D. 160π in2

Solution: A basketball is a sphere, and when wrapping the outside of the sphere, you’re

calculating the surface area.

Surface Area = 4πr2 = 4π62 = 144π

C is the correct answer.

SAT Math Guide 140

 INSCRIBED OBJECTS

Many standardized tests including the SAT will gauge your knowledge of three dimensional

objects by increasing the complexity of questions. INSCRIBED OBJECTS is one way to add

complexity to such a question. The most common

combinations of inscribed objects

include spheres in cubes, cubes in

spheres, pyramids in spheres, prisms

in cylinders, and cylinders in prisms.

EXAMPLE 9:
Suppose there is a sphere inscribed in a cube-like the one shown above on the left. The cube

has a side length of 8 cm. If the sphere is filled completely with water, what is the volume of

the cube that is not filled with water?

A. 243.93 cm3

B. 252.54 cm3

C. 264.25 cm3

D. 270.42 cm3

Solution: You're being asked to calculate the volume of a sphere and cube.

Vcube = s3 = 83 = 512

Vsphere = 4 πr3 = 4 π43 = 85.33π
3 3

Take the difference between the cube’s volume and the sphere’s volume to find your answer:

Vcube - Vsphere = 512 - 85.33π = 249.93 cm3

The correct answer is A.

141 © AP Guru
 DIAGONALS OF A CUBE AND CUBOID

The diagonal of a rectangular solid is the longest interior line of the solid. It touches from the

corner of one side of the prism to the opposite corner on the other.

1. You can find this diagonal by breaking

h
d
up the figure into two flat triangles and

using the Pythagorean Theorem for both.

w
l

2. First, find the length of the diagonal

h
(hypotenuse) of the base of the solid

using the Pythagorean Theorem

c
c = l + w 2 2 2 w
l

3. Next, use that length as one of the

smaller sides of a new triangle with

d h
the diagonal of the rectangular solid
c
as the new hypotenuse:
w
d = c + h 2 2 2
l

The formulae is

Diagonal of a Cuboid = √(Length2 + Width2 + Height2)

SAT Math Guide 142

 CROSS-SECTIONS

On the SAT, at times you’ll be asked about removing a slice or a cross-section from a 3D figure.

Students often lose it when they see such a question on the test and rarely even attempt to

solve it. However, these kinds of questions are pretty straightforward once you realize how

cross-sections work.

If we slice a few 3D figures open with a plane, what are the possible cross-sections we’re left

with?

1. If we cut a cube like below, we end up with a square (the shaded Z-D shape).

2. If we cut a cube in a diagonal direction like below, we end up with a rectangle

(as the shaded 2-D shape).

3. If we slice a cylinder horizontally, the resulting Z-D cross section is a circle (the shaded

region).

143 © AP Guru
4. If we slice a cylinder vertically, theresulting 2-D cross section is a rectangle

(the shaded region).

SAT Math Guide 144

 Chapter 17
COORDINATE
GEOMETRY
COORDINATE GEOMETRY is the study of geometry on a plane using a coordinate system. This

plane is called a COORDINATE PLANE, which has scales of measurement along the x and y-axes.

SLOPE OF A LINE

SLOPE is a number that is a ratio that describes the tilt of a line:

RISE RISE is how much a line goes up or down.

SLOPE =
RUN
RUN is how much a line moves left or right.
y

EXAMPLE: A line with a slope of 2/3

RISE = 2 3
RISE
SLOPE = RUN = 3 2
RUN 3 x

3 2
A slope of 2/3 means that every time
2
the line rises 2, it also runs 3.

To find the slope of the line, pick any two points on the line. Starting at the point farthest to

the left, draw a right triangle that connects the two points and uses the line as the hypotenuse.

145 © AP Guru
How many units did you go up or down? That is your rise. How many units did you go left or

right? That is your run. Put your rise over your run, and you have the slope.

EXAMPLE: Find the slope of the line. y

5
B
4

RISE = 3 3
Rise=3
RUN = 6 2
A Run=6
1
3 1 x
SLOPE = = -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 2 -1
-2

There is also a FORMULA FOR SLOPE that you can use when you know two points on a line:

{ {
the change in y y2 — y1
SLOPE = or M=
the change in x x2 — x1

EXAMPLE: Find the slope of the line that goes through (Z, 3) and (4, 6).

1. Label each given value as (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).

x1 = 2, y1 = 3, x2 = 4, y2 = 6

Use the slope formula and substitute the values:

y2 — y1 =
M = 6—3 =3
x2 — x1 4—2 2

3
SLOPE =
2

SAT Math Guide 146

You can also graph a line if you know only one point and the slope. You have all the information

you need - a starting point, the number of units it rises, and the number of units it runs.

Please note:
1. The slopes of two parallel lines are always equal.

2. The product of the slopes of two perpendicular lines is -1, for instance, m1 x m2=-1

EXAMPLE 1:

In the xy coordinate plane, how many points are a distance of 4 units from the origin?E.

A. Two

B. .Three D.

C. Four

D. More than four

Solution: For a question like this, it may be tempting to answer D, four. After all, there will be

four distinct points 4 units from the origin, two on the x-axis (one right and one left), and two

on the y-axis (one up and one down).

But answering this way would disregard the realities

y
of circles. Imagine that we have a circle with a

midpoint at the origin whose circumference touches

each of the points 4 units from the origin. x

Now, if we remember our circle

definitions, we know that all straight

lines drawn from the center of the circle

to the circumference will all be equal.

This means that there will be infinitely many points that are 4 units from the origin. These

147 © AP Guru
points may have “weird” coordinates (as in non-integer values), but they will be points 4 units

from the origin all the same. The correct answer is D, more than four.

EXAMPLE 2:
Which of the lettered points in the figure below has coordinates (x, y), such that

|x| + |y| = 5
`
y
A. A

B. B
D
C
B x
C. C 1

D. D O 1

A
E

Solution: For a question like this, the most efficient path is to work from our answer choices.

Point A is at coordinates (-3, -3). So let's find the sum of their absolute values.

|x| + |y| = |−3| + |−3| = 3 + 3 = 6

Since we are looking for the value 5, this answer is too large.

Point B is at coordinates (-4, 1) = |x| + |y| = |−4| + |1| = 5

Success! We have found the answer choice that gives us coordinates whose absolute values add

up to 5. Because there will only ever be one correct answer on any SAT question, we can stop

here. The correct answer is B.

SAT Math Guide 148

Types of Slopes
There are four types of slope:

1. POSITIVE SLOPE - rises from left to right

y

2. NEGATIVE SLOPE - falls from left to right

y

3. ZERO SLOPE - is horizontal because the rise is 0, and 0 divided by any number is 0
y

4. UNDEFINED SLOPE - is a vertical line because the run is 0, and any number divided by 0

is undefined

149 © AP Guru
 INTERCEPT OF A LINE

An intercept of a line is a point where a line meets the coordinate axis. There are two types of

intercepts.

1. x-intercept - point on the line at which y = 0.

2. y-intercept - the y-intercept is the point on the line at which x = 0.

y
8
In the diagram, the x-intercept is -4, as expressed
6 (0, 6)
by the ordered pair (-4, 0). The y-intercept is
4
6, as expressed by the ordered pair (0, 6). 2
(-4, 0) x

-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
To find x-intercepts, plug in 0 for y. -2

To find the y-intercepts, plug in 0 for x. -4

-6
-8

EXAMPLE 3:
In the above figure, if line l, has a slope of -2, what is the y-intercept of l ?

A. 7

B. 8

C. 9 y
D. 10

Solution: We can see that the rectangle has a length of 3

(0, 4)
and a height of 4. This means that the rectangle hits

the line at the top right corner at coordinates (3, 4).

x
Therefore, Point (3, 4) lies on the line. Additionally, the slope
O (3, 0) l
SAT Math Guide 150
of the line is given as -2. Let's plug in the value of the slope in the equation of a line formulae

y = mx + c (more on this later)

Y = -2x + c.

To find the value of c, plug in the values of the point (x, y) -> (3, 4)
4 = -2 (3) + c
c = 10

This is also our y-intercept. The correct answer is D.

EQUATION OF A LINE

All lines can be expressed in an equation form. The most general form of equation for a line is

where m is the slope of a line and c is a y-intercept of a line.

y = mx + c slope-intercept form

If you are given the two points, you can easily find the equation of a line.

EXAMPLE: Points, P (2, -3) and Q (-4, 1), lies on the line, l. First you need to find the

slope of a line:

(using the slope formula)

2
M = -
3

Substitute in the equation above.

y = - 2 x + c
3

151 © AP Guru
Now we can use either of the points to find c. Note that both points will give the same value

of c. Let’s use P (2, -3):

2
-3 = - (2) + c
3
5
c = -
3

Therefore, the equation of the line l is:

2 5
y = - x -
3 3

or can be written as

3y + 2x = -5

Horizontal and Vertical Lines

Horizontal and vertical lines are not expressed in the
8 y
y = mx + b form.
6
4
Horizontal lines are expressed in the form: 2 x = 3 x
y = constant
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
-2

In the above example, y = -7. -4

y = -7 -6
-8
Vertical lines are expressed in the form:

x = constant

In the above example, its x = 3.

Midpoint Formula
If you have been given two coordinate points, you can use a formula to find the midpoint of

SAT Math Guide 152

the two points. The midpoint of the two points P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is given by:

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M = ( 2 ) (,
2 )
For example, if we have two points P (2, -3) and Q (-4, 1), then the distance is

2- 4 , -3 + 1
M=
( 2
) ( 2 )

DISTANCE FORMULA
d = (x2-x1)2+(y2-y1)2

The subscripts just show that there is a first point and a second point - it does not matter

which point you call first or second.

EXAMPLE: Point D is located at (11, -2). Point E is located at (7,-5). What is the

distance between D and E?

First, assign the first and second coordinates values:

x1 = 11, y1 = -2; x2 = 7, y2 = -5

Then, plug the values into the formula.

d = (7 - 11)2 + (-5- -2)2

d = (-4)2 + (-3)2
d = 16 + 9
d = 5
Therefore, Points D and E are 5 units apart.

153 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE 4:
Rosa and Marco met up for dinner and then drove home separately from the restaurant. To get

home from the restaurant, Rosa drove north 6 miles and Marco drove west 8 miles. How far

apart do Rosa and Marco live?

A. 6 miles

A. 8 miles

A. 10 miles

A. 12 miles

Solution: Let us make a quick sketch of our scenario.

Rosa drove 6 miles north and Marco drove 8 miles

Distance
R
west, which means that the legs of our triangle

will be 6 and 8. Now we can find the hypotenuse

by using the Pythagorean Theorem. Restaurant

c2 = 62 + 82
2
c = 100
c = 10

The correct answer is C, 10 miles.

SAT Math Guide 154

 Chapter 18
ABSOLUTE VALUE
The Absolute Value of a number is its distance from zero (on
the number line). Thus, an absolute value is always positive. We
indicate absolute value by putting two bars around the number.

EXAMPLE: | 9 |

| 9 | is read as “the absolute value of 9.” Because 9 is 9 spaces from zero on the number line,

the absolute value is 9.

EXAMPLE: | -4 |

| -4 | is read as “the absolute value of -4.” Because -4 is 4 spaces from zero on the number

line, the absolute value is 4.

4 spaces 9 spaces

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

NEGATIVE DISTANCE MAKES NO SENSE: You can be 50 meters away from your friend, but what

would it mean if you were negative 50 meters away from your friend? That would be

meaningless. Sure, you might be 50 meters to the other side of your friend, but you’re still 50

meters away. Think about absolute value the same way.

The most important thing to remember about absolute value is the concept of OR.

155 © AP Guru
 Whenever you’re dealing with absolute value problems, remember that the stuff inside the

absolute value brackets does not change

The most important thing to remember about absolute value is the concept of OR.

Whenever you’re dealing with absolute value problems, remember that the stuff inside the

absolute value brackets does not change - the stuff on the other side of the equal sign does!!!

In other words: | X - 8 | = 4

Means that:

X - 8 = 4 OR X - 8 = -4

Notice there’s no need to do anything to “ X - 8?”

Do NOT touch anything inside the absolute value brackets! Never, ever, ever touch anything inside

the absolute value brackets.

Instead, follow these steps:

- Get the absolute value brackets by themselves on one side of the = sign.

- Set up the “or” proposition. In other words, once you have an absolute value set up,

you have two possibilities:

- Check to see whether each solution is valid by putting each one back into the original

equation and verifying that the two sides of the equation are in fact equal.

So long as you remember that there are always two solutions to any absolute value problem

(there’s always an “or”) and that you change the non-bracketed side of the equation when

converting from absolute value into two distinct equations, you’ll be all set!

SAT Math Guide 156

EXAMPLE: Solve for w, given that 12 + | w - 4 | = 30.

STEP 1: Isolate the expression within the absolute value brackets

12 + | w - 4 | = 30 => | w - 4 | = 18

STEP 2: Once you have an equation of the form | x | = a & a > 0, you know that x = a.

Remove the absolute value brackets and solve the equation for 2 different cases:

STEP 3 Check to see whether each solution is valid by putting each one back into the original

equation and verifying that the two sides of the equation are equal.

- In CASE 1, the solution, w = 22, is valid because

12 + | 22 - 4 | = 12 + 18 = 30.

- In CASE 2, the solution, w = -14, is valid because

12 + | -14 - 4 | = 12 + 18 = 30.

EXAMPLE 1:`
Solve for n, given that | n + 9 | - 3n = 3.
A. {-3}

B. {3}

C. {-3,3}

D. {0}

Solution: Isolate the expression within the absolute value brackets and consider both cases.

STEP 1 | n + 9 | = 3 + 3n

157 © AP Guru
STEP 2
CASE 1: N + 9 IS POSITIVE CASE 2: N + 9 IS NEGATIVE
n + 9 = 3 + 3n n + 9 = - (3 + 3n)
n = 3 n = -3

STEP 3 The first solution, n = 3, is valid because | (3) + 9 | - 3 (3) = 12 - 9 = 3.

However, the second solution, n = -3, is not valid because | n + 9 | = 3 + 3n does not

hold true when n = -3.

Lets check:

LHS: | n + 9 | = | (-3) + 9 | = 6
RHS: 3 + 3n = 3 + 3 (-3) = - 6

Therefore, the sides are not equal and therefore n = -3 is not a solution. It's imperative we

perform the third step for all absolute value questions.

The correct answer is B.

Inequalities and Absolute Value

This is where most of our AP Guru students really seem to go bananas. Many students have a

total freak out when they see something like this:

|X - 3 | > 6

To understand the concept, it is helpful to try to visualize the problem with a number line.

For a simple equation such as | x | = 5, the graph of the solutions looks like this:

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
SAT Math Guide 158
When absolute value is used in an inequality, the unknown generally has more than two possible

solutions. Indeed, for a simple inequality such as | x | < 5, a simple way understand this

inequality is to say “x must be less than 5 units from zero on the number line.”

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Absolute values can often more difficult to graph than the one above. Consider, for instance, the

inequality | x + 2 | < 5. This seems more difficult, because the “ + 2 ” term seems to throw

a wrench into our distance-on-the-number-line interpretation of this problem.

However, there is a relatively straightforward way to think about this problem. First, create a

number line for the term inside the absolute value bars. Here, we create a number line for

“x + 2.” We can see that this expression as a whole must be between - 5: and 5:

x + 2

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

In other words, x + 2 must be less than 5 units away from zero on the number line. We

cannot stop there - we must graph for x alone. How does the “ + 2 ” change our graph? It

forces us to shift the entire graph by 2, because the absolute value expression will be equal to

zero when x = - 2. Thus, the graph for x alone will look like this:

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Notice that the center point for the possible values of X is now - 2, which is the value for x
that fits X + 2 = 0. This is the “center point” for the number line graph. The distance from the

center point (-2) to either end point remains the same.

159 © AP Guru
From this example, we can extract a standard formula for interpreting absolute value. When

| x + b | = c, the center point of our graph is -b The equation tells us that x must be exactly

c units away from -b. Similarly, for the inequality | x + b | < c, the center point of the graph

is -b , and the “less than” symbol tells us that x must be less than c units away from -b.

EXAMPLE: What is the graph of | x - 4 | < 3?

Solution: Based on this formula, the center point of the graph is -(-4) = 4, and x must be less

than 3 units away from that point:

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

We can also solve these types of problems algebraically. Recall that equations involving absolute

value require you to consider two scenarios:

1. One where the expression inside the absolute value brackets is positive

2. Where the expression is negative

The same is true for inequalities. However, remember the ONE key twist: the sign is reversed for

the negative possibility!

In other words, to convert this into an “or” propositions: | X-3 | > 6

You get: X - 3 > 6 OR X - 3 < -6

Why do you reverse the sign when you do this? Rather than explain it verbally, let’s look at it

mathematically. Let’s say you have this: | X| > 3

SAT Math Guide 160

It means that “the distance of x from 0 on the number line is greater than 3.” That’s the

precise definition of absolute value and of this inequality.

But what if you do this: X > 3 OR X > -3

That makes no real sense. So, x is greater than 3, but also greater than 3? The second piece of

information doesn’t help at all…it’s useless. It’s like telling someone you’re taller than six feet but

also taller than 5’9”.

But if we remember to switch the sign, we get: X > 3 OR X < -3

That makes way more sense! X is either greater than 3 or less than -3, meaning that its

distance from 0 on the number line will remain larger than 3!

So long as you understand the concept of flipping the sign when given the negative “OR”

possibility, you understand the hardest stuff you’ll ever be asked about absolute values on this

exam.

To test your understanding, solve the following equation: 2 | X - 5 | + 3 > 19

Solving the equation, we should get:

2 | X - 5 | > 16
| X - 5 | > 8

Now we set up our “OR's,” remembering to flip the sign at the right time:

X - 5 > 8 OR X - 5 < -8
X > 13 OR X < -3

161 © AP Guru
Let’s try this one more time: Solve 3 | 2X + 4 | < 3X + 9

We get: | 2X + 4 | < X + 3

Next, I set up my “OR's”:

2X + 4 < X + 3 OR 2X + 4 > -X - 3
X + 4 < 3 OR 3X + 4 > -3
X < -1 OR X > -(7/3)

Therefore, X is less than -1 or greater than -(7/3). Done! X can be anything that isn’t between

-1 and -(7/3).

Complex Absolute Value Equations

So far, we have only looked at absolute value equations that have one unknown inside one

absolute value expression. However, these equations can get more complicated by including more

than one absolute value expression. The equation contains one variable and at least one constant

in more than one absolute value expression.

EXAMPLE: If | x - 2 | = | 2x - 3 |, what are the possible values for x?

Because there are two absolute value expressions, each of which yields two algebraic cases, it

seems that we need to test four cases overall:

1. positive/positive

2. positive/negative

3. negative/positive

4. negative/ negative

SAT Math Guide 162

 The positive/positive case: (x -2) = (2x - 3)
The positive/negative case: (x -2) = - (2x - 3)
The negative/positive case: - (x -2) = (2x - 3)
The negative/negative case: - (x -2) = - (2x - 3)

However, note that case and case yield the same equation. Likewise, case and case

yield the same equation. Thus, you only need to consider two real cases: one in which neither

expression changes sign, and another in which one expression changes sign.

CASE A: SAME SIGN CASE B: DIFFERENT SIGNS

(x - 2) = (2x - 3) (x - 2) = - (2x - 3)

x = 1 x = 5/3

You also have to check the validity of the solutions once you have solved the equations.

Both solutions are valid, because

| 1 - 2| = | 2(1) - 3| = 1,
and
| 5/3 - 2| = |2(5/3) - 3 | = 1/3

163 © AP Guru
 Chapter 19
FUNCTIONS
A function is very much like the "Magic Box" you may have learned
about in elementary school.

You put a 2 into the magic box, and a 7 comes out. You put a 3 into the magic box, and a 9

comes out. You put a 4 into the magic box, and an 11 comes out. What is the magic box doing to

your number?

There are many possible ways to describe what the magic box is doing to your number. One

possibility is as follows: The magic box is doubling your number and adding 3.

2(2) + 3 = 7 2(3) + 3 = 9 2(4) + 3 = 11

Assuming that this is the case (it is possible that the magic box is actually doing something

different to your number), this description would yield the following “rule” for this magic box: 2x+3.

This rule can be written in function form as: f(x) = 2x + 3

The function f represents the “rule” that the magic box is using to transform your number. The

magic box analogy is a helpful way to understand functions.

EXAMPLE of functions include:

- f(x) = 4x2 - 11 The value of the function, f, is dependent on the independent variable, x.

- g(t) = t3 + √t - 1 The value of the function, g, is dependent on independent variable, t.

SAT Math Guide 164

By the way, the expression f(x) is pronounced “f of x”, not “fx.” It does not mean “f times x”!

The letter f does not stand for a variable; rather, it stands for the rule that dictates how the

input x changes into the output f(x).

EXAMPLE `
1:
x f(x)
1 5
3 13
5 21
Some values of the linear function f are shown in the table above. Which of the following

defines f?

A. f(x) = 2x + 3

B. f(x) = 3x + 2

C. f(x) = 4x + 1

D. f(x) = 5x

Solution: Oftentimes the best strategy for these types of questions is to plug in answers to

make our lives simpler. This way, we don’t actually have to find the equation on our own we

can simply test which answer choices match the inputs and outputs we are given in our table.

Let's test the second ordered pair, (3,13) with each answer option. For the correct answer, when

we plug the x-value (3) into the equation, we'll end up with the correct y-value (13).

A) f(x) = 2(3) + 3 = 9. This equation is incorrect since 9 doesn't equal 13.

B) f(x) = 3(3) + 2 = 1. This equation is also incorrect.

C) f(x) = 4(3) + 1 = 13. It's a match!

D) f(x) = 5(3) = 15. This equation is also incorrect.

Everything else apart from C gets eliminated. The correct answer is C.

165 © AP Guru
Domains and Range
All x-coordinates are called the DOMAIN, and the y-coordinates are called the RANGE.

For EXAMPLE: In the following relation: (-5,-3) (-2,0) (1,3) (4,6) (7, 9)

- DOMAIN (all the x-values): {-5, -2, 1, 4, 7}

- RANGE (all the y-values): {-3, 0, 3, 6, 9}

Sometimes, when we are given several ordered pairs, we can connect them by drawing a

straight line through all the points.

EXAMPLE: Graph the relation (-5, -3) (-2, 0) (1, 3) (4, 6) (7, 9) by drawing a line:
y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-3

For a function, there is only one y-value for each x-value. In other words, a function is a kind

of relationship where none of the x-values repeat. In the EXAMPLE above, none of the x-values

repeat, so this line represents a FUNCTION.

You can easily determine if a relation is a function by graphing it and doing a VERTICAL LINE

TEST. Just draw a vertical line on the graph - if your vertical line ever touches two points of

the relation, it's not a function.

SAT Math Guide 166

 FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTION

NOT A FUNCTION NOT A FUNCTION NOT A FUNCTION

Don’t forget that there are two types of variables in equations.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES:
can stand alone and aren't affected by other variables.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES:
DEPEND on the independent variables.
With functions, y is the dependent variable - meaning the value of y.
DEPENDS on the value of x.

EXAMPLE: Is the relation shown in the table a function? Graph it to check your answer.

DOMAIN (x) RANGE (y)

-4 8
-2 4
0 0
2 -4
4 -8
167 © AP Guru
 y
8
7

6 Is this a function? Yes, because all of the

5
values in the domain are different. Does
4
this pass the vertical line test? Yes!
3
2
1 x
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8

EXAMPLE: Is the relation shown in the table a function? Graph it to check your answer.

8 y
DOMAIN (x) RANGE (y) 7
-5 3 6
5
-5 6 4
-2 3 3
2
1 5
1 x
4 2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
4 6
-2
-3

Is this a function? No, because there are values in the domain that repeat.

Does it pass the vertical line test? No. A vertical line can touch two or more points, so this is

NOT a function.

SAT Math Guide 168

Numerical Substitutions
This is the most basic type of function problem. Input the numerical value (say, 5) in place of

the independent variable (x) to determine the value of the function.

EXAMPLE: If f(x) = x2 - 2, what is the value of f(5)?

In this problem, you are given a rule for f(x): square x and subtract 2. Then, you are asked to

apply this rule to the number 5. Square 5 and subtract 2 from the result:

f(5) = (5)2 - 2 = 25 - 2 = 23

EXAMPLE 2:
Let the function f be defined by f(x) = 5x - 2a, where a is a constant.

If f(10) + f(5) = 55, what is the value of a?

A. -5

B. 0

C. 5

D. 10

Solution: As you can see here, we are given our equation as well as two inputs and their

combined output.

f(x) = 5x − 2a and f(5) = 5(5) − 2a

f(10) = 5(10) − 2a f(5) = 25 − 2a

f(10) = 50 − 2a

Now, let us set the sum of our two outputs equal to 55 (as was stipulated in the question).

50 − 2a + 25 − 2a = 55

75 − 4a = 55

169 © AP Guru
 - 4a = −20

a = 5

Our final answer is C, a = 5.

EXAMPLE 3:
Which of the following could be the equation of the graph?
5 y
A. Y = x2 + 2
4
B. Y = (x + 2)2 3
C. Y = x2 - 2 2
1 x
D. Y = (x - 2)2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2

Solution: We can see in this graph that the y-intercept is +2. This means that, when we

substitute X = 0 in the equation, we get Y = 2.

A. Y = 02 + 2 = 2. Keep this option

B. Y = (x + 2)2 = (0 + 2)2 = 4. Eliminate this option

C. Y = x2 - 2 = 02 - 2 = -2. Eliminate this option

D. Y = 2(x + 1)2 = 2(0+1)2 = 2. Keep this option.

Onlyoptions A and D remain. The easiest way is to plug in numbers from the graph and see

what fits for which of the two equations. For example, point (1, 3) is on the graph. Therefore,

when we substitute x = 1 in the answer choices, we should get an output of 3.

A. Y = 12 + 2 = 3. This is the Answer.

B. Y = 2(1+1)2 = 16. Eliminate

The correct answer is A.

SAT Math Guide 170

Algebraic Substitutions
This type of problem is slightly more complicated. Instead of finding the output value for a

numerical input, you must find the output when the input is an algebraic expression

EXAMPLE: If f(z)= Y2 - 4Y , what is the value of f(w+6)?

Input the variable expression (w+6) in place of the independent variable (z) to determine the

value of the function:

f(w+6) = (w+6)2 - 4(w+6)

The rest is algebraic simplification:

f(w+6) = (w+6)2 - 4w - 24

= w2 + 12w + 36 - 4w - 24

= w2 + 8w + 12

Compound Functions
Imagine putting a number into one magic box, and then putting the output directly into another

magic box. This is the situation you have with COMPOUND FUNCTIONS.

EXAMPLE: If f(x) = x3 + g(x) and g(x) = 4x - 3, what is f(g(3))?

The expression f(g(3)), pronounced “f of g of 3”, looks ugly, but the key to solving compound

function problems is to WORK FROM THE INSIDE OUT. In this case, start with g(3).

g(3) = 4(3) - 3 = 12 - 3 = 9

Use the result from the inner function g as the new input variable for the outer function f:

f(g(3)) = f(9) = (9)3 + √9 = 729 + 3 = 732

The final result is 732.

171 © AP Guru
Note that changing the order of the compound functions changes the answer.

EXAMPLE: If f(x) = x3 + g(x) and g(x) = 4x - 3, what is g(f(3))?

Again, work from the inside out. This time, start with f(3) [which is now the inner function]:

f(3) = (3)3 + √3 = 27 + √3

Use the result from the inner function as the new input variable for the outer function g:

g(f(3)) = g(27 + √3) = 4(27 + √3) - 3

= 108 + 4√3 - 3

= 105 + 4√3

EXAMPLE 4:
What is f(g(x−2)) when f(x) = x2 − 6 and g(x) = 3x + 4?

A. 3x − 2

B. 3x2 + 12x − 6

C. 9x2 + 24x + 10

D. 9x2 − 12x − 2

Solution: Because g(x) is nested the deepest, we must find its output before we can find f(g(x−2)).

For g(x-2), replace the x in the g(x) function with x-2:

g(x) = 3x + 4

g(x−2) = 3(x−2) + 4

g(x−2) = 3x − 2

So our output of g(x−2) is 3x−2. Again, this is an equation and not an integer, but it still works

as an output.

SAT Math Guide 172

 f(x) = x2 − 6
f(g(x−2)) = f(3x - 2) = (3x-2)2 − 6
= 9x2 − 12x + 4 - 6
= 9x2 − 12x - 2
The correct answer is D.

Function Graphs
A function can be visualized by graphing it in the coordinate plane.

EXAMPLE: What is the graph of the function f(x) = -2x2 + 1?

Create a table by evaluating the function for several input values:

INPUT OUTPUT (x,y)

-2 -2(-2)2 + 1 = -7 (-2, -7)

-1 -2(-1)2 + 1 = -1 (-1, -1)

0 -2(0)2 + 1 = 1 (1, 0)

1 -2(1)2 + 1 = -1 (1, -1)

2 -2(2)2 + 1 = -7 (2, -7)

5 y
Then, plot points to set the shape of the graph: 4
3
2
It may be sufficient to calculate only three or
1 x
four values as long as you have found the
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
pattern and can accurately represent the graph.
-2
-3
-4
-5

173 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE 5:
5 y
The complete graph of function f is shown
4
y = f(x)
in the xy-plane. For what value of x is 3
the value of f(x) at its minimum? 2
1 x
A. -5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
B. -3 -1
-2
C. -2 -3
D. 3 -4
-5

Solution: The minimum value of a function corresponds to the y-coordinate of the point on the

graph where it's lowest on the y-axis.

Looking at the graph, we can see the function's lowest point on the y-axis occurs at (-3,-

2). Since we're looking for the value of x when the function is at it's minimum, we need the

x-coordinate, which is -3.

The correct answer is B, -3.

SAT Math Guide 174

 Chapter 20
QUADRATICS
The term quadratic comes from the Latin word quadratus meaning
square because the variable gets squared (e.g., x2). It is also called
an equation of degree 2 because of the 2 superscript on the x.

GENERAL OR STANDARD FORM: ax2 + bx + c = 0,

Factoring Quadratic Equations

The following EXAMPLE illustrates the process for solving quadratic equations:

Given that x2 + 3x + 8 = 12, what is x?

STEP 1 Move all the terms to the left side of the equation, combine them, and put them in the

form ax2 + bx + c = 0

Subtracting 12 from both sides of the equation, we get x2 + 3x - 4 = 0

STEP 2 In the above equation, you can see that b = 3 and c = -4. In order to factor this

equation, you need to find two integers whose product is -4 and whose sum is 3.

The only two integers that work are 4 and -1.

175 © AP Guru
STEP 3 Rewrite the equation in the form (x + ?) (x + ?), where the question marks

represent the two integers you solved for in the previous step.

x2 + 3x - 4 = 0
(x + 4)(x - 1) = 0

STEP 4 Since this product equals 0, one or both of the factors must be 0. In this problem,

set each factor in parentheses independently to 0 and solve for x.

x + 4 = 0 OR x - 1 = 0

x = -4 OR x = 1

Thus, the two solutions or roots of the quadratic equation x2 + 3x + 8 = 12 are -4 and 1.

Disguised Quadratics
The SAT will often attempt to disguise quadratic equations by putting them in forms that do

not quite look like the traditional form of ax2 + bx + c = 0.

Here is a very common “disguised” form for a quadratic: 3w2 = 6w

This is certainly a quadratic equation. However, it is very tempting to try to solve this equation

without thinking of it as a quadratic. This classic mistake looks like this:

3w2 = 6w

3w = 6

w = 2
Dividing both sides by w and
then dividing both sides by 3

In solving this equation without factoring it like a quadratic, we have missed one of the

solutions! Let us now solve it by factoring it as a quadratic equation:

SAT Math Guide 176

 3w2 = 6w
3w2 - 6w = 0
w (3w - 6) = 0
w = 0 or w = 2

In recognizing that 3w2 = 6w is a disguised quadratic, we have found both solutions instead

of accidentally missing one (in this case, the solution w = 0).

Here is another example of a disguised quadratic:

EXAMPLE: Solve for b, given that

36 = b - 5
b

Start by multiplying both sides of the equation by b. After you do this, you should recognize the

components of a quadratic equation.

36 = b2 - 5b
b2 - 5b - 36 = 0
(b - 9) (b + 4) = 0
Thus, b = 9 OR b = -4.

Some quadratics are hidden within more difficult equations, such as higher order equations (in

which a variable is raised to the power of 3 or more). On the SAT, these equations can almost

always be factored to find the hidden quadratic expression.

EXAMPLE: Solve for x, given that x3 + 2x2 - 3x = 0.

x3 + 2x2 - 3x = 0
x(x2 + 2x - 3) = 0

177 © AP Guru
 x(x + 3)(x - 1) = 0

You have a product of three factors: x, (x + 3), and (x - 1). This product equals 0. Thus, one

of the factors equals 0 That is, either: x = 0 OR x + 3 = 0 OR x - 1 = 0.

Be careful not just to divide both sides by x. You are only allowed to divide by a variable (or

any expression) if you are absolutely sure that the variable or expression does not equal zero.

From this example, you can learn a general rule: If you have a quadratic expression equal to 0,

and you can factor an x out of the expression, then x = 0 is a solution of the equation.

Quadratic Formula
The vast majority of quadratic equations on the SAT can be solved by the factoring described

earlier in this chapter. However, occasionally you might need to use the quadratic formula, which

can solve any quadratic equation but is cumbersome to use. At AP Guru, we only recommend

that you use the formula if the factorization method does not work.

QUADRATIC FORMULA: For any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the solutions for x are

-b b2 - 4ac
x =
2a
EXAMPLE: If x2 + 8x + 13 = 0, what is x?

You can find the solutions simply by plugging the coefficients from the equation into the

quadratic formula:

x = -8 82 - 4(1)(13)
2(1)

SAT Math Guide 178

 x = -8 64 - 52
2

x = - 4 + 2 or - 4 - 2

The expression underneath the radical in the formula ( b2 - 4ac ) is called the

DISCRIMINANT and determines the nature of the ROOTS (the solutions of the quadratic

equation)

b2 - 4ac = 0 Real and equal. 2 Solutions

NATURE OF ROOTS

b2 - 4ac > 0 Real but unequal. 1 Solution

b2 - 4ac < 0 Imaginary. No Solution

EXAMPLE 1:
Which of the following equations has no solution?

A. x2 - 8x - 11 = 0

B. x2 + 8x + 11 = 0

C. x2 + 7x + 11 = 0

D. x2 - 6x + 11 = 0

Solution: You can determine which of the equations has no solution by determining which equation

has a negative discriminant (and note that you can stop at any point that you realize the

answer will not be negative).

A. b2 - 4ac = (-8)2 - 4(1) (-11) = 64 + 44 = 108

B. b2 - 4ac = (8)2 - 4 (1) (11) = 64 - 44 = 20
C. b2 - 4ac = (7)2 - 4 (1) (11) = 49 - 44 = 5
D. b2 - 4ac = (-6)2 - 4 (1) (11) = 36 - 44 = -8

179 © AP Guru
The equation in answer choice D has no solution and is correct. Again, it is very rare for an

SAT problem to require familiarity with the quadratic formula. The vast majority of quadratic

equations can be factored through conventional methods.

EXAMPLE 2:
If (z + 3)2 = 25, what is z?
A. {}

B. { 2}

C. { -8}

D. { 2, -8}

Solution: You could solve this problem by making the equation into a quadratic and solving the

equation. However, it would be much easier to simply take the square root of both sides of the

equation to solve for z. You just have to consider both the positive and the negative square root.

(z + 3)2 = 25

Note that square-rooting the square of something is the same as taking the absolute value of

that thing.

|z + 3| = 5
z + 3 = 5 or z + 3 = -5
z = { 2, -8}

The correct answer is D.`

SAT Math Guide 180

 Chapter 21
GRAPHING
FUNCTIONS
A TRANSFORMATION is a change of position or size of a figure.
When we transform a figure, we create a new figure that is related
to the original.

TRANSLATION

One type of transformation is a TRANSLATION, which moves all a figure's points the same

distance and direction. However, the orientation and size of the figure remain the same. The

newly translated figure is called the IMAGE, and the new points are written with a PRIME

SYMBOL (').
If you translate a figure
y more than once, you can
7
label the new figures with
B 6

5 DOUBLE PRIME (''),

4
TRIPLE PRIME ('''),
3 B' or more!
2 C
A 1
x
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
C'
-2
A'
-3

-4

-5 ∆ABC =~ ∆A'B'C'
-6

-7

Don't forget
the symbol for
congruent =~
181 © AP Guru
These congruent triangles are simply plotted on different parts of the coordinate plane, so only

the locations of the triangles are different. To do a translation, move each point according to

the given criteria.

EXAMPLE: Given ∆ABC, translate it as follows (x + 4, y + 3)

First, write the original coordinates. Then calculate each translated point by adding 4 units to

the x-value (x + 4) and then adding 3 units to the y-value (y + 3). Lastly, plot and label the

image as A'B'C'
y
7

6
ORIGINAL IMAGE
5

4
A (-2 , -2) A' (2 , 1 )
3

2
B (-2 , -4) B' (2 , -1 )
1 A'
C' x
C (-4 , -3) C' (0 , 0)
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

B'
-1

A -2

C -3 A' is
B -4
x = -2 + 4 = 2
-5

-6 y = -2 + 3 = 2
-7
A' = (2, 1)

The following are the typical types of translations that are tested on the SAT:

1. Vertical Shifts
Suppose c > 0.
- To graph y = f(x) + c, shift the graph of y = f(x) upward c units.

- To graph y = f(x) - c, shift the graph of y = f(x) downward c units.

y y
y = f(x) + c
c y = f(x)
c
y = f(x) x
0 x 0
y = f(x) - c

SAT Math Guide 182

 EXAMPLE: The graphs of f(x) = x2 is shifted to form

a) g(x) = x2 + 3
b) h(x) = x2 - 2
y

g(x) = x2 + 3

f(x) = x2

h(x) = x2 - 2 2

2 x

2. Horizontal Shifts

Suppose c > 0.
- To graph y = f(x - c), shift the graph of y = f(x) right c units.

- To graph y = f(x + c), shift the graph of y = f(x) left c units.

y y = f(x) - c y y = f(x) + c
y = f(x)

y = f(x)
c c
0 x 0 x

EXAMPLE: The graphs of f(x) = x2 is shifted to form

A) g(x) = (x + 4)2
B) h(x) = (x - 2)2

183 © AP Guru
 f(x) = x2

g(x) = (x + 4)2 h(x) = (x - 2)2

y

-4 1 x

REFLECTION

A REFLECTION is a transformation that flips a figure over a LINE OF SYMMETRY - if you fold

the paper at the line of symmetry, the original and the image will match exactly.

The line of reflection can

VERTICAL LINE be the x- or y-axis, but it
OF SYMMETRY
doesn't have to be.
HORIZONTAL LINE
y H yI OF SYMMETRY
D' 5 D 5

4
K 4
J
3 3
F K' J'
F' 2 2

E' 1 E 1
x H' I' x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

∆DEF ~= ∆D'E'F' ∆HIJK =~ ∆H'I'J'K'

To complete a reflection, move each point according to the given criteria.

EXAMPLE: Given ∆EFG, reflect the shape over the x-axis.

First, count how many units each point is away from the line of symmetry (in this case, the

SAT Math Guide 184

x-axis) and draw the reflected point the same distance away on the other side. Lastly, plot

and label the image as E'F'G'.

y
5
G'
4

3
F'
ORIGINAL IMAGE
2

1
E' 2
4 4

x
E ( 1 , -2) E' (1 , 2)
SHORTCUT: When a
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1

2
2 3 4 5
F ( 4 , -4) F' (4, 4)
E
figure is reflected across -2
4 4

the x-axis, the sign of -3 G ( 2 , -4) G ' (2 , 4)

the y-value will simply -4
G F
change to it's opposite. -5

A few shortcuts regarding the reflection of graphs often covered on the SAT:

- To graph y = - f(x), reflect the graph of y = f(x) in the x-axis.

- To graph y = f(-x), reflect the graph of y = f(x) in the y-axis.

y y

y = f(x) y = f(x)

0 x 0 x
y = -f(x) y = -f(x)

EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of each function.

a f(x) = −x2
b g(x) = √(-x)

y y

y = x2
2 g(x) = √-x y = √x

x 1
2
1 x
f(x) = -x2

185 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE: Given the graph of f(x) = √x, use transformations to graph f(x) = 1 - √(1+x)

STEP 1: f(x) = √x STEP 2: f(x) = √1+x (horizontal shift)

1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 -1 0 1

STEP 3: f(x) = -√1+x (reflection) STEP 4: f(x) = 1-√1+x (vertical shift)

-1 0 1
0.8
-0.2 0.6
-0.4 0.4
-0.6 0.2
-1 1
-0.8 0
-1 -0.2
-1.2 -0.4
-1.4 -0.6

DILATION

A DILATION is a transformation that enlarges or reduces a figure by a SCALE FACTOR. The

scale factor is the amount by which you stretch or shrink the original figure.

When you change the size of a figure, there is a CENTER OF DILATION, which is the fixed point

in the coordinate plane around which the figure expands or contracts.

SAT Math Guide 186

 y
13

12

11

10
B'

5
B

ORIGIN IS THE CENTER 4

OF THE DILATION. 3

1
A C C' x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-1

In the above figure ABC, side AB has a length of 5 units and side AC has a length of 4 units.

If ABC is enlarged by a scale factor of 2 to make AB'C', side AB' has a length of 10 units and

side AC' has a length of 8 units.

AB'C', is twice as large as ABC. The two triangles are also similar because the corresponding

angles are congruent and the sides are proportional.

When you enlarge a figure, the scale factor is greater than 1.

When you shrink a figure, the scale factor is less than 1.

Usually, when a dilation is done on a coordinate plane, the origin (0, 0) is the center

of dilation. If the center of dilation is the origin, simply multiply the coordinates of the

original shape by the given scale factor, k:

( x , y ) → ( xk , yk)
Then plot your new shape.

THIS MEANS THE NEW DILATED OBJECT WILL

LITERALLY BE A FRACTION OF THE ORIGINAL SIZE.

187 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE: Given the polygon EFGH, draw the dilation image with the center of dilation

at the origin and a scale factor of 3.

y
13

12

11
SCALE
ORIGINAL FACTOR IMAGE
10
E' F'
9

7
E ( 1 , 3) + 3 E' ( 3 , 9 )
6
F ( 3, 3) + 3 F' ( 9 , 9)
5

4
E F
G (3,1 ) + 3 G' ( 9 , 3 )
3
G'
2
H'
H (2,1 ) + 3 H' ( 6 , 3)
1
H G x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
-1

These are the typical types of dilations that are tested on the SAT:

1. Vertical Stretching and Shrinking

To graph y = cf(x):
- If c > 1, stretch the graph of y = f(x) vertically by a factor of c.
- If 0 < c < 1, shrink the graph of y = f(x) vertically by a factor of c.
y y
y = cf(x) y = f(x)

0 x 0 x
y = f(x) y = cf(x)

c>1 0<c<1

EXAMPLE: Sketch the graphs of f(x) = x2 to

A. g(x) = 3x2
B. h(x) = x2

SAT Math Guide 188

 y

f(x) = x2
4
g(x) = 3x2

h(x) = 1 x2
3

0 1 x

EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = 1 - 2(x-3)2

y y = (x-3)2

y = x2
(3, 1)
1 x
0 1
f(x) = 1-2(x-3)2
y = -2(x-3)2

2. Vertical Stretching and Shrinking

To graph y = f(cx):
- if c > 1, shrink the graph of y = f(x) horizontally by a factor of 1/c.
- if 0 < c < 1, stretch the graph of y = f(x) horizontally by a factor of 1/c.
y y
y = f(cx)

y = f(cx)

0 x 0 x
y = f(x) y = f(x)

c>1 0< c < 1

189 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE: The graph of y = f(x) is shown below.

y
1

0 x
-1 1 2
y y

0 x 0 1
x
1 2 1
1
y = 2f(x) y = f( x)
2
ROTATION

A ROTATION is a transformation that turns a figure around a fixed point called the CENTER OF

ROTATION. The number of degrees that the figure turns is called the ANGLE OF ROTATION. The

shape moves either CLOCKWISE or COUNTERCLOCKWISE. A rotation does not change the size or

shape of the figure. This means the image after the rotation is congruent to the original figure.

CLOCKWISE COUNTERCLOCKWISE

B'

If you measure ACA', you will find that A' C

NOTICE POINT C DID NOT A'
moved 90˚ in a counterclockwise direction. MOVE. IT IS THE CENTER
OF THE ROTATION.

If you measure BCB', you will find that B'

moved 90˚ in a counterclockwise direction A B

∆ABC =~ ∆A'B'C

SAT Math Guide 190

So this means that ABC was rotated 900 in a counterclockwise direction to form A'B'C.
Also, the two triangles are congruent - the corresponding sides are the same length and the

corresponding angles are the same degrees.

Rotations can also be performed on a coordinate plane. Usually, the origin (0,0) will be the

center of rotation.

EXAMPLE: Rotate ΔABC 900 clockwise

THIS COULD ALSO BE A 270°0 COUNTERCLOCKWISE

ROTATlON - YOU END UP AT THE SAME PLACE.

y
5
C' ORIGINAL IMAGE
4
B
3
A (-1, 2) A' ( 2, 1)
2

C A 1 A' B' x B (-1, 3) B' ( 3, 1)

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
C (-4, 1) C' ( 1, 4)

What happened? The x- and y-coordinates swapped places and then took the

appropriate signs for quadrant I.

QUADRANT II QUADRANT I
SHORTCUT: Every time a figure rotates (-x, +y)
2
(+x, +y)
1

90 , the figure moves one quadrant and

0
-2 -1 1 2
the coordinates swap places and take the QUADRANT III
-1
QUADRANT IV
-2

signs of the quadrant. (-x, -y) (+x, -y)

CLO
C KW 90° rotate one quadrant
QII 4
IS
E QI
3

2700 CL 3600
T ER 2
OC
KW
UN I
CO 90 0 1 360 0 SE
180° rotate two quadrants
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
180 0 270 0
1800 -2

-3
900
QIII -4
QIV
270° rotate three quadrants

191 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE: Rotate ΔABC 1800 clockwise

Rotate each point 1800 or two quadrants clockwise (the coordinates swap twice).

A
B 4 is (3, 1), so A| is (-3, -1). Both coordinates
3

are negative because A| will be in QIII.

2
C
1 A

B
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 is (3, 4), so B| is (-3, -4) because B| will
-1
A |

be
C in |
-2 QIII.
-3

-4

B|
C -5 is (1, 1), so C| is (-1, -1) because C| will be

in QIII.

EXAMPLE: Graph the ∆ABC 2700 and its image after a rotation of 900 counterclockwise.

6 C ONE QUADRANT TO THE LEFT

A 5

3
C|
2 ORIGINAL IMAGE
1

A (-3, 5) A' ( -5, -3)

B (-3, -6) B' ( 6, -3)
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

C (2, 6) C' ( -6, 2)

-2

A|
-3 B|

-4

-5

-6

SAT Math Guide 192

SUMMARY

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

f(x) + c shift f(x) up c units
f(x) - c shift f(x) down c units
f(x + c) shift f(x) left c units
f(x - c) shift f(x) right c units
f(-x) reflect f(x) about the y-axis
-f(x) reflect f(x) about the x-axis
When 0 < c < 1 - vertical shrinking of f(x)
cf(x) When c > 1 - vertical stretching of f(x)
Multiply the y values by c
f(cx) When 0 < c < 1 - horizontal stretching of f(x)
When c > 1 - horizontal shrinking of f(x)
Divide the x values by c

2f(x)=2x2
f(x)=x2 1 x2
vertical stretch by 2 2 f(x)= 2
vertical shrink by
1/2

x
f(x )=( )2
2 2

f(2x)=(2x)2 horizontal stretch

horizontal shrink by 2
by 1/2

193 © AP Guru
 2 f(x)+2=x +2
2

shift up by 2
f(-x)=(-x)2=x2
flip over y-axis

f(x+2)=(x+2)2 -f(x)=-x2
shift left by 2 flip over x-axis

-2

f(x-2)=(x-2)2 -2
f(x)-2=x2-2
shift right by 2 shift down by 2 2

EXAMPLE 1:`
Graph the following functions and state their domain and range:

f(x) = (x+2)2 - 3
y
5
4 b.f. = x2
2, 3 3
f(x) = (x + 2)2 - 3
2
1 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Domain = (-∞, ∞) -2
Range = [-3, ∞) -3

SAT Math Guide 194

 EXAMPLE 2:

Graph the following functions and state their domain and range:

f(x) = -|x-3| + 1
y y
5 5
4 4
3 f. = |x| 3 f. = |x - 3|
2 2
-3
1 1 x
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

y
5 y 5
reflect about 4 4
x-axis 3 f. = -|x - 3| 3 f(x) = -|x-3| + 1
2 2
1 1 1 x
x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -|x-3| -4
-5 -5

Domain = (-∞, ∞)
Range = (-∞, 1]

ASYMPTOTES

Asymptotes are lines that functions approach but never reach. Not all functions have asymptotes.

There are two types of asymptotes: VERTICAL asymptotes and HORIZONTAL asymptotes.

Asymptotes are quite apparent in graphs of functions. If you are only given the equation of a

195 © AP Guru
function, there are some techniques that can be used to identify different asymptotes.

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

Vertical Asymptote
To find the vertical asymptotes, use the following steps:

1. If there is no denominator, there are no vertical asymptotes

2. If there is no denominator, set the denominator to zero

3. Solve for x, that is your vertical asymptote

EXAMPLE 2:`

What are the vertical asymptotes of the function f(x) = x2+1

x-9
A. x = -9 and x = 9

B. x = −9

C. x = -3

D. x = 9

Solution: Step 1: Set the denominator equal to zero.

x − 9 = 0

SAT Math Guide 196

Step 2: Solve for x.
X = 9

This function has one vertical asymptote located at X = 9. We can see that this is the case by

considering the graph of the function, shown below.

y
x
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 5 10 15 20 25
-25

-50

-75
-100

Horizontal Asymptote
There are a few key rules to help determine if a function has a horizontal asymptote. To find

the horizontal asymptotes, use the following steps:

Step 1: If the highest degree of power in the numerator is greater than the highest degree in

the denominator, then no horizontal asymptote exists.

Step 2: If the highest degree in the numerator and denominator are equal, then a horizontal

asymptote does exist.

Step 3: The horizontal asymptote is at the fraction of the terms with the highest coefficients.

EXAMPLE: y = 2x2+3x-1
4x2-16

Highest degree power in numerator: 2

Highest degree power in denominator: 2

197 © AP Guru
Horizontal asymptote: 2x2 = 2 = 1
4x2 4 2

This function has one horizontal asymptote at y = 1/2

y = x +3x
4
EXAMPLE: Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the function
6x4-x2

Step 1: Calculate vertical asymptotes.

6x4 - x2 = 0
x2(6x2-1) = 0
x2 = 0 or 6x2-1 = 0
x = 0 or 6x2 = 1

x = ±√ 1
6

Vertical asymptotes: x = 0 and x = ± √ 1

6

Step 2: Calculate horizontal asymptotes.

Highest term in numerator: x4

Highest term in denominator: 6x4

Since the powers on the terms are the same, the horizontal asymptote occurs at the point that

we receive by

x4 = 1
6x4 6

Horizontal asymptote: y = 1/6

SAT Math Guide 198

 Chapter 22
COMPLEX
NUMBERS
There is a new “number” that we associate negative numbers with under the square root. These are

called COMPLEX NUMBERS, and they are indicated with the letter i, where:

i = √-1

We can do regular operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with complex

numbers. Keep the following in mind, to make complex multiplication simpler.

i=
i2 = i x i = x = -1
i3 = i x i x i = x x = -1 x = -i
i4 = i2 x i2 = -1 x -1 = 1
i5 = i4 x i = i
i6 = i4 x i2 = -1
i7 = i4 x i3 = -i
i8 = i4 x i4 = 1

EXAMPLE 3:
Find the value of i203?
A. i

199 © AP Guru
 B. -i
C. 1
D. -1

Solution: Now, we need to first break up i203 to i202+1

= i202 x i1
= (i2)101 x i
= (-1)101 x i
= -1 x i
= -i

The correct answer is B.

Add and Subctract Complex Numbers

Adding and subtracting complex numbers is similar to adding and subtracting polynomials. Just

add or subtract the real and imaginary parts.

EXAMPLE: Solve: (-6 - 5i) - (3 - 4i)

ADD
To find the opposite, change the
(-6 - 5i) - (3 - 4i) = (-6 - 5i) + (-3 + 4i) sign of each term of 3 - 4i

THE OPPOSITE

Add the real parts.
= [-6 + (-3)] + (-5 + 4)i Add the imaginary parts.

= -9 - i

Multiply Complex Numbers

Multiplying complex numbers is similar to multiplying polynomials.

SAT Math Guide 200

EXAMPLE: Solve: (2 + 5i) (6 + 4i)

F O I L
(2 + 5i) (6 + 4i) = 12 + 8i + 30i + 20i2 Use the FOIL method.

= 12 + 38i + 20 (-1) 8i + 30i = 38i. Replace i2 with -1.

= 12 + 38i - 20

= -8 + 38i Subtract: 12 - 20 = -8

Divide Complex Numbers

For complex division, we need to know what a conjugate is. For starters, all complex numbers

take the form of a + bi, where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate. A complex

conjugate is changing the + in a + bi to a − bi or vice versa. When we have complex division,

we multiply by a clever form of “one,” which will be the conjugate of the denominator.

EXAMPLE: Write each quotient in the form a + bi: 6

7-4i

6 6 7+4i To build an equivalent fraction, multiply by 7+4i

= 1.
= x 7+4i
7-4i 7-4i 7+4i

42 + 24i To multiply the numerators, distribute the multiplication by 6.

= To multiply the denominators, find (7 - 4i) (7+4i)
49 - 16i2
42 + 24i Replace i2 with -1. The denominator no longer contains i.
=
49 - 16 (-1)
42 + 24i This notation represents the sum of two fractions that have the common deonominator
=
65

42 24 Write the result in the form a + bi.

= + i
65 65

201 © AP Guru
 Chapter 23
WORD
PROBLEMS
About 35% of your total SAT Math Test will be made up of word problems. Though the actual

math topics can vary, it is important to develop a consistent process for answering them.

Almost any word problem can be broken down into four steps:

1. Identify what value the question is asking for. We’ll call this the desired value

2. Identify unknown values and label them with variables

3. Identify relationships and translate them into equations

4. Use the equations to solve for the desired value

In essence, you need to turn a word problem into a system of equations and use those

equations to solve for the desired value.

EXAMPLE: A candy company sells premium chocolate at $5 per pound and regular chocolates

at $4 per pound. If Barrett buys a 7-pound box of chocolates that costs him $31, how many

pounds of premium chocolates are in the box?

Step 1. Identify the desired value.

The question asks for the number of pounds of premium chocolate that Barrett bought.

Step 1:

Step 2. Identify unknown values and label them with variables.

SAT Math Guide 202

In this question, there are two basic unknown values: the number of pounds of premium

chocolate and the number of pounds of regular chocolate.

Step 3. Identify relationships and translate them into equations.

One fairly straightforward relationship concerns the total number of pounds of chocolate.

Barrett bought a 7-pound box of chocolate. If the box contains only regular and premium

chocolate, then you can write the following equation:

r + p = 7 …………………………….. Equation 1

The other relationship concerns the total cost of the box. The total cost of the box is equal to

the cost of the premium chocolates plus the cost of the regular chocolates. We are given the

following:

Total Cost of Box = $31

Cost of Premiums = (5 $/pound) x (p pounds) = 5p

Cost of Regulars = (4 $/pound) x (r pounds) = 4r

31 = 5p + 4r …………………………….. Equation 2

Step 4. Use the equations to solve for the desired value.

These are the two equations you have to work with:

r + p = 7

31 = 5p + 4r

Solving simultaneously, we get 3 = p.

The SAT has many ways of making various stages of a word problem more difficult, which is

why it is so important to have a good process. Train yourself to use these four steps to stay

on track and continually work toward a solution.

203 © AP Guru
In order to translate your SAT word problems into actionable math equations you can solve,

you’ll need to understand and know how to utilize some key math terms. Whenever you see

these words, you can translate them into the proper mathematical action.

Here is a chart with ALL THE KEY TERMS and symbols you should know for word problems.

Key terms Mathematical Action

Sum, increased by, added to, more than, total of +

Difference, decreased by, less than, substracted -

from

Product, times, _ times as much, _ times as many * or x

(a number, e.g. "three times as many")

Divided by, per, _ as many, _ as much (a fraction, / or ÷

e.g., "one-third as much")

Equals, is, are, equivalent =

Is less than <

Is greater than >

Is less than or equal to ≤

Is greater than or equal to ≥

EXAMPLE 1:

A food truck sells salad for $6.50 each and drinks for $2.00 each. The food truck’s revenue

from selling a total of 209 salads and drinks in one day was $836.50. How many salads

were sold that day?

A. 77

B. 93

C. 99

D. 105

SAT Math Guide 204

Solution: We'll say that the number of salads sold = S, and the number of drinks sold = D. The

two equations we can create from the information in the question is

S + D = 209

6.50S + 2D = 836.5

Now, just subtract S from both sides to get what D equals:

D = 209 − S ................................Equation 1

6.50S + 2(209 − S) = 836.5 ................................Equation 2

6.50S + 418 − 2S = 836.5

6.50S − 2S = 418.5

4.5S = 418.5

S = 93

The correct answer is B.

REPLACING VARIABLES WITH NUMBERS

Which of the following QUESTIONS is easier to answer?

How many miles can a car How many miles can a car

going x miles per hour going 40 miles per hour

travel in y hours? travel in 3 hours?

A. X/Y B. Y/X C. XY A. 40/3 B. 3/40 C. 120

Most likely, you found the question on the right easier. In general, numbers are easier to work

205 © AP Guru
with than variables. Notice that the questions are actually identical, except for the fact that x

has been replaced by 40, and y has been replaced by 3. Problems that have variables in the

answer choices can almost always be answered by replacing variables with numbers.

There are three basic steps to remember when replacing a variable with numbers:

1. Identify unknowns and replace them with numbers. In the above example, you re-

placed X with 40 and replaced Y with 3.

2. Use these numbers to calculate the answer to the problem. A car traveling 40 miles per

hour for 3 hours travels 120 miles. Remember the number you calculate in this step. You

should refer to this as the target.

3. Plug the same numbers into the answer choices. The correct answer will be equal to

the target number. Notice that the answers to the problem on the right are in the

same form as the answers to the problem on the left. All xs have been replaced with

40s and all Ys have been replaced with 3s.

The correct answer is C because it equals 120, which is the same number we calculated in

Step 2. This technique can also be used with more complicated word problems.

EXAMPLE 2:

A park ranger travels from his base to a campsite via truck at r miles per hour. Upon arriving,

he collects a snowmobile and uses it to return to base. If the campsite is d miles from the

park ranger's base and the entire trip took t hours to complete, what was his speed on the

snowmobile, in terms of t, d, and r?

A. tr - d

B. td - r

C. dr
rt-d
D. td-r
d

SAT Math Guide 206

Solution: The key to replacing variables with numbers is to pick numbers that make calculation

easy. You should pick the rate and the distance so that the time travelled is an integer. You also

want to pick numbers that are small enough that they will be easy to plug in to the answer

choices.

Say that r = 10 and d = 20. That way it takes 2 hours for the ranger to reach the camp.

To keep things easy, you can say that the whole trip took 4 hours. That would mean that the

ranger traveled 10 miles per hour on the snowmobile as well.

You’ve picked numbers for your variables and calculated a target:

r = 10 d = 20 t= 4

Target = 10

Now you need to figure out which answer choice matches the target:

A. tr - d = (4)(10) - (20) = 20

B. td - r = (4)(20) - (10)

C. dr = (20)(10) = 200 = 10
rt-d (10)(4)-(20) 20

D. td-r = (4)(20)-(10) = 70 = 3.5

d (20) 20

The correct answer is C.

BACKSOLVING

The standard way to solve word problems is to translate the words into equations and solve

for the desired value. Some word problems, however, contain equations that make the desired

value difficult to solve for. Instead, you can test answer choices. This technique is called

BACKSOLVING.

207 © AP Guru
EXAMPLE 3:

Preeti has money in two separate bank accounts. Account X earns 8% interest annually and

account Y earns 15% interest annually. Preeti earned a total of $53 in interest last year. If the

total amount of money in the accounts at the beginning of last year was $400, and there were

no other deposits or withdrawals, how much money was in account Y?

A. $100

B. $200

C. $250

D. $300

Solution: Let x be the total amount of money in account X and let y be the total amount of

money in account Y. The question provides you with enough information to create two equations:

x + y = 400 0.08x + 0.15y = 53

You need to solve for y, and with backsolving, you will start by assuming the value of y. If

the correct answer were B, y would be 200. You can use the first equation to find the value of

x. Then, you will plug x and y into the second equation. If it is true, you know you have the

correct answer.

If y = 200, x = 200 (because x + y = 400). Plug x = 200 and y = 200 into the second equation:

0.08(200) + 0.15(200) = 53

16 + 30 = 53

46 ≠ 53

Answer choice B is incorrect. Backsolving typically works best when you test answer choice B or

C first, as it will allow you to eliminate two answer choices (if B is wrong). If, in contrast, you

tested answer choice A first and it was wrong, you would only be able to eliminate A.

SAT Math Guide 208

Now that you know the answer is either C or D, you need to do the math only one more time.

If the answer choice you choose to test works, you know that’s the answer. If it doesn’t work,

you know the other answer choice must be correct.

Looking at the answer choices, it actually looks like D would be easier to test. The numbers 300

and 100 will be easier to use than 250 and 150. If you assume that y = 300, then x must equal

100. Plug these values into the second equation:

0.08(100) + 0.15(300) = 53

8 + 45 = 53

The equation is true, so answer choice D is correct.

Backsolving can be a time saving technique because, at most, you will need to test two answer

choices. Test answer choice B first to really save time. Although back solving does not allow you

to avoid algebra entirely, it can be useful when it seems that solving for the desired value will

involve messy equations.

USING CHARTS TO ORGANIZE VARIABLES

When a word problem involves several quantities and multiple relationships, a chart or table can

be used to organize the information effectively.

EXAMPLE: A circus earned $150,000 in ticket revenue by selling 1,800 V.I.P. and Standard tickets.

They sold 25% more Standard tickets than V.I.P. tickets. If the revenue from Standard tickets

represents one-third of the total ticket revenue, what is the price of a V.I.P. ticket?

In this problem, there are several unknowns: the number of Standard and V.I.P tickets, the cost

per ticket for each type of ticket, revenue generated, etc. Trying to create a variable for each

of these values could be quite tedious and confusing.

209 © AP Guru
One way to deal with all these unknowns is to create a table.

The relationship

(Price) x (Quantity) = (Revenue)

is relevant for both Standard and V.I.P. tickets.

Price per Ticket x Quantity = Revenue

($ / ticket) (# of ticket) ($)

Standard

V.I.P.

Total -

Notice that you’ve used this strategy before; charts are useful on rate problems and overlapping-

sets problems. You have a similar advantage here: the chart allows you to keep track of a

number of different relationships all at the same time.

Now you can enter information into the chart. You know that the total revenue is $150,000, and

the total number of tickets sold is 1,800. You also know that the circus sold 25% more Standard

tickets than V.I.P. tickets. If you let * equal the number of V.I.P. tickets sold, then the number of

Standard tickets sold is 1.25x:

Price per Ticket x Quantity = Revenue

($ / ticket) (# of ticket) ($)

Standard 1.25x

V.I.P. x

Total - 1,800 150,000

The revenue from Standard tickets is one-third of the total revenue, which is $150,000. So

the revenue from Standard tickets is $50,000 and the revenue from V.I.P. tickets is $100,000.

SAT Math Guide 210

Additionally, you now have an equation for the number of tickets:

1.25x + x = 1,800

x = 800

800 V.I.P. tickets were sold, and 1,000 Standard tickets were sold:

Price per Ticket x Quantity = Revenue

($ / ticket) (# of ticket) ($)

Standard 1000 50,000

V.I.P. 800 100,000

Total - 1,800 150,000

Now, at last, you can solve for the price of a V.I.P. ticket. Price per ticket times the number of

tickets equals the revenue:

p x 800 = 100,000
p = 125

The price of a V.I.P. ticket is $125.

A chart was useful for this problem because of the number of relationships present in the

argument. Instead of writing down a lot of equations, you could organize the information in a

chart.

OPTIMIZATION
In general optimization problems, you are asked to maximize or minimize some quantity, given

constraints on other quantities. These quantities are all related through an equation.

EXAMPLE: The guests at a football banquet consumed a total of 401 pounds of food. If no

211 © AP Guru
individual guest consumed more than 2.5 pounds of food, what is the minimum number of guests

that could have attended the banquet?

You can visualize the underlying equation in the following table:

Pounds of Food x Guests = Total Pounds

per Guest of Food

At MOST At LEAST EXACTLY

2.5 x ??? = 401

Maximize Minimize Constant

Notice that finding the minimum value of the number of guests involves using the maximum

pounds of food per guest because the two quantities multiply to a constant. This sort of

inversion is typical.

Begin by considering the extreme case in which each guest eats as much food as possible, or

2.5 pounds apiece. The corresponding number of guests at the banquet works out to 401/2.5 =

160.4 people.

However, you obviously cannot have a fractional number of guests at the banquet. Thus, the

answer must be rounded. To determine whether to round up or down, consider the explicit

constraint: the amount of food per guest is a maximum of 2.5 pounds per guest. Therefore,

the minimum number of guests is 160.4 (if guests could be fractional), and you must round up to

make the number of guests an integer: 161.

Note the careful reasoning required! Although the phrase “minimum number of guests” may tempt

you to round down, you will get an incorrect answer if you do so.

SAT Math Guide 212

 Chapter 24
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY is the likelihood that something will happen. It is a number between 0 and 1

and can be written as a percent. When you asked about something's probability, you are

asking, "How likely is it?" A larger number means there is a greater likelihood that the event will

happen.

CERTAIN

{
100%
100% or 1: Certain event
likely
75% The sun will rise tomorrow.
50/50 chance

50%
unlikely
{ 50% or 0.5: Equal chance it will

or will not happen The coin will be "heads".

25%
{

impossible 0% or 0: No chance it will
0%
happen at all. We'll see two moons in our sky!

HEADS
Flipping a coin is a well-known
LIBERTY United States
of America
probability question. When we
In God
flip, it could land on HEADS or TAILS. We Trust

1981

TAILS
- The ACTION is what is happening. In this case, the action is flipping a coin.

- The OUTCOMES are all of the possible results of an action. In this case, there are

exactly two outcomes: heads or tails.

213 © AP Guru
 - An EVENT is any outcome or group of outcomes. In this case, if the coin lands on

heads, the event is heads. If we flip the coin twice, and it lands on heads twice, the

event is heads and heads.

- When we flip a coin, both outcomes are equally likely to occur - this feature is some-

times called RANDOM.

When we are trying to figure out the PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT (P), we use a ratio to

find out how likely it is that an event will happen:

Probability (Event) = number of favorable outcomes

number of possible outcomes

EXAMPLE: The probability of a coin landing on tails is 1/2 The number of favorable outcomes

(landing tails) is 1, and the number of possible outcomes (landing heads or landing tails) is 2.

P(tails) = 1/2 = 50%

EXAMPLE: What is the probability of the spinner landing on red or purple?

RED
ORANGE
GREEN

PURPLE
YELLOW

number of favorable outcomes

Probability (event) =
number of possible outcomes

P (Red or Purple) = 2/5 = 40%

SAT Math Guide 214

There is a 40% probability that the spinner will land on red or purple.

If a probability question is more complicated, we can make a table to help ourselves.

EXAMPLE: Bob flips a coin twice. What is the probability that he will flip heads twice?

Let's make a table that lists all the possible combinations Bob can have when he flips the coin

twice:

outcome of outcome of outcome of

the 1st flip the 1st flip the 2 flips

heads heads 2 heads

heads tails 1 head, 1 tail

tails heads 1 tail, 1 head

tails tails 2 tails

Then we plug this info into the probability formula:

number of favorable outcomes

Probability (event) =
number of possible outcomes

Probability (2 heads) = 1/4 = 25%

In addition to using a chart, we could also draw a tree diagram.

EXAMPLE: Sue rolls a die twice. What is the probability that she rolls "double sixes" (she rolls 6

twice)?

Let's make a tree diagram that lists all of the different possible outcomes:

215 © AP Guru
 1st roll 2nd roll 1st roll 2nd roll

1 1
2 2
3 3
1 4
4 4
5 5
6 6

1 1
2 2
3 3
2 5
4 4
5 5
6 6

1 1
2 2
3 3
3 6
4 4
5 5
6 6

DOUBLE
Then we use the probability formula:
SIXES!
Probability(Event) = number of favorable outcomes
number of possible outcomes

Therefore, out of the 36 possible outcomes, there is a total of 1 outcome that has double sixes.

Probability (double sixes) = 1/36 = 2.8%

Compliment of an Event
The compliment of an event is the opposite of the event happening.

EVENT COMPLEMENT

win lose

rain no rain

heads tails

SAT Math Guide 216

The probability of an event plus the probability of its complement always equals 1. In other

words, there is a 100% chance that either an event or its complement will happen.

Probability(event) + Probability(complement) = 1

EXAMPLE: The probability that a student at your school is left-handed is 10%. What is the

complement of being left-handed, and what is the probability of the complement?

The complement of being left-handed is right-handed.

If P(left-handed) is 10%, then ...

P(left-handed) + P(right-handed) = 100%

10% + P(right-handed) = 100%

P(right-handed) = 90%

So, the probability that a student at school is right-handed is 90%.

EXAMPLE 1:
Under 40 40+ Total

Male 12 2 14

Female 8 3 11

Male 20 5 25

The table above shows the distribution of age and gender for 25 people who entered a

contest. If the contest winner will be selected at random, what is the probability that the

winner will be either a female under age 40 or a male age 40 or older?

A. 4/25

B. 10/25

C. 11/25

D. 16/25

217 © AP Guru
Solution: This is an either-or probability question, which we can tell because the question includes

"either" and "or." So we'll be adding two simple probabilities together.

The first probability is the chance of choosing a female under 40 at random from the group of

people who entered the contest. There were 8 females under 40 and 25 entrants total

according to the table, so our first probability is 8/25.

The second probability is the chance of choosing a male 40 or over. According to the table, there

were 2 men 40 or over, and, again, we know that 25 people entered the contest, so our second

probability is 2/25.

Adding both the probabilities together, our answer is 10/25. Thus, the correct answer is B

THE COUNTING PRINCIPLE

When there are lots of options, and you want to determine how many different ways you can

get something or do something, the COUNTING PRINCIPLE is the way to go.

Let's start with an EXAMPLE: Marissa is getting dressed. She has 4 pairs of pants, 5 shirts

and 3 different shoes that could all make a decent outfit. How many different outfits can she

make that include 1 pair of pants, 1 shirt, and 1 pair of shoes?

The simplest way to get the answer is to use the counting principle. All you have to do is

multiply the number of options for each part of the outfit.

4 x 5 x 3 = 60
pants shirts shoes outfits

SAT Math Guide 218

A different kind of EXAMPLE: 6 people are running together in a 10K race. How many different

ways can they finish the race?

Let's think about it:

- 6 different people can finish first.

- 1 of the 6 crosses the finish line first.

- Now there are 5 people left for second place.

- Then 4 people are left for 3rd place.

- That leaves 3 people for 4th place.

- Next, there are 2 people in line for 5th place.

- And there is one person left that finishes last.

The counting principle tells us that we can multiply the number of choices for each place to

determine how many different ways the race can end. Therefore, the answer is

6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 720.

We also read this is as 6! (6 factorial).

If we had 5! we would multiply 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1.

If we have 4! we would multiply 4 x 3 x 2 x 1.

The ! is a little shortcut so that you do not have to write out all the numbers less than the

given number that you need to multiply.

INDEPENDENT EVENTS

While playing a board game, you must toss two dice to determine how far you move on the

board. The number that you roll on the second die is not affected by the number rolled on the

first die. Because one outcome does not affect the other, the events are called INDEPENDENT.

219 © AP Guru
EXAMPLE: What is the probability of rolling a number less than three on the first die and a

number greater than or equal to three on the second die?

Step 1: Determine the probability of each event.

A number less than 3: 2 = 1

6 3

A number equal to or greater than 3: 4 = 2

6 3

The combined probability is the multiplication of the probability of the two individual attempts

= 2 x 1 = 2 ≈ which is about 22%

3 3 9

EXAMPLE 2:
You have a fair coin and a fair six-sided die. What is the probability of both getting tails on a

coin flip and rolling a 4 on the die?

A. 1/20

B. 1/10

C. 1/12

D. 1/6

Solution: Whether you get heads or tails on the coin flip has nothing to do with which number

you roll on the die: these events are independent.

Ptails = 1 Prolling a 4 = 1
2 6

1
Pboth = 1 = 1
2 6 12

SAT Math Guide 220

 DEPENDENT EVENTS

Imagine that you are one of the captains forming a kickball team. The other captain chooses

Lisa, the player that you were about to choose. When it becomes your turn to choose, you have

to pick someone else.

Your choice depended on the selection of the other captain. This is an example of a dependent

event.

EXAMPLE: Cara has a bag of marbles. There are 15 total. 7 are white, 3 are green, 2 are

blue and 3 are purple. What is the probability of choosing a white and then a green, without

replacement?

Because the first marble is NOT being replaced, the probability of the second marble depends

on the first. When the second marble is chosen, there are only 14 total marbles instead of 15,

because one of the marbles has been removed.

Step 1: Determine the probability of the first marble being white: 7

15

Step 2: Determine the probability of the second marble being green: 3

14

Step 3: Multiply the probabilities together to determine the probability of both events occurring.

7
x 3 = 1 x 1 = 1 ---> 1 = 0.1 = 10%
15 14 5 2 10 10

There is a 10% chance of grabbing a white and then a green.

221 © AP Guru
 EXAMPLE 3:
A hotel offers complimentary breakfast that includes a guest’s choice of one of five types of

breakfast cereal, eggs, either bacon, ham, or sausage, and either orange juice or milk. If you

order a breakfast combination at random, what are the odds that you will receive a breakfast

that includes ham or orange juice?

A. 1/6

B. 1/4

C. 1/3

D. 5/6

Solution: This question isn’t as tough as it looks! You don’t have to take into account anything

other than the breakfast meat selections in order to calculate the probability in this case.

While the breakfast choices will differ in the types of cereal they include, we are only

interested in picking out how many will include ham and orange juice, so we can simply ignore

the information presented about cereal. Of the three choices (bacon, ham, and sausage), we are

only interested in one (ham), so that means that 1/3 of the breakfast options will include ham.

Similarly, we’re interested in the half of the choices that include orange juice. We want to find

the probability of picking out a breakfast that includes ham OR orange juice, so we add the

fractions together:

( 1 2 ) + ( 1 3 ) = 2 + 3 = 5
3 2 2 3 6 6 6

5 of the breakfast choices include both ham and orange juice. We can check our answer by
6
considering that these choices will differ in only one aspect: the type of cereal included with

each. Since there are five types of cereal offered, it stands to reason that there should be five

options that include both ham and orange juice. This is true, as 1 x 30 = 5.
6
The correct answer is D.

SAT Math Guide 222

 EXAMPLE 4:
At your local no-kill animal shelter, 1/3 of the pets available for adoption are cats, and of those

cats, 2/5 are kittens; the rest are adult cats. Half of the cats at the shelter have green eyes,

and a third of them are declawed. If someone adopts a pet at random from this shelter, what

are the odds that they will adopt an adult cat with green eyes that has not been declawed?

A. 1/45

B. 1/30

C. 1/25

D. 1/20

Solution: Let’s write out all of the information we’ve been given:

Pcat = 1
3
Pkitten = 2
5
Pcat with green eyes = Pcat 1
2

Pdeclawed cat = Pcat 1
3

That’s a lot of information! Next, let’s construct an expression of the probability we need to cal-

culate: we’re looking for the odds of someone adopting at random an adult declawed cat with

green eyes.

Pdeclawed adult cat with green eyes = 1 (1 - 1 ) 1 1 = 1 2 1 1 = 2 = 1

3 3 3 2 3 5 3 2 60 30

The correct answer is B.

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

Very occasionally, the SAT will hit you with a simple conditional probability question. (We found

two spread across all 10 SAT practice tests).

223 © AP Guru
Conditional probability is the chances of an event (B) happening given that another event

or condition (A) has already happened or been fulfilled. It's still simple probability - desired

outcomes over total outcomes - but figuring out the correct number of desired vs. total outcomes

can be a little tricky.

EXAMPLE: There are 100 people working on a performance: 52 dancers, 12 stage technicians,

and 36 musicians. Among the dancers, 14 are ballet dancers, 20 are jazz dancers, and 18 are

modern dancers. What is the probability of selecting a ballet dancer from those working on the

performance, given that the person selected is a dancer?

It might seem like this is asking you the probability of selecting a ballet dancer (of which there

are 14) from everyone working on the performance (of which there are 100).

But actually, it's asking you the probability of selecting a ballet dancer from the dancers,

because we are accepting as a given (as a condition) that the person we are randomly selecting

is a dancer. We can tell this from the phrase "given that the person selected is a dancer."

Thus, we must calculate the probability of selecting a ballerina (Event B) given condition A, that

the person we select will be from among the 52 dancers. So the answer is 14 .
52

EXAMPLE 5:
Teaching Research Total

General Surgeon 12 2 14

Orthopedic Surgeon 8 3 11

Total 20 5 25

In a survey, 607 general surgeons and orthopedic surgeons indicated their major professional

activity. The results are summarized in the table above. If one of the surgeons is selected

SAT Math Guide 224

at random, which of the following is closest to the probability that the selected surgeon is an

orthopedic surgeon whose indicated professional activity is research?

A. 0.122

B. 0.196

C. 0.318

D. 0.379

Solution: This is a good old simple probability question. We are selecting one of the surgeons at

random, so the total number of potential outcomes is just the total number of surgeons - 607.

And we want to know the chances that a randomly-selected surgeon is an orthopedic surgeon

whose professional activity is research. Per the table, there are 74 orthopedic surgeons who do

research. This means our probability is 74 or, as a decimal, 0.122. So the answer is A.
607

EXAMPLE 6:

5/5 4/5 3/5 2/5 1/5 0/5 TOTAL

Day 1 2 3 4 6 2 3 20

Day 2 2 3 5 5 4 1 20

Day 3 3 3 4 5 3 2 20

Total 7 9 13 16 9 6 60

The same 20 contestants, on each of 3 days, answered 5 questions in order to win a prize.

Each contestant received 1 point for each correct answer. The number of contestants receiving a

given score on each day is shown in the table above.

No contestant received the same score on two different days. If a contestant is selected at

random, what is the probability that the selected contestant received a score of 5 on Day 2 or

Day 3, given that the contestant received a score of 5 on one of the 3 days?

225 © AP Guru
 A. 1/7

B. 3/7

C. 5/7

D. 6/7

Solution: This grid-in question is both an either/or probability question and a conditional probability

question. The condition is we are selecting at random among contestants who received a 5/5

on one of the three days. The question tells us that we can assume that no one got the same

score multiple days, so we can assume that the 7 people who received 5s across the 3 days are

all different people.

Our total number of potential outcomes, then, is 7 - not 20, the total number of contestants.

Our desired outcome is the number of people receiving 5s on Day 2 or Day 3 (there's that

either/or)! 2 people received 5s on Day 2, and 3 on Day 3. The two probabilities that we are

adding together, then, are

2 + 3 = 5
7 7 7

The correct answer is C.

SAT Math Guide 226

 Chapter 23
STATISTICS
It's important to understand the graphs and charts often used in statistics based questions

before we explain the core concepts used in statistics.

1. Histograms
Like a line plot a histogram shows the frequency of data. Instead of marking the data items

with Xs, however, a histogram shows them as a graph.

EXAMPLE: This histogram shows the heights of trees on each street in my town. In this case,

the frequency is the number of trees, and the characteristic is the height of the trees.

10
From the graph, we see:
8
1. There are 3 trees whose heights
6
FREQUENCY

are between 30 and 35 feet

4
2. There are 3 trees whose heights
2
are between 36 and 40 feet
0
3. There are 8 trees whose heights
30-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60
are between 41 and 45 feet etc. HEIGHT (FEET)

2. Scatterplot
A scatter plot is a type of graph that shows the relationship between two sets of data. Scat-

ter plots graph data as ORDERED PAIRS (this is simply a pair of numbers but the order in

which they appear together matters).

227 © AP Guru
EXAMPLE: After a test, Ms. Phinney asked her students how many hours they studied. She

recorded their answers, along with their test scores. Create a scatter plot of hours studied and

test scores.

NAME NUMBER OF HOURS STUDIED TEST SCORE

Tommy 45 90

Latril 1 60

Sophia 4 92

Michael 3.5 88

Monica 2 76

Davey 5 100

Eva 3 90

Lance 1.5 72

Becca 3 70

Sarina 4 86

To show Tammy's data, mark the point whose horizontal value is 4.5 and whose vertical value is

90.
100
97.5
95
By graphing the data on a scatter 92.5
90
plot, we can see if there is a 87.5 TAMMY
TEST SCORES

85 LINE OF BEST FIT

relationship between the number 82.5
80
of hours studied and test scores. 77.5
75
The scores generally go up as 72.5
70
67.5
the hours of studying go up, so
65
60
this shows that there IS a relationship
0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
between test scores and studying.
HOURS STUDIED

SAT Math Guide 228

We can draw a line on the graph that roughly describes the relationship between the number

of hours studied and test scores. This line is known as the LINE OF BEST FIT. As you can see,

none of the points lie on the line of best fit, but that's okay! This is because the line of best fit

is the best line that describes the relationship of ALL the points on the graph

Scatter plots show three types of relationships, called CORRELATIONS:

1. POSITIVE CORRELATION: As one set of values increases, the other set increases

as well (but not necessarily every value).

EXAMPLE: As the population increases, so does the number of primary schools

NUMBER OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS

25

20

15

10

500 1000 1500

POPULATION

2. NEGATIVE CORRELATION: As one set of values increases, the other set decreases

(but not necessarily every value).

EXAMPLE: As the price of peaches goes down, the number of peaches sold goes up.
PRICE OF PEACHES

NUMBER SOLD

229 © AP Guru
 3. NO CORRELATION: The values have no relationship.

EXAMPLE: A person's IQ is not related to his/her shoe size, so there is no correlation.

100

80

60
IQ
40

20

5 10 15

SHOE SIZE

Apart from these graphs, random graphs like pie charts, box plots, cumulative frequency, etc., can

be used. They are rare and therefore we wont describe each one of them in detail. If they do

show up on the test, they are straightforward to answer. A couple of examples are below.

EXAMPLE 1:
OTHER
What is the area of the pie chart that 4%

is represented by those who chose

TACOS
hamburgers as their favorite food? 7%
PIZZA
A. 97.20
PASTA 43%
19%
B. 97.40

C. 98.40 HAMBURGERS
27%
D. 98.80

Solution: We know that 27% of those in the survey chose hamburgers as their favorite food.

This corresponds to 27% of the area of the circle, which means that the central angle of the

circle accounts for 27% of the measure of the sum of all central angles in a circle (3600).

SAT Math Guide 230

In other words, we are looking for the angle that makes up 0.27 of the entire circle.

0.27 x 3600 = 97.20

The correct answer is A.

EXAMPLE 2:
14
100%

75%

pH Enzyme
7 50%
Activity
25%

1 0%
0 5 10 15

Time (min)

At what pH is the enzyme activity at its maximum?

A. 1

B. 7

C. 10

D. 14

Solution: Enzyme activity is at its maximum in the earliest stages of the experiment at about

time = 0. The pH at this time is about 1.5. The closest correct answer is A.

STATISTICAL MEASURES

Statistics have been a notoriously feared SAT topic for many test takers. The fear inducing

notoriety and intimidating reputation associated with these mathematical operations have been

the product of a lack of understanding of the somewhat vague and confusing mathematical

operations used to calculate statistical measures.

231 © AP Guru
The most used statistical measures are described below:

1. The Mean (also called the average)

The mean is a calculated central value of a set of numbers. To calculate the mean, add all of

the numbers, then divide the sum by how the number of items.

EXAMPLE 3:
If x is the average (arithmetic mean) of m and 9, y is the average of 2m and 15, and z is the

average of 3m and 18, what is the average of x,y, and z in terms of m?

A. m + 6

B. m + 7

C. 2m + 14

D. 3m + 21

Solution: There are a lot of variables in this equation, but don't let them confuse you. We already

know that the average of two numbers is the sum of those two numbers divided by 2. That

means that:

x = m+9
2
y = 2m+15
2
z = 3m+18
2

Now we need to find the average of x, y, and z. Substituting the previous expressions for m

gives us: m + 9 + 2m + 15 + 3m + 18
3 x 2

6m + 42
6

m + 7

The correct answer is B.

SAT Math Guide 232

 EXAMPLE 4:
The mean score of 8 players in a basketball game was 14.5 points. If the highest individual

score is removed, the mean score of the remaining 7 players become 12 points. What was the

highest score?

A. 20

B. 24

C. 32

D. 36

Solution: If the mean score of 8 players is 14.5, then the total of those 8 scores is 14.5 x 8 = 116.

If the mean of 7 scores is 12, then the total of those 7 scores is 12 x 7 = 84.

Since the set of 7 scores was created by removing the highest score from the set of 8 scores,

the difference between the total of all 8 scores and the set of 7 scores is equal to the removed

score.

116 - 84 = 32

The correct answer is C.

2. Weighted Averages
The basic formula for averages applies only to sets of data consisting of individual values, all

of which are equally weighted (i.e., none of the values “counts” toward the average any more

than any other value does). When you consider sets in which some data are more heavily

weighted than other data - whether weighted by percent, frequencies, ratios, or fractions - you

need to use special techniques for WEIGHTED AVERAGES.

A weighted average of only two values will fall closer to whichever value is weighted more

heavily. For instance, if a drink is made by mixing 2 shots of a liquor containing 15% alcohol with

3 shots of a liquor containing 20% alcohol, then the alcohol content of the mixed drink will be

233 © AP Guru
closer to 20% than to 15%.

EXAMPLE: A mixture of "lean" ground beef (10% fat) and "super-lean" ground beef (3% fat) has a

total fat content of 8%. What is the ratio of "lean" ground beef to "superlean" ground beef?

Fortunately, you do not need to complete any complicated formulas here. Instead, you need to

look at the difference between the fat contents of “lean” and “super lean” ground beef and the

fat content of the final mixture.

“Lean” ground beef has a fat content that is 2% higher than the fat content of the final

mixture. You can say that “lean” ground beef has a +2 differential.

Similarly, “super lean” ground beef has a fat content that is 5% lower than the fat content of

the final mixture. You can say that “super lean” ground beef has a -5 differential. You need to

make these differentials cancel out, so you should multiply both differentials by different numbers

so that the positive will cancel out with the negative. If you were to set up an equation, it

would look something like this:

x(+2) + y(-5) = 0

Now all you have to do is pick values for x and y. If x = 5 and y = 2, the equation will be

true (10 + (-10) = 0). That means that for every 5 parts “lean” ground beef, you have 2 parts

“super-lean” ground beef. The ratio is 5:2.

This relationship holds whenever two groups are averaged together. Suppose that A and B are

averaged together. If they are in a ratio of a:b, then you can multiply the differential of A by

a, and it will cancel out with the differential of B times b.

SAT Math Guide 234

EXAMPLE: A group of men and women in a ratio of 2:3. If the men have an average age of

50, and the average age of the group is 56, you can easily figure out the average age of the

women in the group. Men have a -6 differential, and there are 2 of them for every 3 women.

If the average age of women is w, then:

2 x (-6) + 3 x (w) = 0
-12 + 3w = 0
w = 4
Women have a +4 differential. The average age of the women in the group is 56 + 4 = 60
years old.

3. Median
A median is the middle number of a data set when all of the items are written in order, from

least to greatest (or greatest to least).

The following are the steps to calculate the median of a list:

1. Arrange the list in ascending or descending order

2. If there are an odd number of items on the list, the middle item equals the median

Median (Odd Number of Items) = ( n + 1 )th term

2

3. If there are an even number of items on the list, then the median is the average of

the two middle numbers

Median (Odd Number of Items) = n term + (n+1) term

th th

For EXAMPLE:

- In the 7-element set { 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17 }, the median is 9

235 © AP Guru
 - In the 8-element set { 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17, 17 }, the median is 11 (the average of the

fourth and fifth entries, 9 and 13).

Note:

- When the number of items on the list is even, the median can equal a number not on

the list.

- An absurdly large number, far away from the rest of the set, such as 312 in this last

set, has zero effect on the median, although it would have a big effect on the mean

- As long as the middle numbers stay in the middle, changes to the values of the outer

numbers have no effect on the median; by contrast, changing any number in the set

changes the mean.

EXAMPLE 4:
A sociologist chose 300 students at random from each of two schools and asked each student

how many siblings he or she has. The results are shown in the table below:

Number of siblings Lincoln School Washington School

0 120 140

1 80 110

2 60 30

3 30 10

4 10 10

There are a total of 2400 students at Lincoln School and 3,300 students at Washington School.

What is the median number of siblings for all the students surveyed?

A. 0

B. 1

C. 2

D. 3

SAT Math Guide 236

Solution: There were a total of 600 data points collected (300 from each school) which means

the median will be between the 300th and 301st numbers.

Fortunately, there's a way to solve the problem without having to write out 600 numbers! You

can put the numbers into groups based on the information you're given in the chart.

For each "number of siblings" value, add the number of respondents from each of the

two schools together. For example, 120 students from Lincoln School and 140 students from

Washington School said they had no siblings, and 120 + 140 = 260. So a total of 260 students

have 0 siblings. Do this for each of the sibling values.

1. 260 students have 0 siblings

2. 190 students have 1 sibling

3. 90 students have 2 siblings

4. 40 students have 3 siblings

5. 20 students have 4 siblings.

Both the 300th and the 301st values will come in the second category (190 students have 1

sibling). The correct answer is B.

EXAMPLE 5:
A survey was taken regarding the value of homes in a county, and it was found that the mean

home value was $165,000, and the median home value was $125,000. Which of the following could

explain the difference between the mean and median home values in the country?

A. The homes have values that are close to each other

B. There are a few homes that are valued much less than the rest

C. There are a few homes that are valued much more than the rest

D. Many of the homes have values between $125,000 and $165,000

237 © AP Guru
Solution: The mean and median of a set of data are equal when the data has a perfectly

symmetrical distribution (such as a normal distribution). If the mean and median aren't equal to

each other, that means the data isn't symmetrical and that there are outliers.

When there are outliers in the data, the mean will be pulled in the outliers’ direction (either

smaller or larger) while the median remains the same. In this problem, the mean is larger than

the median. That means the outliers are several homes that are significantly more expensive

than the rest, since these outliers push the mean to be larger without affecting the median.

Therefore, the correct answer is C, There are a few homes that are valued much more than the

rest.

Median of sets containing unknown values

Unlike the arithmetic mean, the median of a set depends only on the one or two values in the

middle of the ordered set. Therefore, you may be able to determine a specific value for the

median of a set even if one or more unknowns are present.

For instance, consider the unordered set {x, 2, 5, 11, 11, 12, 33}. No matter whether x is less than

11, equal to 11, or greater than 11, the median of the resulting set will be 11. (Try substituting

different values of x to see why the median does not change.)

By contrast, the median of the unordered set {x, 2, 5, 11, 12, 12, 33} depends on x. If x is 11 or

less, the median is 11. If x is between 11 and 12, the median is x. Finally, if x is 12 or more, the

median is 12.

EXAMPLE: Sarah spends 2 hours on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday practicing her violin.

On Monday she practices for 90 minutes, and on Friday she practices for 1 hour. What is the

median time she spends practicing her violin in a given week?

SAT Math Guide 238

STEP 1: Convert all the given time values into the same unit of measure.

Monday = 90 mins (1.5 hours)

Tuesday = 2 hours

Thursday = 2 hours

Friday = 1 hour

Saturday = 2 hours

STEP 2: Organize the times in ascending order: 1, 1.5, 2, 2, 2

Since there is an odd number of data entries, 5, in the set, the median will be the 3rd set in

the list. Therefore, the median is 2.

EXAMPLE 6:
In Billy’s 5th grade class, the test scores for the final math exam were 87, 54, 77, 92, 95, 91, x,

and 90. What is the value of x if the median of the test scores is 82?

A. 54

B. 74

C. 77

D. 92

Solution:

STEP 1: Reorder the data set in ascending order: 54, 77, 87, 90, 91, 92, 95, x

STEP 2: Since the set has an even number of data entries, the median will be the average of

the two middle numbers.

Therefore, the median will be the average of the 4th and 5th terms.

The median is 90 + 91 = 90.5 ≠ 82

2

239 © AP Guru
STEP 3: Now, let’s reorder our data set with the x on the other end of the set: x, 54, 77, 87, 90,

91, 92, 95

The median will still be the average of the 4th and 5th terms, but those terms will be different

now:

The median is 87 + 90 = 88.5 ≠ 82

2

Now we know that the x-value will need to be one of the middle numbers that the average is

being taken from; therefore, we can rewrite the set as follows: 54, 77, 87, x, 90, 91, 92, 95

The median is x + 90 = 82
2

x + 90 = 164

x = 74

The correct answer is B.

4. Mode
The MODE represents the value or values in a data set that is/are repeated the most. It is

possible for a data set to have one, multiple, or no modes.

For EXAMPLE,

- There is no mode in the data set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} since each number appears an equal

number of times

- In the data set {2, 4, 5, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2}, 2 is the mode, as it is seen four times

- In the data set {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4}, there are two modes, 1 and 2, since each is seen twice

in the set

EXAMPLE: Given the set {72, 75, 85, 90, 90, x}, what is the value of x if a mode of the set is

SAT Math Guide 240

90 and its median is 85?

Solution: There are three possible places x can be located:

1. {72, 75, 85, 90, 90, x}

2. {x ,72, 75, 85, 90, 90}

3. {72, 75, x, 85, 90, 90}

The median of each scenario is:

1. = 87.5 ≠ 85

2. = 80 ≠ 85

3. = 85, Therefore, x = 85

Now, write down the set with x as 85: {72, 75, 85, 85, 90, 90}. In this set, the modes are both

85 and 90. Therefore the correct answer for x is 85.

5. Range
The SAT loves this statistical measure because it’s so simple. The RANGE is the difference

between the maximum value and the minimum value.

- In the set {3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 17}, the range = 17 - 3 = 14

- In the set {1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 74, 89, 312}, the range = 312 - 1 = 311

For the range, the only thing that matters is the top and bottom values in the set.

The smaller the range of a set, the closer its data entries are to one another. If the range is

large, then either there is more space between the data entries or there are outliers in the data.

EXAMPLE: What is the value of x if the range is 12: {2, 3, x, 5, 12}

241 © AP Guru
Solution: Find the range of the set, assuming x lies in the middle of the set.

Range = 12 − 2 = 10 ≠ 12

This tells us that x must be either greater than 12 or less than 2.

POSSIBILITY 1 POSSIBILITY 2

{x, 2, 3, 5, 12} {2, 3, 5, 12, x}

Range = 12 − x = 12 Range = x − 2 = 12

X = 0 X = 14

In order for the range of this particular data set to be 12, x must be 0 or 14.

6. Standard Deviation
The mean and median both give “average” or “representative” values for a set, but they do

not tell us the whole story. It is possible for two sets to have the same average but to differ

widely in how spread out their values are. To describe the spread, or variation, of the data in a

set, you use a different measure: STANDARD DEVIATION.

STANDARD DEVIATION (SD) indicates how far from the average (mean) the data points typically

fall.

- A small SD indicates that a set is clustered closely around the average (mean) value

- A large SD indicates that the set is spread out widely, with some points appearing far

from the mean.

EXAMPLE: Consider the sets {5, 5, 5, 5}, {2, 4, 6, 8}, and {0, 0, 10, 10}. These sets all have the

same mean value of 5. You can see at a glance, though, that the sets are very different, and

the differences are reflected in their SDs. The first set has an SD of zero (no spread at all),

the second set has a moderate SD, and the third set has a large SD.

SAT Math Guide 242

 Set 1 Set 2 Set 3
{5, 5, 5, 5} {2, 4, 6, 8} {0, 0, 10, 10}
Difference from {0, 0, 0, 0} {3, 1, 1, 3} {5, 5, 5, 5}
the mean of 5 average spread = 0 average spread = 2 average spread = 5
(in absolute terms) SD = 0 SD = moderate SD = large
An SD of 0 means (technically, SD = √5 (technically, SD = 5)
that all the numbers = 2.24)
in the set are equal.

You might be asking where the √5 comes from in the technical definition of SD for the second

set.

The good news is that you do not need to know - it is very unlikely that an SAT problem will

ask you to calculate an exact SD. If you just pay attention to what the average spread is

doing, you’ll be able to answer all SAT standard deviation problems, which involve either

1. Changes in the SD when a set is transformed, or

2. Comparisons of the SDs of two or more sets.

Just remember that the more spread out the numbers, the larger the SD.

If you come across a problem on the test that focuses on changes in the SD, ask yourself

whether the changes move the data closer to the mean, farther from the mean, or neither. If

you see a problem requiring comparisons, ask yourself which set is more spread out from its

mean.

Below are some sample problems to help illustrate standard deviation:

1. Which set has the greater standard deviation: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} or {440, 442, 443, 444, 445}?

243 © AP Guru
 2. If each data point in a set is increased by 7, does the set's standard deviation in-

crease, decrease, or remain constant?

3. If each data point in a set is increased by a factor of 7, does the set's standard de-

viation increase, decrease, or remain constant? (Assume that the set consists of different

numbers)

Solution:

1. The second set has the greater SD. One way to understand this is to observe that the

gaps between its numbers are, on average, slightly bigger than the gaps in the first

set. Only the spread matters. The numbers in the second set are much more “consistent”

in a sense - they are all within about 1% of each other, while the largest numbers in the

first set are several times the smallest ones. However, this “percent

variation” idea is irrelevant to the SD.

2. The SD will not change. “Increased by 7” means that the number 7 is added to each

data point in the set. This transformation will not affect any of the gaps between the

data points, and thus it will not affect how far the data points are from the mean.

3. The SD will increase. “Increased by a factor of 7” means that each data point is mul-

tiplied by 7. This transformation will make all the gaps between points 7 times as big

as they originally were. Thus, each point will fall 7 times as far from the mean. The SD

will increase by a factor of 7.

EXAMPLE 7:
Set S has a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 1.5. We are going to add two additional

numbers to Set S. Which pair of numbers would decrease the standard deviation the most?

A. {2, 10}

B. {10, 18}

C. {7, 13}

D. {9, 11}

SAT Math Guide 244

Solution: This is a very tricky problem. The starting list has a mean of 10 and a standard

deviation of 1.5.

A. hese two numbers don’t have a mean of 10, so adding them will change the mean;

what’s more, one number is “far away,” which will wildly decrease the mean, in-

creasing the deviations from the mean for almost every number on the list, and

therefore increasing the standard deviation.

B. These choices don’t have a mean of 10, so adding them will change the mean. One

number is “far away,” which will wildly increase the mean, increasing the deviations

from the mean for almost every number on the list, and therefore increasing the

standard deviation.

C. These options are centered on 10, so adding them will not change the mean. Both

of these are a distance of 3 units from the mean, and this is larger than the

standard deviation, so the size of the typical deviation from the mean will increase.

D. This is the correct answer. These are centered on 10, so adding them will not

change the mean. Both are a distance of 1 unit from the mean, and this is less

than the standard deviation, so the size of the typical deviation from the mean will

decrease.

EXAMPLE 8:
Set Q consists of the following five numbers: Q = {5, 8, 13, 21, 34}. Which of the following sets

has the same standard deviation as Set Q?

I. {35, 38, 43, 51, 64}

II. {10, 16, 26, 42, 68}

III. {46, 59, 67, 72, 75}

A. I only

B. I & II

C. I & III

D. I, II, & III

245 © AP Guru
Solution: Notice that Set I is just every number in Q plus 30. When you add the same number

to every number in a set, you simply shift it up without changing the spacing, so this doesn’t

change the standard deviation at all. Set I has the same standard deviation as Q.

Notice that Set II is just every number in Q multiplied by 2. Multiplying by a number does

change the spacing, so this does change the standard deviation. Set II does not have the same

standard deviation as Q.

Set III is very tricky and probably is at the outer limit of what the SAT could ever ask you

you to consider. The spacing between the numbers in Set III, from right to left, is the same as

the spacing between the numbers in Q from left to right.

The correct combination is I and III, so the answer is C.

EXAMPLE 9:
Consider the following sets:

L = {3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7}

M = {2, 2, 2, 8, 8, 8}

N = {15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15}

Rank those three sets from least standard deviation to greatest standard deviation.

A. L, M, N

B. M, L, N

C. M, N, L

D. N, L, M

Solution: OK, first of all, set N has six numbers that are all the same. When all the members

of a set are identical, the standard deviation is zero, which is the smallest possible standard

deviation. So, automatically, N must have the lowest. Right away, we can eliminate options A, B

SAT Math Guide 246

and C. Only D remains. The correct answer is D.

7. Error
Error is a way to describe the accuracy of a data set. When dealing with error in statistics, it

is important to pay special attention to the wordings that will differentiates between ‘EXPECTED

VALUE’ and ‘ACTUAL VALUES’.

Error % = Actual
Value - Expected Value x 100
Expected Value

EXAMPLE A researcher studies a certain species of fish. He finds that the size of the fish

population is limited by the size of the lakes in which they live, and derives an equation to model

the expected population size, P, based on surface area, A, of the lake in square feet:

P = 5 + 0.83A

If the researcher finds that a particular lake has a surface area of 342 ft2 and a population

of 310 fish, what is the percent error from the predicted value?

Solution: The actual value is 310 fish, given in the question. The expected value can be calculated

using the researcher’s equation to predict the expected fish population in a lake with surface

area 342 ft2.

P = 5 + 0.83(342)

P = 288.86

The theoretical value is 288.86 and the actual value is 310 fish. Therefore,

Actual Value - Expected Value x 100 = 310 - 288.86 x 100 = 7.32%

Error % =
Expected Value 288.86

247 © AP Guru
 SAMPLING AND MODELING

One of the important jobs of a statistician is to make predictions. For example, the Indian

Government may want to find out the average age of a person in India. It is impossible

for the government to survey each and every individual in the country. Therefore, it hires

statisticians to take random samples of residents and make predictions based on the data

they collect. The SAT will often test you on the relationship between such sample data and the

predictions you can or cannot make about the entire population.

EXAMPLE 10:
Manchester United Football Club chose 1,000 of their fans at random and asked each fan how

many jerseys he or she has. The results are shown in the table below.

Number of Jerseys Number of Fans

1 350
2 300
3 250
4 or more 100

There are a total of 16 million Manchester United fans. Based on the survey data, what is the

expected total number of fans who own 3 jerseys?

A. 2 million

B. 4 million

C. 6 million

D. 8 million

Solution: Using the sample data, we can estimate the total number of fans who own 3 jerseys

are:

16 million x 250/1000 = 4 million

The correct answer is B.

SAT Math Guide 248

In order to accurately predict, the SAT usually tests on the following key concepts:

1. Line of Best Fit

A statistician is trying to figure out the relationship between the number of fans football

clubs have, and the number of tournaments football clubs have won. Therefore, he collects

information regarding the number of fans, and the number of tournaments won for 100

football clubs in Europe. He then plots those points on a scatterplot graph.

The line of best fit refers to a line through that scatterplot that best expresses the

relationship between those points: Number of fans of a football club vs. the number of

tournaments won. The line of best fit can be used to figure out if there is a relationship

between those two points.

EXAMPLE 11 & 12:

The scatterplot shows the number of pollinating flowers for 20 different aged Southern

Magnolia plants. The line of best fit is also shown.

11. Which of the following is the best interpretation of the slope of the line of best fit in the

context of this problem?

A. The predicted increase in the age of the Southern Magnolia, in years, for every

increase of a pollinating flower.

249 © AP Guru
 B. The predicted increase in the number of pollinating flowers for every year in-

crease in the age of the Southern Magnolia.

C. The Southern Magnolia predicted age in years when it has 0 pollinating flowers.

D. The Southern Magnolia predicted number of pollinating flowers when it was just

born (Age of 0).

12. Which of the following is the best interpretation of the y-intercept of the line of best fit

in the context of this problem?

A. The predicted increase in the age of the Southern Magnolia, in years, for every

increase of a pollinating flower.

B. The predicted increase in number of pollinating flowers for every year increase

in the age of the Southern Magnolia.

C. The Southern Magnolia predicted age in years when it has 0 pollinating flowers.

D. The Southern Magnolia predicted number of pollinating flowers when it was just

born (Age of 0).

Solutions:

11. As we learned in the coordinate geometry chapter, slope is the increase in y (age of the

Southern Magnolia) for each increase in x (number of pollinating flowers). The only difference

now is that it’s a predicted increase. The correct answer is A.

12. The y-intercept is the value of y (age of the Southern Magnolia) when x (number of

pollinating flowers) is 0. Therefore, the correct answer is C.

2. Margin of Error
The margin of error refers to the room for error we give to an estimate. For example, we

could say that England has 6 million Manchester United fans with a margin of error of

1 million. This means that the number of Manchester United fans living in the country of

England is between 5 million and 7 million.

SAT Math Guide 250

The margin of error primarily depends on the following two factors:

1. Sample Size - This is common sense. The more the number of people in England we

survey, the more accurate (lower margin of error) our predictions are going to be.

2. Variability of the Data - We should only select people from England to check if

they are Manchester United fans or not. If we select random people from Europe, our

predictions will not be very accurate, and our margin of error increases.

EXAMPLE 13:
A real estate agent randomly surveyed 100 apartments for sale in San Francisco, California

and found that the average price of each apartment was $800,000. Another real estate agent

intends to replicate the survey and will attempt to get a smaller margin of error. Which of the

following samples will most likely result in a smaller margin of error for the mean price of an

apartment in San Francisco, California?

A. 50 randomly selected apartments in San Francisco

B. 50 randomly selected apartments in all of California

C. 100 randomly selected apartments in San Francisco

D. 100 randomly selected apartments in all of California

Solution: As discussed above, the larger the sample size, the lower the margin of error.

Therefore, we can eliminate A or B because the sample size is actually smaller. The second rule

discussed above is the variability of the data. Since we want to figure out the average selling

price of a house in San Francisco, it is better to get the sample data from San Francisco only

and not the other cities in California. Therefore, the correct answer is C.

3. Confidence Interval
Now, this is where most AP Guru students go bonkers. It’s fine if you do not know what

251 © AP Guru
confidence intervals are - most students do not. You’ll never need to calculate one, and the

SAT questions that refer to confidence intervals very easy. All you need to understand is what

a confidence interval is.

A confidence interval tells you how sure you are of predicting any statistical measure (like

mean or standard deviation) for a population whose sample you're measuring. For example,

you have a 95% confidence interval that the average age of a French citizen is between 34

and 38 years. The higher the confidence, the more likely the average age will be within the

interval.

A 95% confidence interval means that if the same experiment were repeated again and again,

each with 100 random individuals from France, 95% of those experiments would end up with a

mean average age between 34 to 38

EXAMPLE 14:
Environmentalists are testing pH levels in a forest that is being harmed by acid rain. They

analyzed water samples from 40 rainfalls in the past year and found that the mean pH

of the water samples has a 95% confidence interval of 3.2 to 3.8. Which of the following

conclusions is the most appropriate based on the confidence interval?

A. 95% of all the forest rainfalls in the past year have pH between 3.2 and 3.8

B. 95% of all the forest rainfalls in the past decade have a pH between 3.2 and

3.8

C. It is plausible that the true mean pH of all the forest rainfalls in the past year

is between 3.2 and 3.8

D. It is plausible that the true mean pH of all the forest rainfalls in the past de-

cade is between 3.2 and 3.8

Solution: A confidence interval does NOT say anything about the rainfalls themselves. You

SAT Math Guide 252

cannot say that any one rainfall has a 95% chance of having a pH between 3.2 and 3.8,

and you cannot say that 95% of all the forest rainfalls in the past year had a pH between

3.2 and 3.8.

So, in the example above, we can be quite confident that the true mean pH of all the forest

rainfalls in the past year is between 3.2 and 3.8. The correct answer is C. The answer is

not (D) because we cannot draw conclusions about the past decade when the samples were

gathered from the past year.

4. Causation vs Correlation
The difference between correlation and causation is where the SAT stumps a lot of students.

For example, just because students who complete more mock tests get better scores on the

SAT doesn’t mean that complete more mock tests cause an improvement in SAT scores.

Rather, completing mock tests is associated with an improvement in SAT scores.

Perhaps students who attempt more mock tests have more discipline, or they have more

demanding parents who make them study harder. But due to the way the experiment was

designed, we can’t tell what the underlying factor is.

EXAMPLE 15:
Researchers conducted an experiment to determine whether eating junk food increased body

weight. They randomly selected 500 people who eat processed packaged food at least once

a week, and 500 people who do not eat processed packaged food at all. After tracking

the people’s weight for a year, the researchers found that the people who eat processed

packaged food at least once a week had experienced weight gain significantly higher than

the people who do not eat processed packaged food at all. Based on the design and results

of the study, which of the following is an appropriate conclusion?

A. Eating processed packaged food least once a week is likely to increase body

253 © AP Guru
 weight.

B. Eating processed packaged food three times a week increases body weight more

than eating processed packaged food just once a week.

C. Any person who starts eating processed packaged food at least once a week will

increase his or her body weight.

D. There is a positive association between eating processed packaged food and

increased weight gain.

Solution: This question deals with a classic case of correlation vs. causation. Just because people

who eat processed packaged food had a higher body weight doesn’t mean that eating processed

packaged food causes an increase in body weight.

Therefore, answer A is wrong because it implies causation. Answer B is also wrong because

it not only implies causation but also that the frequency of eating processed packaged food

matters, something that wasn’t tracked in the experiment. Answer C is wrong because it

suggests a completely certain outcome. Even if eating processed packaged food DID increase

body weight, not every single person who starts eating processed packaged food will increase

his body weight. Any conclusion drawn from sample data is a generalization and should not be

regarded as truth for every individual.

The correct answer is D. There is a positive association between eating processed packaged

food and an increase in body weight.

5. Random Sample
One last important thing to note in this chapter is that the sample has to be random. If a

samples is not random, we will not be able to make a prediction.

For example, let’s say we are trying to determine an association between bar-goers and football

SAT Math Guide 254

fans. If researchers picked 100 individuals who live close to a football stadium, then the

sample is not random. Those people could be football fans because they live in close proximity

to a stadium.

What should the researchers have done differently? The answer is random assignment.

They should instead randomly select 100 people from all walks of life and from different

geographic locations. The more diverse the group, the more accurate the data will be. Of

course, conducting this type of experiment can be extremely difficult, which is why proving

causation can be such a monumental task.

255 © AP Guru
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