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Air Pollution:-
Air Pollution according to the definition developed by the Engineer‟s Joint Council
(USA) means the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust,
fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities , of characteristics, and of duration such as to be
injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to the property, or to interfere unreasonably with the
comfortable enjoyment of life and property.

The Indian Standards Institution, IS-4167 (1966) has adopted the definition as under ;
“ Air Pollution is the presence in ambient atmosphere of substances, generally resulting from the
activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present for a sufficient time and under circumstances
which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or welfare of persons or with the full use or
enjoyment of property”

According to the American Medical Association;

“Air Pollution is the excessive concentration of foreign matter in the air which adversely affects the
well being of the individual or causes damage to the property”

Since air pollution has been mainly caused by rapid industrialization in some Western
countries, some critics comment on air pollution as “the price of industrialization”. Air pollution
caused by automobiles has been described as the “disease of wealth”.

Theories on the Global Consequences of Pollution:-

Before discussing how the earth‟s climate can be modified by pollution, it is first
necessary to summarize our understanding of the present surface and atmospheric temperatures.
The only heat source of any consequence is the sun‟s radiation which corresponds to that of a black
body of about 6000 K temperature, emitting its maximum energy in the visible region of the spectrum
near 0.47 microns. At the earth‟s surface ,the energy flux „S‟ is 1400 W/m2 . The earth reflects a
portion of this energy, back into the space corresponding to its optical albedo. The rest is absorbed and
turned into heat and re-radiated as infrared or thermal radiation with a maximum wavelength in the
vicinity of 10 microns.
If the earth had no atmosphere but a good surface conductivity of heat, then its surface
temperature would be given by
¼
T=

Where , T= the Planetary temperature

A= the albedo of earth
 = Stefan Boltzmann Constant
The Earth absorbs the energy from the sun according to the cross-section , ie, circle, but radiates
according to the surface of the sphere. For an average planetary albedo of approx. 33 %, the
temperature would be 253 K (-20 C)

Albedo:-
Reflective power indicating the fraction of incident light or electromagnetic radiation that is
reflected by a surface. Black or totally absorbent bodies (such as oceans ) have low values, while white
or totally reflective bodies ( such as freshly fallen snow ) have high values. Albedo is expressed in
percentage.

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The Role of the Atmosphere:-
A clean atmosphere is reasonably transparent to solar visible radiation hence does not absorb
much of the incident solar radiation. But even a clear atmosphere contains water vapour (H2 O) ,
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and Ozone (O3 ) gases which are strong absorbers and radiators in the infrared
region of the spectrum. This makes the atmosphere essentially opaque to the infrared radiation which is
re-emitted from the earth‟s surface, except for a “window” which extends approximately between 8 and
10  m.
In case of a clear atmosphere containing an average amount of dust , about 65 % of the
incoming solar radiation reaches and is absorbed in the earth‟s surface. However, only about 10 % of
the total IR radiation leaving the surface is directly transmitted to space. The remainder is absorbed by
the radiative gases in the atmosphere and is re-emitted successively at the (lower) temperature of the
gas layer. Part of it is re-emitted downward to the ground and part of it upward to the next layer and
finally to space. The downward radiation helps to keep the surface temperature relatively high by what
is termed as the “greenhouse” effect. The radiation emitted back into the space can be thought of as
having two components (i) that emitted from the very cold outermost layer of the atmosphere and (ii)
the component directly emitted from the earth‟s surface and reaching space through the “Window”.
The distribution of the radiating gases is largely responsible for the layering of the earth‟s
atmosphere. The troposphere extends from sea level upto approximately 12 km, at which point the
temperature has dropped to approx. –60 oC. Water vapour is about ten times more important than
carbon dioxide, both for radiative heating by absorbing solar radiation and for radiative cooling by
emitting more infrared than is absorbed. In the stratosphere however, radiative heating by the
absorption of solar radiation by Ozone is dominant. The radiative cooling that does occur is carried on
primarily by CO2 , with water vapour playing a minor role above about 20 km.
This brief discussion sets the stage for understanding how changes in Global Climate can occur
due to changes in the earth‟s environment. There are four general causes
(i) A change of the earth‟s surface albedo
(ii) A change in the albedo of the atmosphere
(iii) A change in the chemical composition of the atmosphere
(iv) Release of heat which are large in relation to solar heating

Changes in Surface Albedo:

The natural albedo of the earth‟s surface varies from extremely low values ( almost black or
totally absorbent), like ocean surface, to extremely high values ( very white and therefore nearly
completely reflecting) such as freshly fallen snow. In between, there are low-albedo irrigated croplands
and high albedo deserts. The human activities, principally urbanization and agricultural development,
will have little effect on the overall surface albedo which is largely determined by the oceans and by
the polar snow and ice covers.

Changes in Atmospheric Albedo:

The reflecting properties of earth‟s atmosphere with respect to incoming solar radiation are
determined mainly by the amount of and distribution of water and ice clouds and less so by particulate
material. Water clouds form at the lower altitudes, Ice clouds (cirrus) in the upper troposphere. Water
droplets and ice crystals mainly scatter the visible radiation rather than absorb it. On the other hand ,
dust and aerosols partially reflect and partially absorb incident solar radiation, depending on their exact
composition.
The average cloud albedo varies from 10 to 25 % for Cirrus to about 70 to 80 % for thick
Cumulus clouds. The „white‟ clouds with a high albedo in the visible can be „black‟ in infrared region
(i.e., efficient absorber and radiator).

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At present, the injection of particulate material (dust, smoke, and aerosol particles) by human
activity is small compared to the natural injection of particles which come on a steady basis from
forests, oceans, deserts , and other wind-blown dust and from other occasional erruptions by
Volcanoes.

Changes in Atmospheric Composition:

The major concern is the steady increase in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere produced by
the rapid burning of fossil fuels. Also of concern are changes in the water vapour concentrations and
Ozone conc. In the atmosphere. Of lesser concern, for global climate change are, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, methane and other minor gases, although they may produce intense
local problems.
According to the numerical investigations of Manabe and collaborators, increases in CO2 result
in a warming of the entire lower atmosphere, with the amount of warming dependent on the humidity,
but with clouds distribution , surface albedo and so on, remaining constant. Under those conditions, a
10% CO2 increase can lead to a warming of 0.2 to 0.3 oC . Another area of concern is a possible
general change in ozone content of the atmosphere. Since ozone has important radiative properties as it
controls the heating in the stratosphere, a general concentration change could have further
consequences on a global scale.

Other Chemical Emissions:

The emission of other gases may have important local effects and may lead to intense air pollution
problems but on a global scale, they are not considered to be serious. The major pollutants which are
added to the atmosphere are SOx NOx and CO.
One third of the sulphur reaching to the atmosphere comes from pollutant sources, namely as
SO2. Within the atmosphere, there is a net transfer of sulphur from land to ocean areas. The circulation
of nitrogen compounds through the earth‟s environment is quite complex. Out of significant
atmospheric forms of nitrogen, the only important pollutant emitted by human activities are NO and
NO2 . The major significant source of carbon monoxide is the gasoline engine. However , the average
CO concentration in the atmosphere is only of the order of 0.1 ppm. The major scavenging process
may be biological, probably through soil bacteria, although some of the CO that is transported into the
stratosphere may be oxidized there. In any case the residence time in the atmosphere is only between 2
and 3 years.

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The Pollution Cycle:-
The purpose of this section is to investigate some of the interactions and exchanges that may
occur between Land, Water and Air, and to illustrate that somewhat arbitrary lines that have been
drawn between air , water and land pollution are really non-existent. Each type of pollution affects the
other carriers due to the integrated nature of the environment .
The technological civilization that has developed is continuing to treat nature as „the enemy‟
and is using earth as the dumping ground for its wastes. The contamination of the water , air , and rock
with the humankind‟s waste has raised the threat of the elimination of all life .
Just as the pyramid of life is supported by a complex set of interactions and exchanges between
water , air , rock and life, so too is the pollution of the environment complicated by interactions and
exchanges between water, air, rock and life . Many of the interactions and exchanges are unknown as is
their effects on life.

Fig.

Air and Water:

Most of the exchanges of pollutants that may occur between the air and the water involve the
primary air pollutants which include
 Sulphur Oxide
 Particulate Matter
 Carbon monoxide
 Nitrogen Oxides
 Hydrocarbons
 Photochemical Oxidants, which result from a series of photochemical reactions involving Oxygen,
Nitrogen, and Organic Material.

One of the recommended methods of controlling SOX , NOX, and Particulate from an industrial
plant is to pass the gases through water scrubbers. Rain presents a large surface area of water to
contaminated air , it dissolves the acid gases and retains particulate by impaction or by using them as
nuclei for the formation of rain. Thus the air is cleaned by the natural scrubbing action of the rain ,but
the pollutants coming down with rain are ultimately carried into water causing water pollution.
Oceans on the other hand have been shown to produce CO which is released to air. The precise
mechanism for this is yet to be determined but it is presumably natural and not the result of water
pollution. However , water pollution can cause significant local air pollution by the interchange of
pollutants between water and the air . when a body of water becomes polluted by organic material to
the extent that its dissolved oxygen levels fall to zero, it becomes septic. When it becomes septic, it
emits to the atmosphere noxious gases such as hydrogen sulphide as well as strongly odorous
compounds.
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Air and Land:

The above fig. Illustrates some of the interactions and exchanges of pollutants that may occur between
the air and land. The land has been found to be a sink for many air pollutants through microbial or
chemical means. Experiments have shown that soil can remove carbon monoxide from the air . Later
experiments also demonstrated that soil may also be a significant sink for hydrocarbons, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide from the air.
Particulate matter in the air is also transferred to the soil , as it is to the water, through the
action of gravity and precipitation. Other pollutants scrubbed out of the air by precipitation may also be
incorporated into the soil. Waste products discarded on land can also contribute to various forms of air
pollution. Fine material placed on the land can become entrained in the air , creating a particulate
problem downwind.

Land and Water :

The transfer of pollutants from the land to the water is primarily due to leaching. Leaching is
the term applied to the process of extracting a water soluble material from a solid by filtering the water
through the solid (e.g., soluble organic matter is extracted from landfills)
One of the oldest source of water pollution is acid mine drainage. The acid water is produced by
both, working and abandoned mines. It is the result of oxidation of sulphur bearing minerals by air and
water to form sulphurous and sulphuric acid. The acid water enters the streams and lakes and quickly
destroys plants, fish and wildlife.

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Atmospheric Interactions, Dispersion, Meteorology :-
Atmospheric interactions include all chemical and physical phenomena occurring to a mixture
of air borne pollutants. Immediately upon their emission , this foreign matter undergoes a mass
redistribution and photochemical changes, varying over many temporal and spatial scales. An
understanding of these interactions can be found within the theoretical framework of the atmospheric
motions responsible for these changes of pollutant state and distribution.

Planetary Boundary Layer :-

The adjacent figure shows the planetary
boundary layer Where the frictional effects
of the underlying terrain modify the general
circulation of the atmosphere and where all
significant atmospheric interactions on pollutants
occur. This layer is the region of small scale
atmospheric turbulence, and these
perturbations exert a profound effect on the
emitted mixture of pollutants.
Both boundary conditions vary , the
Upper depends on the wind speed, and
Lower on the geographic distribution.
Generally 1000 m is chosen for the
Upper boundary.

Mechanical and Convective Turbulence:-

During the day, a heat transfer process (Convection) occurs by the expansion and subsequent
rising of air in response to solar heating. At night, the earth surface quickly cools by radiation which
cools the air in contact with the earth‟s surface and causes negative convective turbulence (negative is
oriented towards the ground from above).
The irregular terrain breaks atmospheric wave motion into random three dimensional swirls
called eddies. These mechanical and convective eddies are classified as turbulence which has the
capacity to thoroughly mix any number of compounds. Pollutant dispersion depends highly on the total
amount of turbulent energy. The intensity of atmospheric turbulence varies „diurnally‟. Mechanical
turbulence which is always upwardly directed is in phase with the large convective turbulence
production during the day. Mechanical turbulence depends on the wind speed and the underlying
terrain, while convective turbulent energy is primarily a function of vertical temperature structure of the
planetary boundary layer. This structure can be empirically represented by stability criteria.

Stability Considerations, Inversions :-

A hypothetical air parcel , given initial upward momentum by a mountain, will expand and cool
at the adiabatic lapse rate of 5.5 F per 1000 feet in dry air. In the heat of the day, a super adiabatic
lapse rate occurs, characterized by a large degree of mixing and an unstable atmosphere. A sub-
adiabatic lapse rate occurs at night with restricted mixing under stable conditions, while neutral
conditions ( adiabatic) are characteristic of windy , cloudy days and nights.
To summarize, sunny days exhibit large turbulent energy and strong mixing in unstable air.
Cloudy days and nights are of neutral stability and of moderate mixing, while evening conditions under
fair skies exhibit poor mixing in stable air.

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Lapse Rate :-
One of the most important characteristics of the atmosphere is its stability i.e., its tendency to
resist vertical motion to suppress the existing turbulence. This tendency directly influences the ability
of the atmosphere to disperse pollutants emitted into it from natural or man-made sources. When a
small volume of air displaced upward in the atmosphere, it will encounter a lower pressure and undergo
an expansion to a lower temperature. Usually the expansion is rapid enough that it can be assumed that
no heat transfer takes place between that parcel of air and the surrounding atmosphere.

For dry air (dT / dZ)dry adia = -0.0098 C/m

It is convenient to define a lapse rate as the negative of the temperature gradient in the atmosphere.
Thus the dry adiabatic lapse rate, which is given the symbol  is

 = (- dT / dZ)dry adia =1 C/ 100m =5.4 F/ 1000 ft

For International Standard Atmosphere, the standard or the normal temperature gradient is given by

( dT / dZ )Std = - 0.0066 C/ m

 The normal or standard Lapse rate based on international convention hence is 0.66 C/100 m or
3.6 F/ 1000 ft.
The temperature profile for the standard atmosphere is compared with the adiabatic temperature profile
in the following figure.

Stratosphere

Height Troposphere

Adiabatic Standard Profile

Profile

Temp

Stability Conditions :-
The extent of mixing in the lower atmosphere is primarily dependent upon
(i) the temperature gradient and (ii) the mechanical turbulence due to shearing action of the wind. The
possibility of thermal mixing can be determined by comparison of the actual (environmental)
temperature gradient or lapse rate to the adiabatic lapse rate.
When the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate , the atmosphere is said
to be superadiabatic ([Link] temperature gradient is more negative than the dry adiabatic temperature
Gradient). Thus any atmosphere having a superadiabatic lapse rate is unstable, since any perturbation in
the vertical direction tends to be enhanced.
When the environmental lapse rate is approximately the same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate, the
stability of the atmosphere is said to be „neutral‟. Any parcel of air which is carried rapidly upward or
downward will have the same temperature as the environment at the new height. Hence there is no

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tendency for any further vertical movement due to thermal differences and the displaced parcel of air
remains in the displaced position.
If the environmental lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate (greater temp gradient)
then the atmosphere is called Sub-adiabatic. The sub-adiabatic atmosphere is stable, ie, any small air
parcel suddenly displaced vertically will tend to return to its original position.

Unstabble Neutral Weakly Strongly Stable

Stable

Temperature

Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR)

Inversions:-
Atmospheric inversions influence the dispersion of pollutants by restricting vertical mixing.
There are several ways by which inversion layers can be formed. One of the most common types is the
elevated subsidence inversion. This is usually associated with subtropical anticyclones where the air is
warmed by compression as it descends in a high pressure system and achieves temperature higher than
that of the air underneath. If the temperature increase is sufficient, an inversion will result. The
subsidence is caused by air flowing down to replace air which has flown out of the high pressure
region.

Subsidising Air

Top

Inversion Layer Z

Base

The second common form of inversion is the radiational inversion. This results from the normal diurnal
cooling cycle. After sunset, the ground cools quickly by radiational heat transfer, and the lowest layer
of air in contact with the surface loses sensible heat through conduction and small scale mixing.
Consequently , a temperature inversion is set up between the cool low-level air and the warmer air
above, in the first few hundred meters above the surface. Valleys and low lying areas are particularly
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affected by this type of inversion because denser , colder air tends to sink down beneath the warmer
air. The next day sunlight destroys the inversion as the earth is warmed and the air previously stratified
by inversion is overturned by convective currents. The temperature profile for the combined radiation
inversion and subsidence inversion is illustrated below

The subsidence inversion is potentially

more serious than radiation inversion
because the latter usually dissipates
quite rapidly after sunrise Subsidence
Inversion

Radiation
Inversion

T
The third type of inversion , known as advective inversion is formed when warm air moves over a cold
surface or cold air. The inversion can be ground based in the former case or elevated in the latter case.
An example of the elevated advective inversion occurs when a hill range forces a warm land breeze to
flow at high levels and a cool sea breeze flows at low levels in the opposite direction.

Pollutant Entry: Sources and Emission Factors

Source Types and Composition:-

Pollutant sources can be either fixed or moving. Fixed sources include Power Plants,
Incinerators, Chemical Refineries, Specialized Industrial Processing Plants and during the winter
season, Domestic Space Heating units. All fixed sources generally emit SO2 from the combustion of
high sulphur coal, and they also emit particulate matter. Additionally, power plants emit large
quantities of Nitric oxides, refineries release various hydrocarbons products from their cracking
processes and specialized industrial plants emit Oxides of their particular process products.

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Moving sources include vehicular traffic and airplanes. All other sources contribute a
negligible amount to the entire pollutant mixture. Vehicular traffic is generally limited to automobiles
and their emissions depend upon the driving mode & the specific parameters of the vehicle.
Automobile emissions arise from direct evaporation of the fuel before combustion, crankcase blow-by
and exhaust. The emissions vary with the driving mode of the vehicle, and their distribution is a
function of commuting routes and traffic density. Aircraft emissions occur during ground operations of
taxiing, landing and take-off and during airborne operations of approach and climb out. Carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitric oxides and particulates characterize the pollutant composition from
moving sources.

Atmospheric Entry:-
Pollutant entry into the ambient atmosphere can occur at a point , along a line or over an entire
area. In addition, temporal variations exist as sources can emit on a continual basis or at an instant.
Instantaneous sources emit Puffs while continuous sources discharge Plumes. An example of each type
is listed below

Continuous Point Source : Strong Power Plants

Continuous Line Source : Main Urban Traffic Artery

Continuous Area Source : An entire Urban Complex

Continuous Volume Source : An entire Urban Complex

Virtual Point Source : A series of power plants whose emissions are entrained within the plant
volume, can be extrapolated behind the emission complex to a virtual
point.

Instantaneous Point Source : Explosions, Volcanic Eruptions

Instantaneous Line Source : A Plane emitting Pesticides.

Once the pollutants enter the atmosphere, their life histories depend entirely on the local atmospheric
processes occurring within the emission area.

Diurnal Effects:-

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The above figure shows the representative vertical temperature and wind fields in the
planetary boundary layer during the afternoon and the night time hours. During the day, strong solar
heating induces a large amount of convective turbulence, while at night, the radiational cooling of the
terrain causes low-based temperature inversions. An observation of the day-night temperature gradient
at 500 meters, shows that thermal effects generally occur below that level. There are also transient
atmospheric states during the sunrise and sunset periods. The diurnal effects on a continuously emitting
point source are explained below with the help of Plume Behaviour.

Plume Behaviour:-

Z Fanning

Z
Fumigation

Z
Looping

Z Coning

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Z
Lofting

Z
Trapping

FANNING: As radiational cooling progresses, the inversion reaches up to the plume height. Since
most of the vertical dispersion is suppressed by the extremely stable conditions, the plume fans out in
the horizontal. Strong concentrations at plume height are exhibited downwind of the stack.
FUMIGATION: Sunrise initiates solar heating, and the gradual warming of atmosphere from the
ground upwards “ burns off “ the inversion. As the strong convective mixing reaches the fanned plume,
it immediately mixes the large pollutant concentrations towards ground level, fumigating that area.
LOOPING: In the afternoon, strong solar radiation producing an excessive amount of convective
turbulence causes the plume to loop in the vertical in response to the strong eddy motion.
CONING: On cloudy days and nights with strong winds, mechanical turbulence prevails and “normal”
dispersion occurs, forming a cone to the eye of an observer looking upwind into the plume.
LOFTING: Over rural areas, just after sunset. A superadiabatic layer exists over the newly forming
ground-based inversion. The elevated plume cannot disperse downwind due to inversion, but strongly
disperses above it. Urban areas do not have inversion conditions at that time due to heat release from
buildings (the heat island effect).
TRAPPING: The trapped plume occurs when the plume effluent is caught between two inversion
layers. The diffusion of effluent is severely restricted to the unstable layer between the two stable
regions.

Plume Buoyancy:-
Most industrial processes release waste gases at a higher temperature than that of the ambient
air. The higher the stack gas temperature, the more the plume is convectively lifted. Plume buoyancy
magnitude depends on ambient temperature, waste gas temperature, efflux velocity and wind speed.
The greater the efflux velocity, the larger the initial plume momentum. During periods of light winds,
this momentum can be realized to its maximum.

Heat Island Effect:-

In large cities, the houses, high rise office buildings and factories form an irregular surface that
retards the free flow of large air masses and thus retards the winds. Because of the perpendicular
building surfaces and streets, the city area absorbs more solar energy during the day and retains it for a
longer period at night than does an equal area in the countryside/suburbs. The city also releases large
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quantities of particulates into the air. The resulting phenomenon is known as the „heat island‟. The
warm air tends to be concentrated at the centre of the city. This warm air rises, carrying upward the
burden of pollution, then expands and flows outward over the edges of the city.

As the air expands, it cools , and thus the cooler air at the edges of the city will flow back towards the
centre of the city near the ground. Thus a self-contained circulatory system is established that can be
altered or broken up only by a strong wind. The small particulate over the city tends to reduce the solar
energy.

Modeling Atmospheric Interactions:-

The main purpose of meteorology in the area of environmental pollution is to specify on all
scales of time and space, the capacity of the atmosphere to absorb, disperse, modify and deposit
pollutant materials under any arbitrary geographic arrangement and discharge rates of multiple
pollutants. Comparing these determinations with the acceptable risk levels will provide the basis for
choosing the acceptable levels of pollutant emissions to the atmosphere and will enter as significant
criteria in urban, regional and general land-use planning and development.

Interrelationship Between Air Quality Models, Air Monitoring and Air Quality Criteria
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Urban Modeling Techniques:-
There are three complexity levels of Urban Modeling

1. The Box Model:- The box model is the simplest model. An urban area is divided into a
Checkerboard grid , and it is assumed that all atmospheric interactions occur
Simultaneously for each box , so that the box is treated as a well mixed vessel.

2. Puff and Plume Model:- This model employs Gaussian Statistical assumption for instantaneous and
continuously emitting sources respectively , then integrated over the
entire urban area.

3. The Highest Level Model:- It involves the solution of the mass continuity equations of the turbulent
planetary boundary layer. Recently developed models include modules
for calculations involving photochemical kinetics, topographical
interactions and deposition processes.

Air pollution Severity:- (PINDEX)

A meaningful assessment of pollution severity can be made by considering the harmful effect of
pollutants, in addition to the quantity emitted. One scheme for assessing air pollution severity , termed
as „PINDEX” has been proposed by Babcock. This method considers the contribution to air pollution
of particulate matter, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxidants, solar
radiation and particulate-sulphur oxide synergism. Each compound is assigned a weighting or tolerance
factor which in the pindex system is based upon air quality criteria.
Tolerance factor range from a low of 214 for Oxidant (not much tolerance) to a high of 40,000
for carbon monoxide (high tolerance). This means that 214 pounds of oxidant have the same health
effect as 40,000 pounds of carbon monoxide. The following figure shows a schematic of the pindex
method.

Original Concentration g/m3 Concentration Corrected by

Tolerance Factor
Particulate Matter Particulate Matter

Synergism

Sulphur Oxides Sulphur Oxides S

u
Nitrogen Oxides Excess Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen Oxides m
m
a
Solar Radiation Oxidant Synthesis Oxidant t
i
Oxidant o
n

Hydrocarbons Excess Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons

Carbon Monoxide Carbon Monoxide

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First of all, the atmospheric concentrations of each emitted compound is calculated in terms
of g/m3 . In addition , hydrocarbons, Oxides of nitrogen and Oxidant are converted to  mol/m3
For this calculation, hydrocarbons are assumed to be Methane, Oxides of Nitrogen NO2 and Oxidant
O3.
Next , it is assumed that NOx and HC react with sunlight to form additional oxidant. The
assumption is made that one mole of hydrocarbon reacts with one mole of nitrogen dioxide to form one
mole of oxidant. The amount of additional oxidant assumed to be formed is calculated by multiplying
the molar concentration ( mol/m3 ) of nitrogen oxides or of hydrocarbons, whichever is least, by
6x10-4 and this product by the solar radiation in cal/cm2-day ( average value 375 ). The original
concentration of HC and NOx are corrected by subtracting the moles of each which have reacted to
form oxidant. The value of 6x10-4 was estimated from atmospheric data and reflects the observed
balance between the hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxidant.
Next, the corrected concentrations are divided by tolerance factor. Then the particulate matter-
sulphur oxide synergism term is calculated. This term recognizes that both constituents together are
more harmful to health than each separately. The synergism term is assumed to be the smaller of either
of the particulate matter or sulphur oxide concentrations corrected by tolerance factors as suggested in
the above figure. Finally the sum of the seven terms is computed. This sum is the Pindex rating. The
Pindex value provides a ready means for ranking air pollution severity. Other similar schemes can be
formulated based on different set of assumptions.

Sample Calculation:-

Given Information
Particulate Matter (PM) = 143.0 g/m3
Sulphur Oxides (SOx ) = 123.0 g/m3
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) = 136.0 g/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) = 7250.0 g/m3
Hydrocarbons (HC) = 2157.0 g/m3
Oxidant (OOO) = 43.2 g/m3
2
Solar Radiation (SR) = 400.0 cal/cm -day

 Convert Reactants to  mol/m3

NOx = 136.0/46.0 = 3.0  mol/m3
HC = 2157.0/16.0=134.5  mol/m3
OOO = 43.2/48.0 =0.9  mol/m3
 Determine limiting reactant for Oxidant Synthesis (NOx or HC)
NOx is limiting
 Create Oxidant
OOO = 0.0006 x SR x (Limiting Reactant)
=0.0006 x 400.0 x 3.0 = 0.72  mol/m3

 Determine total oxidant and excess HC and NOx

OOO = 0.9 + 0.72 = 1.6  mol/m3
HC = 134.5 – 0.72 = 133.8  mol/m3
NOx = 3.0 – 0.72 = 2.3  mol/m3
 Convert reactants back to weight basis
OOO = 1.6 x 48.0 = 77.3 g/m3
HC = 133.5 x 16.0 = 2140.0 g/m3
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NOx = 2.3 x 46.0 = 105.0 g/m3
 Apply Tolerance factor
PM =143.0 / 375.0 = 0.381
SOx = 123.0 / 1430.0 = 0.086
NOx = 105.0 / 514.0 = 0.204
CO = 7250.0 / 40000.0 = 0.181
HC = 2140.0 / 19300.0 = 0.111
OOO = 77.3 / 214.0 = 0.361
 Determine Synergism term (SYN)
SYN = SOx or PM ( Whichever is smaller)

SYN = SOx = 0.086

 Sum the terms to determine PINDEX

Pindex = PM + SOx + NOx + CO + HC + OOO + SYN

= 0.381 + 0.086 + 0.204 + 0.181 + 0.111 + 0.361 + 0.086
= 1.41

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