More SQL

Extended Relational Algebra

Outerjoins, Grouping/Aggregation
Insert/Delete/Update

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 The Extended Algebra
δ = eliminate duplicates from bags.
τ = sort tuples.
γ = grouping and aggregation.
Outerjoin : avoids “dangling tuples” = tuples
that do not join with anything.

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 Duplicate Elimination
R1 := δ(R2).
R1 consists of one copy of each tuple
that appears in R2 one or more times.

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Example: Duplicate Elimination
R= (A B)
1 2
3 4
1 2

δ(R) = A B
1 2
3 4

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 Sorting
R1 := τL (R2).
 L is a list of some of the attributes of R2.
R1 is the list of tuples of R2 sorted first on
the value of the first attribute on L, then on
the second attribute of L, and so on.
 Break ties arbitrarily.
τ is the only operator whose result is neither
a set nor a bag.

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 Example: Sorting
R= (A B)
1 2
3 4
5 2

τB (R) = [(5,2), (1,2), (3,4)]

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 Aggregation Operators
Aggregation operators are not
operators of relational algebra.
Rather, they apply to entire columns of
a table and produce a single result.
The most important examples: SUM,
AVG, COUNT, MIN, and MAX.

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 Example: Aggregation
R= (A B)
1 3
3 4
3 2

SUM(A) = 7
COUNT(A) = 3
MAX(B) = 4
AVG(B) = 3

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 Grouping Operator
 R1 := γL (R2). L is a list of elements
that are either:
1. Individual (grouping ) attributes.
2. AGG(A ), where AGG is one of the
aggregation operators and A is an
attribute.
• An arrow and a new attribute name renames
the component.

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 Applying γL(R)
 Group R according to all the grouping
attributes on list L.
 That is: form one group for each distinct list
of values for those attributes in R.
 Within each group, compute AGG(A ) for
each aggregation on list L.
 Result has one tuple for each group:
1. The grouping attributes and
2. Their group’s aggregations.
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Example: Grouping/Aggregation
R= (A B C)
1 2 3 Then, average C
4 5 6 within groups:
1 2 5
A B X
γA,B,AVG(C)->X (R) = ?? 1 2 4
First, group R by A and B : 4 5 6
A B C
1 2 3
1 2 5
4 5 6 11
 Outerjoin
Suppose we join R ⋈C S.
A tuple of R that has no tuple of S with
which it joins is said to be dangling.
 Similarly for a tuple of S.
Outerjoin preserves dangling tuples by
padding them NULL.

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 Example: Outerjoin

R= (A B) S= (B C)
1 2 2 3
4 5 6 7

(1,2) joins with (2,3), but the other two tuples

are dangling.
R OUTERJOIN S = A B C
1 2 3
4 5 NULL
NULL 6 7
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 Join Expressions
SQL provides several versions of (bag)
joins.
These expressions can be stand-alone
queries or used in place of relations in a
FROM clause.

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 Products and Natural Joins
Natural join:
R NATURAL JOIN S;
Product:
R CROSS JOIN S;
Example:
Likes NATURAL JOIN Sells;
Relations can be parenthesized subqueries, as
well.
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 Join Examples 1
a b c d a b c d
1 2 2 5 R CROSS JOIN S ; 1 2 2 5
3 4 2 6 1 2 2 6
R S 3 4 2 5
3 4 2 6
a b b c
1 2 2 5
3 4 2 6
a b c
R NATURAL JOIN S; 1 2 5
1 2 6
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 Theta Join
R JOIN S ON <condition>
Example: using Drinkers(name, addr) and
Frequents(drinker, bar):
Drinkers JOIN Frequents ON
name = drinker;
gives us all (d, a, d, b) quadruples such
that drinker d lives at address a and
frequents bar b.
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 Join Examples 2
a b c d
1 2 2 5
3 4 2 6
R S

a b c d
R JOIN S ON b==c;
1 2 2 5
1 2 2 6

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Now --- Back to SQL

Each Operation Has a SQL

Equivalent

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 R NATURAL <LEFT,RIGHT,FULL> OUTER JOIN S
R<LEFT,RIGHT,FULL> OUTER JOIN S ON <condition>

Outerjoins
 R OUTER JOIN S is the core of an
outerjoin expression. It is modified by:
1. Optional NATURAL in front of OUTER. -
2. Optional ON <condition> after JOIN.
3. Optional LEFT, RIGHT, or FULL before
OUTER.
Only one
 LEFT = pad dangling tuples of R only.
of these
 RIGHT = pad dangling tuples of S only.
 FULL = pad both; this choice is the default.

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 Outer Join Example
a b c d
1 2 2 5
3 NULL NULL 6
a b c d
R S
R OUTER JOIN S on b=c; 1 2 2 5

3 NULL NULL NULL

NULL NULL NULL 6

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 All-in-one example (1)
R(A,B) S(B,C,D)
A B B C D
1 2 2 4 6
3 4 4 6 8
5 6 5 7 9

R CROSS JOIN S
A R.B S.B C D
1 2 2 4 6
1 2 4 6 8
1 2 5 7 9
3 4 2 4 6
3 4 4 6 8
3 4 5 7 9
5 6 2 4 6
5 6 4 6 8
5 6 5 7 9 22
 All-in-one example (2)
R NATURAL JOIN S R JOIN S ON R.B=S.D
A B C D A R.B S.B C D
1 2 4 6 5 6 2 4 6
3 4 6 8

R OUTER JOIN S ON R.B=S.B R NATURAL OUTER JOIN S

A R.B S.B C D A B C D
1 2 2 4 6 1 2 4 6
3 4 4 6 8 3 4 6 8
5 6 NULL NULL NULL 5 6 NULL NULL
NULL NULL 5 7 9 NULL 5 7 9

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All-in-one example (3)
R RIGHT OUTER JOIN S ON R.B=S.B
A R.B S.B C D
1 2 2 4 6
3 4 4 6 8
NULL NULL 5 7 9

R NATURAL LEFT OUTER JOIN S

A B C D
1 2 4 6
3 4 6 8
5 6 NULL NULL

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 Aggregations
SUM, AVG, COUNT, MIN, and MAX can
be applied to a column in a SELECT
clause to produce that aggregation on
the column.
Also, COUNT(*) counts the number of
tuples.

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 Example: Aggregation
From Sells(bar, beer, price), find the
average price of Bud:
SELECT AVG(price)
FROM Sells
WHERE beer = ’Bud’;

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 Eliminating Duplicates in an
Aggregation

Use DISTINCT inside an aggregation.

Example: find the number of different
prices charged for Bud:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT price)
FROM Sells
WHERE beer = ’Bud’;
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NULL’s Ignored in Aggregation
NULL never contributes to a sum,
average, or count, and can never be the
minimum or maximum of a column.
But if there are no non-NULL values in
a column, then the result of the
aggregation is NULL.
 Exception: COUNT of an empty set is 0.

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 Example: Effect of NULL’s
SELECT count(*) The number of bars
that sell Bud.
FROM Sells
WHERE beer = ’Bud’;

SELECT count(price) The number of bars

that sell Bud at a
FROM Sells known price.

WHERE beer = ’Bud’;

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 Grouping
We may follow a SELECT-FROM-
WHERE expression by GROUP BY and a
list of attributes.
The relation that results from the
SELECT-FROM-WHERE is grouped
according to the values of all those
attributes, and any aggregation is
applied only within each group.
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 Example: Grouping
From Sells(bar, beer, price), find the
average price for each beer:
SELECT beer, AVG(price)
FROM Sells
GROUP BY beer;
beer AVG(price)
Bud 2.33
… …
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 Example: Grouping
From Sells(bar, beer, price) and
Frequents(drinker, bar), find for each drinker
the average price of Bud at the bars they
frequent:
Compute all
SELECT drinker, AVG(price) drinker-bar-
FROM Frequents, Sells price triples
for Bud.
WHERE beer = ’Bud’ AND
Then group
[Link] = [Link]
them by
GROUP BY drinker; drinker.
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 Restriction on SELECT Lists
With Aggregation
 If any aggregation is used, then each
element of the SELECT list must be
either:
1. Aggregated, or
2. An attribute on the GROUP BY list.

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 Illegal Query Example
You might think you could find the bar
that sells Bud the cheapest by:
SELECT bar, MIN(price)
FROM Sells
WHERE beer = ’Bud’;
But this query is illegal in SQL.

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 Bar that sells cheapest Bud
SELECT bar
FROM Sells
WHERE beer=‘Bud’ AND price <= ALL
(SELECT price FROM Sells WHERE
beer=‘Bud’)

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 HAVING Clauses
HAVING <condition> may follow a
GROUP BY clause.
If so, the condition applies to each
group, and groups not satisfying the
condition are eliminated.

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 Example: HAVING
From Sells(bar, beer, price) and
Beers(name, manf), find the average
price of those beers that are either
served in at least three bars or are
manufactured by Pete’s.

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 Solution
Beer groups with at least
SELECT beer, AVG(price) 3 non-NULL bars and also
beer groups where the
FROM Sells manufacturer is Pete’s.

GROUP BY beer
HAVING COUNT(bar) >= 3 OR
beer IN (SELECT name Beers manu-
factured by
FROM Beers Pete’s.

WHERE manf = ’Pete’’s’);

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 Requirements on HAVING
Conditions
 Anything goes in a subquery.
 Outside subqueries, they may refer to
attributes only if they are either:
1. A grouping attribute, or
2. Aggregated
(same condition as for SELECT clauses
with aggregation).

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Incorrect solution to the above querry

SELECT name, AVG(price)

FROM Sells, Beers
WHERE beer=name
GROUP BY name
HAVING manf=‘Pete’’s’ OR
(SELECT COUNT (bar) FROM Sells WHERE
beer=name) >=3
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 Database Modifications
 A modification command does not
return a result (as a query does), but
changes the database in some way.
 Three kinds of modifications:
1. Insert a tuple or tuples.
2. Delete a tuple or tuples.
3. Update the value(s) of an existing tuple
or tuples.
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 Insertion
To insert a single tuple:
INSERT INTO <relation>
VALUES ( <list of values> );
Example: add to Likes(drinker, beer)
the fact that Sally likes Bud.
INSERT INTO Likes
VALUES(’Sally’, ’Bud’);
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 Specifying Attributes in INSERT
 We may add to the relation name a list of
attributes.
 Two reasons to do so:
1. We forget the standard order of attributes for
the relation.
2. We don’t have values for all attributes, and
we want the system to fill in missing
components with NULL or a default value.
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Example: Specifying Attributes
Another way to add the fact that Sally
likes Bud to Likes(drinker, beer):

INSERT INTO Likes(beer, drinker)

VALUES(’Bud’, ’Sally’);

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 Adding Default Values
In a CREATE TABLE statement, we can
follow an attribute by DEFAULT and a
value.
When an inserted tuple has no value
for that attribute, the default will be
used.

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 Example: Default Values
CREATE TABLE Drinkers (
name CHAR(30) PRIMARY KEY,
addr CHAR(50)
DEFAULT ’123 Sesame St.’,
phone CHAR(16)
);

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 Example: Default Values
INSERT INTO Drinkers(name)
VALUES(’Sally’);
Resulting tuple:

name address phone

Sally 123 Sesame St NULL

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 Inserting Many Tuples
We may insert the entire result of a
query into a relation, using the form:
INSERT INTO <relation>
( <subquery> );

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 Example: Insert a Subquery
Using Frequents(drinker, bar), enter
into the new relation PotBuddies(name)
all of Sally’s “potential buddies,” i.e.,
those drinkers who frequent at least
one bar that Sally also frequents.

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The other Pairs of Drinker
drinker
Solution tuples where the
first is for Sally,
the second is for
someone else,
INSERT INTO PotBuddies and the bars are
the same.
(SELECT [Link]
FROM Frequents d1, Frequents d2
WHERE [Link] = ’Sally’ AND
[Link] <> ’Sally’ AND
[Link] = [Link]
);
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 Deletion
To delete tuples satisfying a condition
from some relation:
DELETE FROM <relation>
WHERE <condition>;

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 Example: Deletion
Delete from Likes(drinker, beer) the
fact that Sally likes Bud:
DELETE FROM Likes
WHERE drinker = ’Sally’ AND
beer = ’Bud’;

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 Example: Delete all Tuples
Make the relation Likes empty:

DELETE FROM Likes;

Note no WHERE clause needed.

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Example: Delete Some Tuples
Delete from Beers(name, manf) all
beers for which there is another beer by
the same manufacturer.
Beers with the same
DELETE FROM Beers b manufacturer and
a different name
WHERE EXISTS ( from the name of
the beer represented
SELECT name FROM Beers by tuple b.

WHERE manf = [Link] AND

name <> [Link]);
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 Semantics of Deletion --- (1)
Suppose Anheuser-Busch makes only
Bud and Bud Lite.
Suppose we come to the tuple b for
Bud first.
The subquery is nonempty, because of
the Bud Lite tuple, so we delete Bud.
Now, when b is the tuple for Bud Lite,
do we delete that tuple too?
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 Semantics of Deletion --- (2)
 Answer: we do delete Bud Lite as well.
 The reason is that deletion proceeds
in two stages:
1. Mark all tuples for which the WHERE
condition is satisfied.
2. Delete the marked tuples.

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 Updates
To change certain attributes in certain
tuples of a relation:
UPDATE <relation>
SET <list of attribute assignments>
WHERE <condition on tuples>;

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 Example: Update
Change drinker Fred’s phone number to
555-1212:

UPDATE Drinkers
SET phone = ’555-1212’
WHERE name = ’Fred’;

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Example: Update Several Tuples
Make $4 the maximum price for beer:

UPDATE Sells
SET price = 4.00
WHERE price > 4.00;

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 References in your textbook
Chapter 5
 Section 5.2
Chapter 6
 6.4
 6.5

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 Homework from your textbook
 5.2.1 (5.4.1 of second edition, a,c,e,g,k solutions given in course
homepage
 5.2.2 (5.4.2 of second edition, a,b solutions given in course
homepage
 6.3.7
 6.4.7
 6.5.2 (6.5.2 of second edition, a, c, d solutions given in course
homepage

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