3.3.

SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 191

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 7. Remove parentheses: (a) −9(2t + 7), and (b) −5(4 − 3y). Remove parentheses:
−3(4t − 11)
Solution.

a) Use the distributive property.

−9(2t + 7) = −9(2t) + (−9)(7) Distribute multiplication by −9.

= −18t + (−63) Multiply: −9(2t) = −18t and −9(7) = −63.
= −18t − 63 Write the answer in simpler form.
Adding −63 is the same as
subtracting 63.

b) Use the distributive property.

−5(4 − 3y) = −5(4) − (−5)(3y) Distribute multiplication by −5.

= −20 − (−15y) Multiply: −5(4) = −20
and (−5)(3y) = −15y.
= −20 + 15y Write the answer in simpler form.
Subtracting −15y is the same as
adding 15y.

Answer: −12t + 33


Writing Mathematics. Example 7 stresses the importance of using as few

symbols as possible to write your final answer. Hence, −18t − 63 is favored
over −18t + (−63) and −20 + 15y is favored over −20 − (−15y). You should
always make these final simplifications.

Moving a Bit Quicker

Once you’ve applied the distributive property to a number of problems, show-
ing all the work as in Example 7, you should try to eliminate some of the
steps. For example, consider again Example 7(a). It’s not difficult to apply
the distributive property without writing down a single step, getting:

−9(2t + 7) = −18t − 63.

Here’s the thinking behind this technique:

1. First, multiply −9 times 2t, getting −18t.
 192 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

2. Second, multiply −9 times +7, getting −63.

Note that this provides exactly the same solution found in Example 7(a).
Let try this same technique on Example 7(b).

−5(4 − 3y) = −20 + 15y

Here’s the thinking behind this technique.

1. First, multiply −5 times 4, getting −20.
2. Second, multiply −5 times −3y, getting +15y.
Note that this provides exactly the same solution found in Example 7(b).

Extending the Distributive Property

Suppose that we add an extra term inside the parentheses.

Distributive Property. If a, b, c, and d are any integers, then

a(b + c + d) = ab + ac + ad.

Note that we “distributed” the a times each term inside the parentheses.
Indeed, if we added still another term inside the parentheses, we would “dis-
tribute” a times that term as well.

You Try It!

Remove parentheses: EXAMPLE 8. Remove parentheses: −5(2x − 3y + 8).

−3(4a − 5b + 7)
Solution. We will use the “quicker” technique, “distributing” −5 times each
term in the parentheses mentally.

−5(2x − 3y + 8) = −10x + 15y − 40

Here is our thought process:
1. First, multiply −5 times 2x, getting −10x.
2. Second, multiply −5 times −3y, getting +15y.
3. Third, multiply −5 times +8, getting −40.
Answer: −12a + 15b − 21

3.3. SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 193

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 9. Remove parentheses: −4(−3a + 4b − 5c + 12). Remove parentheses:

−2(−2x + 4y − 5z − 11)
Solution. We will use the “quicker” technique, “distributing” −4 times each
term in the parentheses mentally.

−4(−3a + 4b − 5c + 12) = 12a − 16b + 20c − 48

Here is our thought process:
1. First, multiply −4 times −3a, getting 12a.
2. Second, multiply −4 times +4b, getting −16b.
3. Third, multiply −4 times −5c, getting +20c.
4. Fourth, multiply −4 times +12, getting −48.
Answer: 4x − 8y + 10z + 22


Distributing a Negative
It is helpful to recall that negating is equivalent to multiplying by −1.

Multiplying by −1. Let a be any integer, then

(−1)a = −a and − a = (−1)a.

We can use this fact, combined with the distributive property, to negate a
sum.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 10. Remove parentheses: −(a + b). Remove parentheses:

−(x + 2y)
Solution. Change the negative symbol into multiplying by −1, then distribute
the −1.

−(a + b) = (−1)(a + b) Negating is equivalent to multiplying by −1.

= −a − b Distribute the −1.

We chose to use the “quicker” technique of “distributing” the −1. Here is our
thinking:
 194 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

1. Multiply −1 times a, getting −a.

2. Multiply −1 times +b, getting −b.

Answer: −x − 2y


You Try It!

Remove parentheses: EXAMPLE 11. Remove parentheses: −(a − b).

−(4a − 3c) Solution. Change the negative symbol into multiplying by −1, then distribute
the −1.
−(a − b) = (−1)(a − b) Negating is equivalent to multiplying by −1.
= −a + b Distribute the −1.

We chose to use the “quicker” technique of “distributing” the −1. Here is our
thinking:
1. Multiply −1 times a, getting −a.
2. Multiply −1 times −b, getting +b.
Answer: −4a + 3c


The results in Example 10 and Example 11 show us how to negate a sum:

Simply negate each term of the sum. Positive terms change to negative, nega-
tive terms turn to positive.

Negating a Sum. To negate a sum, simply negate each term of the sum. For
example, if a and b are integers, then

−(a + b) = −a − b and − (a − b) = −a + b.

You Try It!

Remove parentheses: EXAMPLE 12. Remove parentheses: −(5 − 7u + 3t).

−(5 − 2x + 4y − 5z) Solution. Simply negate each term in the parentheses.
−(5 − 7u + 3t) = −5 + 7u − 3t.
Answer: −5 + 2x − 4y + 5z

 3.3. SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 195

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

In Exercises 1-20, use the associative and commutative properties of multiplication to simplify the
expression.

1. 10(−4x) 11. (5x)10

2. 7(−8x) 12. (−2x)(−10)
3. (−10x)(−3) 13. −9(−7x)
4. (−5x)(−8) 14. −10(5x)
5. −5(3x) 15. 6(2x)
6. 9(6x) 16. 3(−10x)
7. (−4x)10 17. −8(−9x)
8. (−10x)(−6) 18. 3(−3x)
9. (5x)3 19. (6x)7
10. (3x)3 20. (−8x)(−5)

In Exercises 21-44, simplify the expression.

21. 8(7x + 8) 33. 4(−6x + 7)

22. −2(5x + 5) 34. 6(4x + 9)
23. 9(−2 + 10x) 35. 4(8x − 9)
24. −9(4 + 9x) 36. 10(−10x + 1)
25. −(−2x + 10y − 6) 37. −(4 − 2x − 10y)
26. −(−6y + 9x − 7) 38. −(−4x + 6 − 8y)
27. 2(10 + x) 39. −(−5x + 1 + 9y)
28. 2(10 − 6x) 40. −(−10 − 5x − 4y)
29. 3(3 + 4x) 41. −(6x + 2 − 10y)
30. 3(4 + 6x) 42. −(6x + 4 − 10y)
31. −(−5 − 7x + 2y) 43. −(−3y − 4 + 4x)
32. −(4x − 8 − 7y) 44. −(−7 − 10x + 7y)
 196 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. −40x 23. −18 + 90x

3. 30x 25. 2x − 10y + 6

5. −15x 27. 20 + 2x

7. −40x 29. 9 + 12x

9. 15x 31. 5 + 7x − 2y

11. 50x 33. −24x + 28

13. 63x 35. 32x − 36

15. 12x 37. −4 + 2x + 10y

17. 72x 39. 5x − 1 − 9y

19. 42x 41. −6x − 2 + 10y

21. 56x + 64 43. 3y + 4 − 4x

3.4. COMBINING LIKE TERMS 197

3.4 Combining Like Terms

We begin our discussion with the definition of a term.

Term. A term is a single number or variable, or it can be the product of a

number (called its coefficient ) and one or more variables (called its variable
part ). The terms in an algebraic expression are separated by addition symbols.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 1. Identify the terms in the algebraic expression How many terms are in the
algebraic expression
3x2 + 5xy + 9y 2 + 12. 3x2 + 2xy − 3y 2 ?

For each term, identify its coefficient and variable part.

Solution. In tabular form, we list each term of the expression 3x2 + 5xy +
9y 2 + 12, its coefficient, and its variable part.

Term Coefficient Variable Part

3x2 3 x2
5xy 5 xy
2
9y 9 y2
12 12 None

Answer: 3


You Try It!

EXAMPLE 2. Identify the terms in the algebraic expression How many terms are in the
algebraic expression
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 . 11 − a2 − 2ab + 3b2 ?
For each term, identify its coefficient and variable part.
Solution. The first step is to write each difference as a sum, because the terms
of an expression are defined above to be those items separated by addition
symbols.
a3 + (−3a2 b) + 3ab2 + (−b3 )
In tabular form, we list each term of the expression a3 +(−3a2 b)+3ab2 +(−b3 ),
its coefficient, and its variable part.
 198 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

Term Coefficient Variable Part

a3 1 a3
−3a2 b −3 a2 b
3ab2 3 ab2
−b3 −1 b3

Answer: 4


Like Terms
We define what is meant by “like terms” and “unlike terms.”

Like and Unlike Terms. The variable parts of two terms determine whether
the terms are like terms or unlike terms.
Like Terms. Two terms are called like terms if they have identical variable
parts, which means that the terms must contain the same variables raised to
the same exponential powers.
Unlike Terms. Two terms are called unlike terms if their variable parts are
different.

You Try It!

Are −3xy and 11xy like or EXAMPLE 3. Classify each of the following pairs as either like terms or
unlike terms? unlike terms: (a) 3x and −7x, (b) 2y and 3y 2 , (c) −3t and 5u, and (d) −4a3
and 3a3 .
Solution. Like terms must have identical variable parts.

a) 3x and −7x have identical variable parts. They are “like terms.”
b) 2y and 3y 2 do not have identical variable parts (the exponents differ). They
are “unlike terms.”
c) −3t and 5u do not have identical variable parts (different variables). They
are “unlike terms.”
d) −4a3 and 3a3 have identical variable parts. They are “like terms.”

Answer: Like terms


3.4. COMBINING LIKE TERMS 199

Combining Like Terms

When using the distributive property, it makes no difference whether the mul-
tiplication is on the left or the right, one still distributes the multiplication
times each term in the parentheses.

Distributive Property. If a, b, and c are integers, then

a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca.

In either case, you distribute a times each term of the sum.

“Like terms” can be combined and simplified. The tool used for combining
like terms is the distributive property. For example, consider the expression
3y + 7y, composed of two “like terms” with a common variable part. We can
use the distributive property and write

3y + 7y = (3 + 7)y.

Note that we are using the distributive property in reverse, “factoring out”
the common variable part of each term. Checking our work, note that if we
redistribute the variable part y times each term in the parentheses, we are
returned to the original expression 3y + 7y.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 4. Use the distributive property to combine like terms (if pos- Simplify: −8z − 11z
sible) in each of the following expressions: (a) −5x2 − 9x2 , (b) −5ab + 7ab, (c)
4y 3 − 7y 2 , and (d) 3xy 2 − 7xy 2 .
Solution. If the terms are “like terms,” you can use the distributive property
to “factor out” the common variable part.

a) Factor out the common variable part x2 .

−5x2 − 9x2 = (−5 − 9)x2 Use the distributive property.

2
= −14x Simplify: −5 − 9 = −5 + (−9) = −14.

b) Factor out the common variable part ab.

−5ab + 7ab = (−5 + 7)ab Use the distributive property.

= 2ab Simplify: −5 + 7 = 2.

c) The terms in the expression 4y 3 − 7y 2 have different variable parts (the

exponents are different). These are “unlike terms” and cannot be combined.
 200 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

d) Factor out the common variable part xy 2 .

3xy 2 − 7xy 2 = (3 − 7)xy 2 Use the distributive property.
2
= −4xy Simplify: 3 − 7 = 3 + (−7) = −4.

Answer: −19z


Speeding Things Up a Bit

Once you’ve written out all the steps for combining like terms, like those shown
in Example 4, you can speed things up a bit by following this rule:

Combining Like Terms. To combine like terms, simply add their coefficients
and keep the common variable part.

Thus for example, when presented with the sum of two like terms, such as in
5x + 8x, simply add the coefficients and repeat the common variable part; that
is, 5x + 8x = 13x.

You Try It!

Combine: −3x2 − 4x2 EXAMPLE 5. Combine like terms: (a) −9y − 8y, (b) −3y 5 + 4y 5 , and (c)
−3u2 + 2u2 .
Solution.
a) Add the coefficients and repeat the common variable part. Therefore,
−9y − 8y = −17y.

b) Add the coefficients and repeat the common variable part. Therefore,
−3y 5 + 4y 5 = 1y 5 .
However, note that 1y 5 = y 5 . Following the rule that the final answer
should use as few symbols as possible, a better answer is −3y 5 + 4y 5 = y 5 .
c) Add the coefficients and repeat the common variable part. Therefore,
−3u2 + 2u2 = (−1)u2 .
However, note that (−1)u2 = −u2 . Following the rule that the final answer
should use as few symbols as possible, a better answer is −3u2 + 2u2 = −u2 .
Answer: −7x2


3.4. COMBINING LIKE TERMS 201

Simplify
A frequently occurring instruction asks the reader to simplify an expression.

Simplify. The instruction simplify is a generic term that means “try to write
the expression in its most compact form, using the fewest symbols possible.”

One way you can accomplish this goal is by combining like terms when they
are present.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 6. Simplify: 2x + 3y − 5x + 8y. Simplify: −3a + 4b − 7a − 9b

Solution. Use the commutative property to reorder terms and the associative
and distributive properties to regroup and combine like terms.

2x + 3y − 5x + 8y = (2x − 5x) + (3y + 8y) Reorder and regroup.

= −3x + 11y Combine like terms:
2x − 5x = −3x and 3y + 8y = 11y.

Alternate solution. Of course, you do not need to show the regrouping step.
If you are more comfortable combining like terms in your head, you are free to
present your work as follows:

2x + 3y − 5x + 8y = −3x + 11y.

Answer: −10a − 5b


You Try It!

EXAMPLE 7. Simplify: −2x − 3 − (3x + 4). Simplify: −9a − 4 − (4a − 8)

Solution. First, distribute the negative sign.

−2x − 3 − (3x + 4) = −2x − 3 − 3x − 4 −(3x + 4) = −3x − 4.

Next, use the commutative property to reorder, then the associative property
to regroup. Then combine like terms.

= (−2x − 3x) + (−3 − 4) Reorder and regroup.

= −5x + (−7) Combine like terms:
−2x − 3x = −5x.
= −5x − 7 Simplify:
−5x + (−7) = −5x − 7.
 202 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

Alternate solution. You may skip the second step if you wish, simply com-
bining like terms mentally. That is, it is entirely possible to order your work
as follows:

−2x − 3 − (3x + 4) = −2x − 3 − 3x − 4 Distribute negative sign.

= −5x − 7 Combine like terms.

Answer: −13a + 4


You Try It!

Simplify: EXAMPLE 8. Simplify: 2(5 − 3x) − 4(x + 3).

−2(3a − 4) − 2(5 − a) Solution. Use the distributive property to expand, then use the commutative
and associative properties to group the like terms and combine them.

2(5 − 3x) − 4(x + 3) = 10 − 6x − 4x − 12 Use the distributive property.

= (−6x − 4x) + (10 − 12) Group like terms.
= −10x − 2 Combine like terms:
−6x − 4x = −10x and
10 − 12 = −2.

Alternate solution. You may skip the second step if you wish, simply com-
bining like terms mentally. That is, it is entirely possible to order your work
as follows:

2(5 − 3x) − 4(x + 3) = 10 − 6x − 4x − 12 Distribute.

= −10x − 2 Combine like terms.

Answer: −4a − 2


You Try It!

Simplify: EXAMPLE 9. Simplify: −8(3x2 y − 9xy) − 8(−7x2 y − 8xy).

(a2 − 2ab) − 2(3ab + a2 )
Solution. We will proceed a bit quicker with this solution, using the distribu-
tive property to expand, then combining like terms mentally.

−8(3x2 y − 9xy) − 8(−7x2 y − 8xy) = −24x2 y + 72xy + 56x2 y + 64xy

= 32x2 y + 136xy

Answer: −a2 − 8ab


3.4. COMBINING LIKE TERMS 203

Applications
We can simplify a number of useful formulas by combining like terms.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 10. Find the perimeter P of the (a) rectangle and (b) square A regular hexagon has six
pictured below. Simplify your answer as much as possible. equal sides, each with length
L s x. Find its perimeter in
terms of x.

W W s s

L s
Solution. The perimeter of any polygonal figure is the sum of the lengths of
its sides.
a) To find the perimeter P of the rectangle, sum its four sides.
P = L + W + L + W.
Combine like terms.
P = 2L + 2W.
b) To find the perimeter P of the square, sum its four sides.
P = s + s + s + s.
Combine like terms.
P = 4s.
Answer: P = 6x

Sometimes it is useful to replace a variable with an expression containing
another variable.
You Try It!

EXAMPLE 11. The length of a rectangle is three feet longer than twice its The length L of a rectangle
width. Find the perimeter P of the rectangle in terms of its width alone. is 5 meters longer than twice
Solution. From the previous problem, the perimeter of the rectangle is given its width W . Find the
by perimeter P of the rectangle
P = 2L + 2W, (3.1) in terms of its width W .
where L and W are the length and width of the rectangle, respectively. This
equation gives the perimeter in terms of its length and width, but we’re asked
to get the perimeter in terms of the width alone.
However, we’re also given the fact that the length is three feet longer than
twice the width.
 204 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

Three Twice the

Length is longer than
Feet Width
L = 3 + 2W
Because L = 3+2W , we can replace L with 3+2W in the perimeter equation 3.1.
P = 2L + 2W
P = 2(3 + 2W ) + 2W
Use the distributive property, then combine like terms.
P = 6 + 4W + 2W
P = 6 + 6W.
Answer: P = 6W + 10 This last equation gives the perimeter P in terms of the width W alone.


You Try It!

The width W of a rectangle EXAMPLE 12. The width of a rectangle is two feet less than its length.
is 5 feet less than twice its Find the perimeter P of the rectangle in terms of its length alone.
width L. Find the perimeter Solution. Again, the perimeter of a rectangle is given by the equation
P of the rectangle in terms
of its length L. P = 2L + 2W, (3.2)
where L and W are the length and width of the rectangle, respectively. This
equation gives the perimeter in terms of its length and width, but we’re asked
to get the perimeter in terms of the length alone.
However, we’re also given the fact that the width is two feet less than the
length.

Width is Length minus Two feet

W = L − 2
Because W = L−2, we can replace W with L−2 in the perimeter equation 3.2.
P = 2L + 2W
P = 2L + 2(L − 2)
Use the distributive property, then combine like terms.
P = 2L + 2L − 4
P = 4L − 4.
Answer: P = 6L − 10 This last equation gives the perimeter P in terms of the length L alone.

 3.4. COMBINING LIKE TERMS 205

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

In Exercises 1-16, combine like terms by first using the distributive property to factor out the common
variable part, and then simplifying.

1. 17xy 2 + 18xy 2 + 20xy 2 9. −11x − 13x + 8x

2. 13xy − 3xy + xy 10. −9r − 10r + 3r
3. −8xy 2 − 3xy 2 − 10xy 2 11. −5q + 7q
4. −12xy − 2xy + 10xy 12. 17n + 15n
5. 4xy − 20xy 13. r − 13r − 7r
3 3
6. −7y + 15y 14. 19m + m + 15m
7. 12r − 12r 15. 3x3 − 18x3
8. 16s − 5s 16. 13x2 y + 2x2 y

In Exercises 17-32, combine like terms by first rearranging the terms, then using the distributive
property to factor out the common variable part, and then simplifying.

17. −8 + 17n + 10 + 8n 25. −14x2 y − 2xy 2 + 8x2 y + 18xy 2

18. 11 + 16s − 14 − 6s 26. −19y 2 + 18y 3 − 5y 2 − 17y 3
19. −2x3 − 19x2 y − 15x2 y + 11x3 27. −14x3 + 16xy + 5x3 + 8xy
20. −9x2 y − 10y 3 − 10y 3 + 17x2 y 28. −16xy + 16y 2 + 7xy + 17y 2
21. −14xy − 2x3 − 2x3 − 4xy 29. 9n + 10 + 7 + 15n
3 3
22. −4x + 12xy + 4xy − 12x 30. −12r + 5 + 17 + 17r
23. −13 + 16m + m + 16 31. 3y + 1 + 6y + 3
24. 9 − 11x − 8x + 15 32. 19p + 6 + 8p + 13

In Exercises 33-56, simplify the expression by first using the distributive property to expand the ex-
pression, and then rearranging and combining like terms mentally.

33. −4(9x2 y + 8) + 6(10x2 y − 6) 37. −s + 7 − (−1 − 3s)

3 3
34. −4(−4xy + 5y ) + 6(−5xy − 9y ) 38. 10y − 6 − (−10 − 10y)
35. 3(−4x2 + 10y 2 ) + 10(4y 2 − x2 ) 39. −10q − 10 − (−3q + 5)
36. −7(−7x3 + 6x2 ) − 7(−10x2 − 7x3 ) 40. −2n + 10 − (7n − 1)
 206 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

41. 7(8y + 7) − 6(8 − 7y) 49. −8(−n + 4) − 10(−4n + 3)

42. −6(−5n − 4) − 9(3 + 4n) 50. 3(8r − 7) − 3(2r − 2)
43. 7(10x2 − 8xy 2 ) − 7(9xy 2 + 9x2 ) 51. −5 − (10p + 5)
44. 10(8x2 y − 10xy 2 ) + 3(8xy 2 + 2x2 y) 52. −1 − (2p − 8)
45. −2(6 + 4n) + 4(−n − 7) 53. 7(1 + 7r) + 2(4 − 5r)
46. −6(−2 − 6m) + 5(−9m + 7) 54. (5 − s) + 10(9 + 5s)
47. 8 − (4 + 8y) 55. −2(−5 − 8x2 ) − 6(6)
48. −1 − (8 + s) 56. 8(10y 2 + 3x3 ) − 5(−7y 2 − 7x3 )

57. The length L of a rectangle is 2 feet 60. The width W of a rectangle is 9 feet
longer than 6 times its width W . Find shorter than its length L. Find the
the perimeter of the rectangle in terms of perimeter of the rectangle in terms of its
its width alone. length alone.
58. The length L of a rectangle is 7 feet 61. The length L of a rectangle is 9 feet
longer than 6 times its width W . Find shorter than 4 times its width W . Find
the perimeter of the rectangle in terms of the perimeter of the rectangle in terms of
its width alone. its width alone.
59. The width W of a rectangle is 8 feet 62. The length L of a rectangle is 2 feet
shorter than its length L. Find the shorter than 6 times its width W . Find
perimeter of the rectangle in terms of its the perimeter of the rectangle in terms of
length alone. its width alone.

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. 55xy 2 15. −15x3

3. −21xy 2 17. 2 + 25n

5. −16xy 19. 9x3 − 34x2 y

7. 0 21. −18xy − 4x3

9. −16x 23. 3 + 17m

25. −6x2 y + 16xy 2

11. 2q
27. −9x3 + 24xy
13. −19r
 3.4. COMBINING LIKE TERMS 207

29. 24n + 17 47. 4 − 8y

31. 9y + 4 49. 48n − 62

33. 24x2 y − 68 51. −10 − 10p

2 2
35. −22x + 70y
53. 15 + 39r
37. 2s + 8
55. −26 + 16x2
39. −7q − 15
57. 4 + 14W
41. 98y + 1
59. 4L − 16
43. 7x2 − 119xy 2
61. 10W − 18
45. −40 − 12n
 208 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

3.5 Solving Equations Involving Integers II

We return to solving equations involving integers, only this time the equations
will be a bit more advanced, requiring the use of the distributive property and
skill at combining like terms. Let’s begin.

You Try It!

Solve for x: EXAMPLE 1. Solve for x: 7x − 11x = 12.

−6x − 5x = 22 Solution. Combine like terms.

7x − 11x = 12 Original equation.
−4x = 12 Combine like terms: 7x − 11x = −4x.
To undo the effect of multiplying by −4, divide both sides of the last equation
by −4.
−4x 12
= Divide both sides by −4.
−4 −4
x = −3 Simplify: 12/(−4) = −3.

Check. Substitute −3 for x in the original equation.

7x − 11x = 12 Original equation.
7(−3) − 11(−3) = 12 Substitute −3 for x.
−21 + 33 = 12 On the left, multiply first.
12 = 12 On the left, add.
Because the last line of the check is a true statement, −3 is a solution of the
Answer: x = −2 original equation.


You Try It!

Solve for x: EXAMPLE 2. Solve for x: 12 = 5x − (4 + x).

11 = 3x − (1 − x) Solution. To take the negative of a sum, negate each term in the sum (change
each term to its opposite). Thus, −(4 + x) = −4 − x.
12 = 5x − (4 + x) Original equation.
12 = 5x − 4 − x −(4 + x) = −4 − x.
12 = 4x − 4 Combine like terms: 5x − x = 4x.
To undo the effect of subtracting 4, add 4 to both sides of the last equation.
12 + 4 = 4x − 4 + 4 Add 4 to both sides.
16 = 4x Simplify both sides.
3.5. SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING INTEGERS II 209

To undo the effect of multiplying by 4, divide both sides of the last equation
by 4.
16 4x
= Divide both sides by 4.
4 4
4=x Simplify: 16/4 = 4.

Check. Substitute 4 for x in the original equation.

12 = 5x − (4 + x) Original equation.
12 = 5(4) − (4 + 4) Substitute 4 for x.
12 = 20 − 8 On the right, 5(4) = 20 and evaluate
parentheses: 4 + 4 = 8.
12 = 12 Simplify.

Because the last line of the check is a true statement, 4 is a solution of the
original equation. Answer: x = 3


Variables on Both Sides

Variables can occur on both sides of the equation.

Goal. Isolate the terms containing the variable you are solving for on one side
of the equation.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 3. Solve for x: 5x = 3x − 18. Solve for x:

Solution. To isolate the variables on one side of the equation, subtract 3x 4x − 3 = x
from both sides of the equation and simplify.

5x = 3x − 18 Original equation.
5x − 3x = 3x − 18 − 3x Subtract 3x from both sides.
2x = −18 Combine like terms: 5x − 3x = 2x
and 3x − 3x = 0.

Note that the variable is now isolated on the left-hand side of the equation. To
undo the effect of multiplying by 2, divide both sides of the last equation by 2.
2x −18
= Divide both sides by 2.
2 2
x = −9 Simplify: −18/2 = −9.
 210 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

Check. Substitute −9 for x in the original equation.

5x = 3x − 18 Original equation.
5(−9) = 3(−9) − 18 Substitute −9 for x.
−45 = −27 − 18 Multiply first on both sides.
−45 = −45 Subtract on the right: −27 − 18 = −45.

Because the last line of the check is a true statement, −9 is a solution of the
Answer: x = 1 original equation.


You Try It!

Solve for x: EXAMPLE 4. Solve for x: 5x = 3 + 6x.

7x = 18 + 9x Solution. To isolate the variables on one side of the equation, subtract 6x

from both sides of the equation and simplify.

5x = 3 + 6x Original equation.
5x − 6x = 3 + 6x − 6x Subtract 6x from both sides.
−x = 3 Combine like terms: 5x − 6x = −x
and 6x − 6x = 0.

Note that the variable is now isolated on the left-hand side of the equation.
There are a couple of ways we can finish this solution. Remember, −x is the
same as (−1)x, so we could undo the effects of multiplying by −1 by dividing
both sides of the equation by −1. Multiplying both sides of the equation by
−1 will work equally well. But perhaps the easiest way to proceed is to simply
negate both sides of the equation.

−(−x) = −3 Negate both sides.

x = −3 Simplify: −(−x) = x.

Check. Substitute −3 for x in the original equation.

5x = 3 + 6x Original equation.
5(−3) = 3 + 6(−3) Substitute −3 for x.
−15 = 3 − 18 Multiply first on both sides.
−15 = −15 Subtract on the right: 3 − 18 = −15.

Because the last line of the check is a true statement, −3 is a solution of the
Answer: x = −9 original equation.

3.5. SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING INTEGERS II 211

Dealing with −x. If your equation has the form

−x = c,

where c is some integer, note that this is equivalent to the equation (−1)x = c.
Therefore, dividing both sides by −1 will produce a solution for x. Multiplying
both sides by −1 works equally well. However, perhaps the easiest thing to do
is negate each side, producing

−(−x) = −c, which is equivalent to x = −c.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 5. Solve for x: 6x − 5 = 12x + 19. Solve for x:

Solution. To isolate the variables on one side of the equation, subtract 12x
2x + 3 = 18 − 3x
from both sides of the equation and simplify.
6x − 5 = 12x + 19 Original equation.
6x − 5 − 12x = 12x + 19 − 12x Subtract 12x from both sides.
−6x − 5 = 19 Combine like terms: 6x − 12x = −6x
and 12x − 12x = 0.
Note that the variable is now isolated on the left-hand side of the equation.
Next, to “undo” subtracting 5, add 5 to both sides of the equation.
−6x − 5 + 5 = 19 + 5 Add 5 to both sides.
−6x = 24 Simplify: −5 + 5 = 0 and 19 + 5 = 24.
Finally, to “undo” multiplying by −6, divide both sides of the equation by −6.
−6x 24
= Divide both sides by −6.
−6 −6
x = −4 Simplify: 24/(−6) = −4.

Check. Substitute −4 for x in the original equation.

6x − 5 = 12x + 19 Original equation.
6(−4) − 5 = 12(−4) + 19 Substitute −4 for x.
−24 − 5 = −48 + 19 Multiply first on both sides.
−29 = −29 Add: −24 − 5 = −29 and −48 + 19 = −29.
Because the last line of the check is a true statement, −4 is a solution of the
original equation. Answer: x = 3

 212 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

You Try It!

Solve for x: EXAMPLE 6. Solve for x: 2(3x + 2) − 3(4 − x) = x + 8.

3(2x − 4) − 2(5 − x) = 18 Solution. Use the distributive property to remove parentheses on the left-hand
side of the equation.

2(3x + 2) − 3(4 − x) = x + 8 Original equation.

6x + 4 − 12 + 3x = x + 8 Use the distributive property.
9x − 8 = x + 8 Combine like terms: 6x + 3x = 9x
and 4 − 12 = −8.

Isolate the variables on the left by subtracting x from both sides of the equation.

9x − 8 − x = x + 8 − x Subtract x from both sides.

8x − 8 = 8 Combine like terms: 9x − x = 8x
and x − x = 0.

Note that the variable is now isolated on the left-hand side of the equation.
Next, to “undo” subtracting 8, add 8 to both sides of the equation.

8x − 8 + 8 = 8 + 8 Add 8 to both sides.

8x = 16 Simplify: −8 + 8 = 0 and 8 + 8 = 16.

Finally, to “undo” multiplying by 8, divide both sides of the equation by 8.

8x 16
= Divide both sides by 8.
8 8
x=2 Simplify: 16/8 = 2.

Check. Substitute 2 for x in the original equation.

2(3x + 2) − 3(4 − x) = x + 8 Original equation.

2(3(2) + 2) − 3(4 − 2) = 2 + 8 Substitute 2 for x.
2(6 + 2) − 3(2) = 10 Work parentheses on left, add on the right.
2(8) − 3(2) = 10 Add in parentheses on left.
16 − 6 = 10 Multiply first on left.
10 = 10 Subtract on left.

Because the last line of the check is a true statement, 2 is a solution of the
Answer: x = 5 original equation.

 3.5. SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING INTEGERS II 213

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

In Exercises 1-16, solve the equation.

1. −9x + x = −8 9. 0 = −18x + 18
2. 4x − 5x = −3 10. 0 = −x + 71
3. −4 = 3x − 4x 11. 41 = 28x + 97
4. −6 = −5x + 7x 12. −65 = −x − 35
5. 27x + 51 = −84 13. 8x − 8 − 9x = −3
6. −20x + 46 = 26 14. 6x + 7 − 9x = 4
7. 9 = 5x + 9 − 6x 15. −85x + 85 = 0
8. −6 = x + 3 − 4x 16. 17x − 17 = 0

In Exercises 17-34, solve the equation.

17. −6x = −5x − 9 26. 3x = 4x − 6

18. −5x = −3x − 2 27. 2x − 2 = 4x
19. 6x − 7 = 5x 28. 6x − 4 = 2x
20. 3x + 8 = −5x 29. −6x + 8 = −2x
21. 4x − 3 = 5x − 1 30. 4x − 9 = 3x
22. x − 2 = 9x − 2 31. 6x = 4x − 4
23. −3x + 5 = 3x − 1 32. −8x = −6x + 8
24. −5x + 9 = −4x − 3 33. −8x + 2 = −6x + 6
25. −5x = −3x + 6 34. −3x + 6 = −2x − 5

In Exercises 35-52, solve the equation.

35. 1 − (x − 2) = −3 40. −7(−2x − 4) = −14

36. 1 − 8(x − 8) = 17 41. −7(−4x − 6) = −14
37. −7x + 6(x + 8) = −2 42. −2(2x + 8) = −8
38. −8x + 4(x + 7) = −12 43. 2 − 9(x − 5) = −16
39. 8(−6x − 1) = −8 44. 7 − 2(x + 4) = −1
 214 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

45. 7x + 2(x + 9) = −9 49. 8 + 2(x − 5) = −4

46. −8x + 7(x − 2) = −14 50. −5 + 2(x + 5) = −5
47. 2(−x + 8) = 10 51. 9x − 2(x + 5) = −10
48. 2(−x − 2) = 10 52. −8x − 5(x − 3) = 15

In Exercises 53-68, solve the equation.

53. 4(−7x + 5) + 8 = 3(−9x − 1) − 2 61. 2(−2x − 3) = 3(−x + 2)

54. −4(−x + 9) + 5 = −(−5x − 4) − 2 62. −2(7x + 1) = −2(3x − 7)
55. −8(−2x − 6) = 7(5x − 1) − 2 63. −5(−9x + 7) + 7 = −(−9x − 8)
56. 5(−4x − 8) = −9(−6x + 4) − 4 64. 7(−2x − 6) + 1 = 9(−2x + 7)
57. 2(2x − 9) + 5 = −7(−x − 8) 65. 5(5x − 2) = 4(8x + 1)
58. −6(−4x − 9) + 4 = −2(−9x − 8) 66. 5(−x − 4) = −(−x + 8)
59. 6(−3x + 4) − 6 = −8(2x + 2) − 8 67. −7(9x − 6) = 7(5x + 7) − 7
60. −5(5x − 9) − 3 = −4(2x + 5) − 6 68. −8(2x + 1) = 2(−9x + 8) − 2

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. 1 21. −2

3. 4 23. 1

5. −5 25. −3

27. −1
7. 0
29. 2
9. 1
31. −2
11. −2
33. −2
13. −5
35. 6
15. 1
37. 50
17. 9
39. 0
19. 7
41. −2
 3.5. SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING INTEGERS II 215

43. 7 57. −23

45. −3 59. 21
47. 3
61. −12
49. −1
63. 1
51. 0
65. −2
53. 33
67. 0
55. 3
216 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

3.6 Applications
Because we’ve increased our fundamental ability to simplify algebraic expres-
sions, we’re now able to tackle a number of more advanced applications. Before
we begin, we remind readers of required steps that must accompany solutions
of applications.

Requirements for Word Problem Solutions.

1. Set up a Variable Dictionary. You must let your readers know what
each variable in your problem represents. This can be accomplished in a
number of ways:
• Statements such as “Let P represent the perimeter of the rectangle.”
• Labeling unknown values with variables in a table.
• Labeling unknown quantities in a sketch or diagram.
2. Set up an Equation. Every solution to a word problem must include a
carefully crafted equation that accurately describes the constraints in the
problem statement.
3. Solve the Equation. You must always solve the equation set up in the
previous step.
4. Answer the Question. This step is easily overlooked. For example, the
problem might ask for Jane’s age, but your equation’s solution gives the
age of Jane’s sister Liz. Make sure you answer the original question asked
in the problem.
5. Look Back. It is important to note that this step does not imply that
you should simply check your solution in your equation. After all, it’s
possible that your equation incorrectly models the problem’s situation, so
you could have a valid solution to an incorrect equation. The important
question is: “Does your answer make sense based on the words in the
original problem statement.”

Consecutive Integers
The integers are consecutive, in the sense that one follows right after another.
For example, 5 and 6 are a pair of consecutive integers. The important relation
to notice is the fact that the second integer of this pair is one larger than its
predecessor. That is, 6 = 5 + 1.
3.6. APPLICATIONS 217

Consecutive Integers. Let k represent an integer. The next consecutive

integer is the integer k + 1.

Thus, if k is an integer, then k + 1 is the next integer, k + 2 is the next integer

after that, and so on.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 1. The three sides of a triangle are consecutive integers and the The three sides of a triangle
perimeter is 72 inches. Find the measure of each side of the triangle. are consecutive integers and
the perimeter is 57
Solution. We follow the Requirements for Word Problem Solutions.
centimeters. Find the
1. Set up a Variable Dictionary. In this case, a carefully labeled diagram is measure of each side of the
the best way to indicate what the unknown variable represents. triangle.

k+2
k

k+1

In our schematic diagram, we’ve labeled the three sides of the triangle
with expressions representing the consecutive integers k, k + 1, and k + 2.

2. Set up an Equation. To find the perimeter P of the triangle, sum the

three sides.
P = k + (k + 1) + (k + 2)
However, we’re given the fact that the perimeter is 72 inches. Thus,

72 = k + (k + 1) + (k + 2)

3. Solve the Equation. On the right, regroup and combine like terms.

72 = 3k + 3

Now, solve.

72 − 3 = 3k + 3 − 3 Subtract 3 from both sides.

69 = 3k Simplify.
69 3k
= Divide both sides by 3.
3 3
23 = k Simplify.
 218 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

4. Answer the Question. We’ve only found one side, but the question asks
for the measure of all three sides. However, the remaining two sides can
be found by substituting 23 for k into the expressions k + 1 and k + 2.
k + 1 = 23 + 1 and k + 2 = 23 + 2
= 24 = 25
Hence, the three sides measure 23 inches, 24 inches, and 25 inches.
5. Look Back. Does our solution make sense? Well, the three sides are
certainly consecutive integers, and their sum is 23 inches + 24 inches +
25 inches = 72 inches, which was the given perimeter. Therefore, our
Answer: 18, 19, and 20 cm solution is correct.

Consecutive Odd Integers

The integer pair 19 and 21 are an example of a pair of consecutive odd integers.
The important relation to notice is the fact that the second integer of this pair
is two larger than its predecessor. That is, 21 = 19 + 2.

Consecutive Odd Integers. Let k represent an odd integer. The next

consecutive odd integer is k + 2.

Thus, if k is an odd integer, then k + 2 is the next odd integer, k + 4 is the

next odd integer after that, and so on.

You Try It!

The length and width of a EXAMPLE 2. The length and width of a rectangle are consecutive odd
rectangle are consecutive odd integers and the perimeter is 168 centimeters. Find the length and width of
integers and the perimeter is the rectangle.
120 meters. Find the length
Solution. We follow the Requirements for Word Problem Solutions.
and width of the rectangle.
1. Set up a Variable Dictionary. In this case, a carefully labeled diagram is
the best way to indicate what the unknown variable represents.
k+2

k k

k+2
In our schematic diagram, if the width k is an odd integer, then the length
k + 2 is the next consecutive odd integer.
3.6. APPLICATIONS 219

2. Set up an Equation. To find the perimeter of the rectangle, sum the four
sides.
P = k + (k + 2) + k + (k + 2)
However, we’re given the fact that the perimeter is 168 centimeters. Thus,
168 = k + (k + 2) + k + (k + 2)

3. Solve the Equation. On the right, regroup and combine like terms.
168 = 4k + 4
Now, solve.
168 − 4 = 4k + 4 − 4 Subtract 4 from both sides.
164 = 4k Simplify.
164 4k
= Divide both sides by 4.
4 4
41 = k Simplify.

4. Answer the Question. We’ve only found the width, but the question asks
for the measure of both the width and the length. However, the length
can be found by substituting 41 for k into the expression k + 2.
k + 2 = 41 + 2
= 43
Hence, the width is 41 centimeters and the length is 43 centimeters.
5. Look Back. Does our solution make sense? Well, the width is 41 cm
and the length is 43 cm, certainly consecutive odd integers. Further,
the perimeter would be 41 cm + 43 cm + 41 cm + 43 cm = 168 cm, so our
solution is correct. Answer: W = 29 cm,
L = 31 cm


Tables
In the remaining applications in this section, we will strive to show how ta-
bles can be used to summarize information, define variables, and construct
equations to help solve the application.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 3. Hue inherits $10,000 and decides to invest in two different Dylan invests a total of
types of accounts, a savings account paying 2% interest, and a certificate of $2,750 in two accounts, a
deposit paying 4% interest. He decides to invest $1,000 more in the certificate savings account paying 3%
of deposit than in savings. Find the amount invested in each account. interest, and a mutual fund
paying 5% interest. He
invests $250 less in the
mutual fund than in savings.
Find the amount invested in
each account.
220 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

Solution. We follow the Requirements for Word Problem Solutions.

1. Set up a Variable Dictionary. We’re going to use a table to summarize
information and declare variables. In the table that follows, we let S
represent the amount Hue invests in the savings account. Using a variable
letter that “sounds like” the quantity it represents is an excellent strategy.
Thus, in this case, letting S represent the amount invested in savings is
far better than letting x represent the amount invested in savings.

Account Type Amount Deposited

Savings Account (2%) S
Certificate of Deposit (4%) S + 1000
Totals 10000

Because S represents the investment in savings, and we’re told that the
investment in the certificate of deposit (CD) is $1,000 more than the
investment in savings, the investment in the CD is therefore S + 1000, as
indicated in the table.
2. Set up an Equation. The second column of the table reveals that the
sum of the individual investments in the CD and savings totals $10,000.
Hence, the equation that models this application is
(S + 1000) + S = 10000.

3. Solve the Equation. On the left, regroup and combine like terms.
2S + 1000 = 10000
Now, solve.
2S + 1000 − 1000 = 10000 − 1000 Subtract 1000 from both sides.
2S = 9000 Simplify.
2S 9000
= Divide both sides by 2.
2 2
S = 4500 Simplify.

4. Answer the Question. We’ve only found the investment in savings, but
the question also asks for the amount invested in the CD. However, the
investment in the CD is easily found by substituting 4500 for S in the
expression S + 1000.
S + 1000 = 4500 + 1000
= 5500.
Hence, the investment in savings is $4,500 and the investment in the CD
is $5,500.
3.6. APPLICATIONS 221

5. Look Back. Does our solution make sense? Well, the amount invested
in the CD is $5,500, which is certainly $1,000 more than the $4,500 in-
vested in savings. Secondly, the two investments total $5, 500 + $4, 500 =
$10, 000, so our solution is correct. Answer: $1,500 in savings,
$1,250 in the mutual fund


You Try It!

EXAMPLE 4. Jose cracks open his piggy bank and finds that he has $3.25 David keeps his change in a
(325 cents), all in nickels and dimes. He has 10 more dimes than nickels. How bowl made by his
many dimes and nickels does Jose have? granddaughter. There is
$1.95 in change in the bowl,
Solution. We follow the Requirements for Word Problem Solutions.
all in dimes and quarters.
1. Set up a Variable Dictionary. We’re going to use a table to summarize There are two fewer quarters
information and declare variables. In the table that follows, we let N than dimes. How many
represent the number of nickels from the piggy bank. Using a variable dimes and quarters does he
letter that “sounds like” the quantity it represents is an excellent strategy. have in the bowl?
Thus, in this case, letting N represent the number of nickels is far better
than letting x represent the number of nickels.

Coins Number of Coins Value (cents)

Nickels (5 cents apiece) N 5N
Dimes (10 cents apiece) N + 10 10(N + 10)
Totals — 325

Because there are 10 more dimes than nickels, the number of dimes is
N + 10, recorded in the second column. In the third column, N nickels,
worth 5 cents apiece, have a value of 5N cents. Next, N + 10 dimes,
worth 10 cents apiece, have a value of 10(N + 10) cents. The final entry
in the column gives the total value of the coins as 325 cents.
2. Set up an Equation. The third column of the table reveals that the sum
of the coin values is 325 cents. Hence, the equation that models this
application is
5N + 10(N + 10) = 325,
which sums the value of the nickels and the value of the dimes to a total
of 325 cents.
3. Solve the Equation. On the left, use the distributive property to remove
parentheses.
5N + 10N + 100 = 325
Combine like terms.
15N + 100 = 325
 222 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

Now, solve.
15N + 100 − 100 = 325 − 100 Subtract 100 from both sides.
15N = 225 Simplify.
15N 225
= Divide both sides by 15.
15 15
N = 15 Simplify.

4. Answer the Question. We’ve only found the number of nickels, but the
question also asks for the number of dimes. However, the number of
dimes is easily found by substituting 15 for N in the expression N + 10.
N + 10 = 15 + 10
= 25.
Hence, Jose has 15 nickels and 25 dimes.
5. Look Back. Does our solution make sense? Well, the number of dimes is
25, which is certainly 10 more than 15 nickels. Also, the monetary value
of 15 nickels is 75 cents and the monetary value of 25 dimes is 250 cents,
Answer: 7 dimes, 5 quarters a total of 325 cents, or $3.25, so our solution is correct.

You Try It!

Emily purchase tickets to the EXAMPLE 5. A large children’s organization purchases tickets to the circus.
IMAX theater for her family. The organization has a strict rule that every five children must be accompanied
An adult ticket cost $12 and by one adult guardian. Hence, the organization orders five times as many child
a child ticket costs $4. She tickets as it does adult tickets. Child tickets are three dollars and adult tickets
buys two more child tickets are six dollars. If the total cost of tickets is $4,200, how many child and adult
than adult tickets and the tickets were purchased?
total cost is $136. How many
Solution. We follow the Requirements for Word Problem Solutions.
adult and child tickets did
she buy? 1. Set up a Variable Dictionary. We’re going to use a table to summarize
information and declare variables. In the table that follows, we let A
represent the number of adult tickets purchased. Using a variable letter
that “sounds like” the quantity it represents is an excellent strategy. Thus,
in this case, letting A represent the number of adult tickets is far better
than letting x represent the number of adult tickets.

Number of Tickets Cost (dollars)

Adults ($6 apiece) A 6A
Children ($3 apiece) 5A 3(5A)
Totals — 4200
3.6. APPLICATIONS 223

Because there are 5 times as many children’s tickets purchased than adult
tickets, the number of children’s tickets purchased is 5A, recorded in the
second column. In the third column, 5A children’s tickets at $3 apiece
will cost 3(5A) dollars, and A adult tickets at $6 apiece will cost 6A
dollars. The final entry in the column gives the total cost of all tickets
as $4,200.
2. Set up an Equation. The third column of the table reveals that the sum
of the costs for both children and adult tickets is $4,200. Hence, the
equation that models this application is

6A + 3(5A) = 4200

which sums the cost of children and adult tickets at $4,200.

3. Solve the Equation. On the left, use the associative property to remove
parentheses.
6A + 15A = 4200
Combine like terms.
21A = 4200

Now, solve.
21A 4200
= Divide both sides by 21.
21 21
A = 200 Simplify.

4. Answer the Question. We’ve only found the number of adult tickets, but
the question also asks for the number of children’s tickets. However, the
number of children’s tickets is easily found by substituting 200 for A in
the expression 5A.

5A = 5(200)
= 1000.

Hence, 1000 children’s tickets and 200 adult tickets were purchased.
5. Look Back. Does our solution make sense? Well, the number of children’s
tickets purchased is 1000, which is certainly 5 times more than the 200
adult tickets purchased. Also, the monetary value of 1000 children’s
tickets at $3 apiece is $3,000, and the monetary value of 200 adult tickets
at $6 apiece is $1,200, a total cost of $4,200. Our solution is correct. Answer: 8 adult and 10
child tickets

 224 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

1. The three sides of a triangle are consecu- 10. The width and length of a rectangle are
tive odd integers. If the perimeter of the consecutive odd integers. If the perime-
triangle is 39 inches, find the lengths of ter of the rectangle is 152 inches, find the
the sides of the triangle. width and length of the rectangle.

2. The three sides of a triangle are consecu- 11. The width and length of a rectangle are
tive odd integers. If the perimeter of the consecutive even integers. If the perime-
triangle is 51 inches, find the lengths of ter of the rectangle is 76 inches, find the
the sides of the triangle. width and length of the rectangle.

3. The width and length of a rectangle are 12. The width and length of a rectangle are
consecutive integers. If the perimeter of consecutive even integers. If the perime-
the rectangle is 142 inches, find the width ter of the rectangle is 300 inches, find the
and length of the rectangle. width and length of the rectangle.

4. The width and length of a rectangle are 13. The three sides of a triangle are consecu-
consecutive integers. If the perimeter of tive even integers. If the perimeter of the
the rectangle is 166 inches, find the width triangle is 144 inches, find the lengths of
and length of the rectangle. the sides of the triangle.

5. The three sides of a triangle are consecu- 14. The three sides of a triangle are consecu-
tive even integers. If the perimeter of the tive even integers. If the perimeter of the
triangle is 240 inches, find the lengths of triangle is 198 inches, find the lengths of
the sides of the triangle. the sides of the triangle.

6. The three sides of a triangle are consecu- 15. The three sides of a triangle are consecu-
tive even integers. If the perimeter of the tive integers. If the perimeter of the tri-
triangle is 30 inches, find the lengths of angle is 228 inches, find the lengths of the
the sides of the triangle. sides of the triangle.

7. The width and length of a rectangle are 16. The three sides of a triangle are consecu-
consecutive integers. If the perimeter of tive integers. If the perimeter of the tri-
the rectangle is 374 inches, find the width angle is 216 inches, find the lengths of the
and length of the rectangle. sides of the triangle.

8. The width and length of a rectangle are 17. The width and length of a rectangle are
consecutive integers. If the perimeter of consecutive even integers. If the perime-
the rectangle is 318 inches, find the width ter of the rectangle is 92 inches, find the
and length of the rectangle. width and length of the rectangle.

9. The width and length of a rectangle are 18. The width and length of a rectangle are
consecutive odd integers. If the perime- consecutive even integers. If the perime-
ter of the rectangle is 208 inches, find the ter of the rectangle is 228 inches, find the
width and length of the rectangle. width and length of the rectangle.
 3.6. APPLICATIONS 225

19. The three sides of a triangle are consecu- 22. The width and length of a rectangle are
tive integers. If the perimeter of the tri- consecutive odd integers. If the perime-
angle is 105 inches, find the lengths of the ter of the rectangle is 352 inches, find the
sides of the triangle. width and length of the rectangle.
20. The three sides of a triangle are consecu- 23. The three sides of a triangle are consecu-
tive integers. If the perimeter of the tri- tive odd integers. If the perimeter of the
angle is 123 inches, find the lengths of the triangle is 165 inches, find the lengths of
sides of the triangle. the sides of the triangle.
21. The width and length of a rectangle are 24. The three sides of a triangle are consecu-
consecutive odd integers. If the perime- tive odd integers. If the perimeter of the
ter of the rectangle is 288 inches, find the triangle is 99 inches, find the lengths of
width and length of the rectangle. the sides of the triangle.

25. A large children’s organization purchases 29. Steve cracks open a piggy bank and finds
tickets to the circus. The organization has $4.00 (400 cents), all in nickels and dimes.
a strict rule that every 8 children must There are 7 more dimes than nickels. How
be accompanied by one adult guardian. many nickels does Steve have?
Hence, the organization orders 8 times as
30. Liz cracks open a piggy bank and finds
many child tickets as it does adult tickets.
$4.50 (450 cents), all in nickels and dimes.
Child tickets are $7 and adult tickets are
There are 15 more dimes than nickels.
$19. If the total cost of tickets is $975,
How many nickels does Liz have?
how many adult tickets were purchased?
31. Jason inherits $20,300 and decides to in-
26. A large children’s organization purchases vest in two different types of accounts, a
tickets to the circus. The organization has savings account paying 2.5% interest, and
a strict rule that every 2 children must a certificate of deposit paying 5% inter-
be accompanied by one adult guardian. est. He decides to invest $7,300 more in
Hence, the organization orders 2 times as the certificate of deposit than in savings.
many child tickets as it does adult tickets. Find the amount invested in the savings
Child tickets are $6 and adult tickets are account.
$16. If the total cost of tickets is $532,
32. Trinity inherits $24,300 and decides to in-
how many adult tickets were purchased?
vest in two different types of accounts, a
savings account paying 2% interest, and a
27. Judah cracks open a piggy bank and finds
certificate of deposit paying 5.75% inter-
$3.30 (330 cents), all in nickels and dimes.
est. She decides to invest $8,500 more in
There are 15 more dimes than nickels.
the certificate of deposit than in savings.
How many nickels does Judah have?
Find the amount invested in the savings
account.
28. Texas cracks open a piggy bank and finds
$4.90 (490 cents), all in nickels and dimes. 33. Gina cracks open a piggy bank and finds
There are 13 more dimes than nickels. $4.50 (450 cents), all in nickels and dimes.
How many nickels does Texas have? There are 15 more dimes than nickels.
How many nickels does Gina have?
 226 CHAPTER 3. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ALGEBRA

34. Dylan cracks open a piggy bank and finds 40. Amber inherits $26,000 and decides to in-
$4.05 (405 cents), all in nickels and dimes. vest in two different types of accounts,
There are 6 more dimes than nickels. How a savings account paying 2.25% interest,
many nickels does Dylan have? and a certificate of deposit paying 4.25%
interest. She decides to invest $6,200
35. A large children’s organization purchases more in the certificate of deposit than in
tickets to the circus. The organization has savings. Find the amount invested in the
a strict rule that every 2 children must savings account.
be accompanied by one adult guardian.
41. A large children’s organization purchases
Hence, the organization orders 2 times as
tickets to the circus. The organization has
many child tickets as it does adult tickets.
a strict rule that every 8 children must
Child tickets are $4 and adult tickets are
be accompanied by one adult guardian.
$10. If the total cost of tickets is $216,
Hence, the organization orders 8 times as
how many adult tickets were purchased?
many child tickets as it does adult tickets.
Child tickets are $6 and adult tickets are
36. A large children’s organization purchases $16. If the total cost of tickets is $1024,
tickets to the circus. The organization has how many adult tickets were purchased?
a strict rule that every 2 children must
be accompanied by one adult guardian. 42. A large children’s organization purchases
Hence, the organization orders 2 times as tickets to the circus. The organization has
many child tickets as it does adult tickets. a strict rule that every 3 children must
Child tickets are $7 and adult tickets are be accompanied by one adult guardian.
$11. If the total cost of tickets is $375, Hence, the organization orders 3 times as
how many adult tickets were purchased? many child tickets as it does adult tickets.
Child tickets are $3 and adult tickets are
$18. If the total cost of tickets is $351,
37. Connie cracks open a piggy bank and finds
how many adult tickets were purchased?
$3.70 (370 cents), all in nickels and dimes.
There are 7 more dimes than nickels. How 43. Alan inherits $25,600 and decides to in-
many nickels does Connie have? vest in two different types of accounts, a
savings account paying 3.5% interest, and
38. Don cracks open a piggy bank and finds a certificate of deposit paying 6% inter-
$3.15 (315 cents), all in nickels and dimes. est. He decides to invest $6,400 more in
There are 3 more dimes than nickels. How the certificate of deposit than in savings.
many nickels does Don have? Find the amount invested in the savings
account.
39. Mary inherits $22,300 and decides to in- 44. Mercy inherits $27,100 and decides to in-
vest in two different types of accounts, a vest in two different types of accounts, a
savings account paying 2% interest, and savings account paying 3% interest, and
a certificate of deposit paying 4% inter- a certificate of deposit paying 4% inter-
est. She decides to invest $7,300 more in est. She decides to invest $8,700 more in
the certificate of deposit than in savings. the certificate of deposit than in savings.
Find the amount invested in the savings Find the amount invested in the savings
account. account.
 3.6. APPLICATIONS 227

45. Tony inherits $20,600 and decides to in- 47. A large children’s organization purchases
vest in two different types of accounts, a tickets to the circus. The organization has
savings account paying 2% interest, and a strict rule that every 2 children must
a certificate of deposit paying 4% inter- be accompanied by one adult guardian.
est. He decides to invest $9,200 more in Hence, the organization orders 2 times as
the certificate of deposit than in savings. many child tickets as it does adult tickets.
Find the amount invested in the savings Child tickets are $2 and adult tickets are
account. $14. If the total cost of tickets is $234,
how many adult tickets were purchased?
46. Connie inherits $17,100 and decides to in- 48. A large children’s organization purchases
vest in two different types of accounts, a tickets to the circus. The organization has
savings account paying 2% interest, and a strict rule that every 8 children must
a certificate of deposit paying 5.5% inter- be accompanied by one adult guardian.
est. She decides to invest $6,100 more in Hence, the organization orders 8 times as
the certificate of deposit than in savings. many child tickets as it does adult tickets.
Find the amount invested in the savings Child tickets are $8 and adult tickets are
account. $13. If the total cost of tickets is $1078,
how many adult tickets were purchased?

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. 11 in., 13 in., 15 in. 25. 13 adult tickets

3. 35 in., 36 in. 27. 12 nickels

5. 78 in., 80 in., 82 in. 29. 22 nickels

7. 93 in., 94 in. 31. $6, 500

9. 51 in., 53 in. 33. 20 nickels

11. 18 in., 20 in. 35. 12 child tickets

13. 46 in., 48 in., 50 in. 37. 20 nickels

15. 75 in., 76 in., 77 in. 39. $7, 500

17. 22 in., 24 in. 41. 16 child tickets

19. 34 in., 35 in., 36 in. 43. $9, 600

21. 71 in., 73 in. 45. $5, 700

23. 53 in., 55 in., 57 in. 47. 13 child tickets

 Chapter 4

Fractions

Around 3000BC, Egyptians were carving hierglyphs into stone monuments to

their kings and queens. Hierglyphs are pictures that represent objects and they
were used for words and numbers.
Oddly, fractions were always written as sums of “unit fractions,” fractions
whose numerator is always 1. For instance, instead of writing 3/5 , they would
write a sum of unit fractions.

3 1 1
= +
5 2 10
Much of the ancient Egyptian math that we know of was in service to the
agricultural and economic life of the people. in measuring dry goods such as
grains, special glyphs were used to represent basic fractional amounts, glyphs
that came together to represent the Eye of Horus.

Horus was a falcon-god whose father Osirus was murdered by his own
brother Seth. When Horus attempted to avenge his father’s death, Seth ripped
out Horus’ eye and cut it into six pieces, scattering them throughout Egypt.

229
230 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Taking pity on Horus, Thot, the god of learning and magic, found the pieces
and put them back together making Horus healthy and whole again.
Each piece of the Eye of Horus represents a different fraction of a hekat, or
volume of grain. It was written that an apprentice scribe added the fractions
one day and got
1 1 1 1 1 1 63
+ + + + + = .
2 4 8 16 32 64 64
Asking where the missing 1/64 was, he was told that Thot would make up
the difference to anyone “who sought and accepted is protection.”
In this chapter, you’ll learn how we use fractions.
4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 231

4.1 Equivalent Fractions

In this section we deal with fractions, numbers or expressions of the form a/b.

Fractions. A number of the form

a
b
where a and b are numbers is called a fraction. The number a is called the
numerator of the fraction, while the number b is called the denominator of the
fraction.

Near the end of this section, we’ll see that the numerator and denominator of
a fraction can also be algebraic expressions, but for the moment we restrict our
attention to fractions whose numerators and denominators are integers.
We start our study of fractions with the definition of equivalent fractions.

Equivalent Fractions. Two fractions are equivalent if they represent the

same numerical value.

But how can we tell if two fractions represent the same number? Well, one
technique involves some simple visualizations. Consider the image shown in
Figure 4.1, where the shaded region represents 1/3 of the total area of the
figure (one of three equal regions is shaded).

Figure 4.1: The shaded region is 1/3 of the whole region.

In Figure 4.2, we’ve shaded 2/6 of the entire region (two of six equal regions
are shaded).

Figure 4.2: The shaded region is 2/6 of the whole region.

232 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

In Figure 4.3, we’ve shaded 4/12 of the entire region (four of twelve equal
regions are shaded).

Figure 4.3: The shaded region is 4/12 of the whole region.

Let’s take the diagrams from Figure 4.1, Figure 4.2, and Figure 4.3 and stack
them one atop the other, as shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: One of three equals two of six equals four of twelve.

Figure 4.4 provides solid visual evidence that the following fractions are equiv-
alent.
1 2 4
= =
3 6 12
Key Observations
1. If we start with the fraction 1/3, then multiply both numerator and
denominator by 2, we get the following result.
1 1·2
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 2.
3 3·2
2
= Simplify numerator and denominator..
6
This is precisely the same thing that happens going from Figure 4.1 to 4.2,
where we double the number of available boxes (going from 3 available to
6 available) and double the number of shaded boxes (going from 1 shaded
to 2 shaded).
2. If we start with the fraction 1/3, then multiply both numerator and
denominator by 4, we get the following result.
1 1·4
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 4.
3 3·4
4
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
12
4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 233

This is precisely the same thing that happens going from Figure 4.1 to
4.3, where we multiply the number of available boxes by 4 (going from 3
available to 12 available) and multiply the number of shaded boxes by 4
(going from 1 shaded to 4 shaded).

The above discussion motivates the following fundamental result.

Creating Equivalent Fractions. If you start with a fraction, then multiply

both its numerator and denominator by the same number, the resulting frac-
tion is equivalent (has the same numerical value) to the original fraction. In
symbols,
a a·x
= .
b b·x

Arguing in Reverse. Reversing the above argument also holds true.

1. If we start with the fraction 2/6, then divide both numerator and denom-
inator by 2, we get the following result.

2 2÷2
= Divide numerator and denominator by 2.
6 6÷2
1
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
3
This is precisely the same thing that happens going backwards from
Figure 4.2 to 4.1, where we divide the number of available boxes by 2
(going from 6 available to 3 available) and dividing the number of shaded
boxes by 2 (going from 2 shaded to 1 shaded).

2. If we start with the fraction 4/12, then divide both numerator and de-
nominator by 4, we get the following result.

4 4÷4
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 4.
12 12 ÷ 4
1
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
3
This is precisely the same thing that happens going backwards from
Figure 4.3 to 4.1, where we divide the number of available boxes by 4
(going from 12 available to 3 available) and divide the number alignof
shaded boxes by 4 (going from 4 shaded to 1 shaded).

The above discussion motivates the following fundamental result.

 234 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Creating Equivalent Fractions. If you start with a fraction, then divide

both its numerator and denominator by the same number, the resulting frac-
tion is equivalent (has the same numerical value) to the original fraction. In
symbols,
a a÷x
= .
b b÷x

The Greatest Common Divisor

We need a little more terminology.

Divisor. If d and a are natural numbers, we say that “d divides a” if and only
if when a is divided by d, the remainder is zero. In this case, we say that “d is
a divisor of a.”

For example, when 36 is divided by 4, the remainder is zero. In this case, we

say that “4 is a divisor of 36.” On the other hand, when 25 is divided by 4,
the remainder is not zero. In this case, we say that “4 is not a divisor of 25.”

Greatest Common Divisor. Let a and b be natural numbers. The common

divisors of a and b are those natural numbers that divide both a and b. The
greatest common divisor is the largest of these common divisors.

You Try It!

Find the greatest common EXAMPLE 1. Find the greatest common divisor of 18 and 24.
divisor of 12 and 18
Solution. First list the divisors of each number, the numbers that divide each
number with zero remainder.

Divisors of 18 : 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 18
Divisors of 24 : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24

The common divisors are:

Common Divisors : 1, 2, 3, and 6

The greatest common divisor is the largest of the common divisors. That is,

Greatest Common Divisor = 6.

Answer: 6 That is, the largest number that divides both 18 and 24 is the number 6.

4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 235

Reducing a Fraction to Lowest Terms

First, a definition.

Lowest Terms. A fraction is said to be reduced to lowest terms if the greatest

common divisor of both numerator and denominator is 1.

Thus, for example, 2/3 is reduced to lowest terms because the greatest common
divisior of 2 and 3 is 1. On the other hand, 4/6 is not reduced to lowest terms
because the greatest common divisor of 4 and 6 is 2.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 2. Reduce the fraction 18/24 to lowest terms. Reduce the fraction 12/18 to
lowest terms.
Solution. One technique that works well is dividing both numerator and de-
nominator by the greatest common divisor of the numerator and denominator.
In Example 1, we saw that the greatest common divisor of 18 and 24 is 6. We
divide both numerator and denominator by 6 to get
18 18 ÷ 6
= Divide numerator and denominator by 6.
24 24 ÷ 6
3
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
4
Note that the greatest common divisor of 3 and 4 is now 1. Thus, 3/4 is reduced
to lowest terms.
There is a second way we can show division of numerator and denominator
by 6. First, factor both numerator and denominator as follows:
18 3·6
= Factor out a 6.
24 4·6

You can then show “division” of both numerator and denominator by 6 by

“crossing out” or “canceling” a 6 in the numerator for a 6 in the denominator,
like this:

3·

6
= Cancel common factor.
4·6


3
=
4
Note that we get the same equivalent fraction, reduced to lowest terms, namely
3/4. Answer: 2/3

 236 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Important Point. In Example 2 we saw that 6 was both a divisor and a

factor of 18. The words divisor and factor are equivalent.

We used the following technique in our second solution in Example 2.

Cancellation Rule. If you express numerator and denominator as a product,

then you may cancel common factors from the numerator and denominator.
The result will be an equivalent fraction.

Because of the “Cancellation Rule,” one of the most effective ways to reduce
a fraction to lowest terms is to first find prime factorizations for both numerator
and denominator, then cancel all common factors.

You Try It!

Reduce the fraction 28/35 to EXAMPLE 3. Reduce the fraction 18/24 to lowest terms.
lowest terms.
Solution. Use factor trees to prime factor numerator and denominator.
18 24
6 3 4 6
2 3 2 2 2 3

Once we’ve factored the numerator and denominator, we cancel common fac-
tors.
18 2·3·3
= Prime factor numerator and denominator.
24 2·2·2·3
2·3·3
=

Cancel common factors.
2 · 2 · 2 ·
3


3
= Remaining factors.
2·2
3
= Simplify denominator.
4

Answer: 4/5 Thus, 18/24 = 3/4.



You Try It!

Reduce the fraction 36/60 to EXAMPLE 4. Reduce the fraction 28/42 to lowest terms.
lowest terms.
Solution. Use factor trees to prime factor numerator and denominator.
4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 237

28 42
4 7 6 7
2 2 2 3

Now we can cancel common factors.

28 2·2·7
= Prime factor numerator and denominator.
42 2·3·7
2·2·

=

7
Cancel common factors.


2 · 3 ·

7
2
=
3
Thus, 28/42 = 2/3. Answer: 3/5


Reducing Fractions with Variables

We use exactly the same technique to reduce fractions whose numerators and
denominators contain variables.
You Try It!

EXAMPLE 5. Reduce Reduce:

56x2 y
25a3 b
60xy 2
40a2 b3
to lowest terms.
Solution. Use factor trees to factor the coefficients of numerator and denom-
inator.
56 60
4 14 6 10
2 2 2 7 2 3 2 5

Now cancel common factors.

56x2 y 2·2·2·7·x·x·y
= Prime factor numerator and denominator.
60xy 2 2·2·3·5·x·y·y

·2
2
·2·7·x

· x · y

= Cancel common factors.
2·


2·3·5·x

· y · y

2·7·x
= Remaining factors.
3·5·y
14x
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
15y
5a
Thus, 56x2 y/(60xy 2 ) = 14x/(15y). Answer:
8b2

238 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

A Word on Mathematical Notation.

There are two types of mathematical notation: (1) inline mathematical nota-
tion, and (2) displayed mathematical notation.

Inline Mathematical Notation. The notation 14x/(15y) is called inline

mathematical notation. When the same expression is centered on its own line,
as in
14x
,
15y
this type of notation is called displayed mathematical notation.

When you work a problem by hand, using pencil and paper calculations, the
preferred format is displayed notation, like the displayed notation used to sim-
plify the given expression in Example 5. However, computers and calculators
require that you enter your expressions using inline mathematical notation.
Therefore, it is extremely important that you are equally competent with ei-
ther mathematical notation: displayed or inline.
By the way, order of operations, when applied to the inline expression
14x/(15y), requires that we perform the multiplication inside the parentheses
first. Then we must perform multiplications and divisions as they occur, as we
move from left to right through the expression. This is why the inline notation
14x/(15y) is equivalent to the displayed notation

14x
.
15y

However, the expression 14x/15y is a different beast. There are no parentheses,

so we perform multiplication and division as they occur, moving left to right
through the expression. Thus, we must first take the product of 14 and x,
divide the result by 15, then multiply by y. In displayed notation, this result
is equivalent to
14x
· y,
15
which is a different result.
Some readers might wonder why we did not use the notation (14x)/(15y)
to describe the solution in Example 5. After all, this inline notation is also
equivalent to the displayed notation
14x
.
15y

However, the point is that we don’t need to, as order of operations already
requires that we take the product of 14 and x before dividing by 15y. If this
is hurting your head, know that it’s quite acceptable to use the equivalent
notation (14x)/(15y) instead of 14x/(15y). Both are correct.
4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 239

Equivalent Fractions in Higher Terms

Sometimes the need arises to find an equivalent fraction with a different, larger
denominator.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 6. Express 3/5 as an equivalent fraction having denominator 20. Express 2/3 as an equivalent
fraction having denominator
Solution. The key here is to remember that multiplying numerator and de-
21.
nominator by the same number produces an equivalent fraction. To get an
equivalent fraction with a denominator of 20, we’ll have to multiply numerator
and denominator of 3/5 by 4.
3 3·4
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 4.
5 5·4
12
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
20
Therefore, 3/5 equals 12/20. Answer: 14/21


You Try It!

EXAMPLE 7. Express 8 as an equivalent fraction having denominator 5. Express 5 as an equivalent

fraction having denominator
Solution. The key here is to note that
7.
8
8= Understood denominator is 1.
1

To get an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 5, we’ll have to multiply

numerator and denominator of 8/1 by 5.

8·5
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 5.
1·5
40
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
5
Therefore, 8 equals 40/5. Answer: 35/7

 240 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

You Try It!

Express 3/8 as an equivalent EXAMPLE 8. Express 2/9 as an equivalent fraction having denominator
fraction having denominator 18a.
24a.
Solution. To get an equivalent fraction with a denominator of 18a, we’ll have
to multiply numerator and denominator of 2/9 by 2a.
2 2 · 2a
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 2a.
9 9 · 2a
4a
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
18a
9a
Answer: Therefore, 2/9 equals 4a/(18a), or equivalently, (4a)/(18a).
24a


Negative Fractions
We have to also deal with fractions that are negative. First, let’s discuss
placement of the negative sign.
• Positive divided by negative is negative, so
3 3
=− .
−5 5

• But it is also true that negative divided by positive is negative. Thus,

−3 3
=− .
5 5

These two observations imply that all three of the following fractions are equiv-
alent (the same number):
3 3 −3
=− = .
−5 5 5
Note that there are three possible placements for the negative sign: (1) the
denominator, (2) the fraction bar, or (3) the numerator. Any one of these
placements produces an equivalent fraction.

Fractions and Negative Signs. Let a and b be any integers. All three of
the following fractions are equivalent (same number):
a a −a
=− = .
−b b b
4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 241

Mathematicians prefer to place the negative sign either in the numerator or on

the fraction bar. The use of a negative sign in the denominator is discouraged.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 9. Reduce: Reduce:

50x3
14y 5
−75x5
−35y 3
to lowest terms.
Solution. Prime factor numerator and denominator and cancel.
50x3 2·5·5·x·x·x
=
−75x5 −3 · 5 · 5 · x · x · x · x · x
2 · 5
· 5
· x
·x
·x

=
−3 ·
5 ·
5 · x


x·x
· x · x ·
2
=
−3 · x · x
2
=
−3x2
However, it is preferred that there be no negative signs in the denominator, so
let’s place the negative sign on the fraction bar (the numerator would suit as
well). Thus,
50x3 2
=− 2
−75x5 3x
2y 2
Answer: −
5

We also have the following result.

Fractions and Negative Signs. Let a and b be any integers. Then,

−a a
= .
−b b

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 10. Reduce: Reduce:

−12xy 2
−21a2 b3
−18x2 y
−56a3b
Solution. Unlike Example 9, some like to take care of the sign of the answer
first.
−12xy 2 12xy 2
2
=
−18x y 18x2 y
 242 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Now we can factor numerator and denominator and cancel common factors.

2·2·3·x·y·y
=
2·3·3·x·x·y
2 · 2 ·
3 · x

· y · y

=

2
· 3
· 3 · x

· x · y

2y
=
3x
Thus,
−12xy 2 2y
2
= .
−18x y 3x
3b2
Answer:
8a

 4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 243

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

In Exercises 1-12, find the GCD of the given numbers.

1. 72, 8 7. 72, 44
2. 76, 52 8. 10, 40
3. 52, 20 9. 16, 56
4. 56, 96 10. 54, 66
5. 36, 63 11. 84, 24
6. 63, 21 12. 75, 45

In Exercises 13-28, reduce the given fraction to lowest terms.

22 66
13. 21.
98 57
28 34
14. 22.
56 30
93 33
15. 23.
15 99
90 20
16. 24.
39 58
69 69
17. 25.
21 24
74 18
18. 26.
62 96
74 46
19. 27.
12 44
66 92
20. 28.
10 24

29. Express 3 as an equivalent fraction having 25

31. Express as an equivalent fraction hav-
denominator 24. 19
ing denominator 57.
29
30. Express 3 as an equivalent fraction having 32. Express as an equivalent fraction hav-
denominator 8. 22
ing denominator 44.
 244 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

33. Express 2 as an equivalent fraction having 1

37. Express as an equivalent fraction having
denominator 2. 3
denominator 24.
34. Express 2 as an equivalent fraction having 15
denominator 8. 38. Express as an equivalent fraction hav-
19
18 ing denominator 95.
35. Express as an equivalent fraction hav-
19 39. Express 16 as an equivalent fraction hav-
ing denominator 95.
ing denominator 4.
17
36. Express as an equivalent fraction hav- 40. Express 5 as an equivalent fraction having
22
ing denominator 44. denominator 2.

In Exercises 41-56, reduce the given fraction to lowest terms.

34 22
41. 49.
−86 −98
−48 −33
42. 50.
14 69
−72 42
43. 51.
−92 −88
27 −100
44. 52.
−75 48
−92 94
45. 53.
82 −6
−44 −36
46. 54.
−62 −38
−21 10
47. 55.
33 −86
57 −100
48. 56.
−99 −46

3 1
57. Express as an equivalent fraction having 60. Express as an equivalent fraction hav-
2 16
denominator 62n. ing denominator 80p.
6 3
58. Express as an equivalent fraction hav- 61. Express as an equivalent fraction having
25 2
ing denominator 50a. denominator 50n.
13 43
59. Express as an equivalent fraction hav- 62. Express as an equivalent fraction hav-
10 38
ing denominator 60m. ing denominator 76a.
 4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 245

63. Express 11 as an equivalent fraction hav- 66. Express 10 as an equivalent fraction hav-
ing denominator 4m. ing denominator 8b.
64. Express 13 as an equivalent fraction hav- 67. Express 6 as an equivalent fraction having
ing denominator 6n. denominator 5n.
65. Express 3 as an equivalent fraction having 68. Express 16 as an equivalent fraction hav-
denominator 10m. ing denominator 2y.

In Exercises 69-84, reduce the given fraction to lowest terms.

82y 5 −12x5
69. 77.
−48y 14x6
−40y 5 −28y 4
70. 78.
−55y 72y 6
−77x5 −74x
71. 79.
44x4 22x2
−34x6 56x2
72. 80.
−80x 26x3
−14y 5 −12y 5
73. 81.
54y 2 98y 6
96y 4 96x2
74. 82.
−40y 2 14x4
42x 18x6
75. 83.
81x3 −54x2
26x2 32x6
76. 84.
32x6 62x2

In Exercises 85-100, reduce the given fraction to lowest terms.

26y 2 x4 30y 5 x5
85. 89.
−62y 6x2 −26yx4

6x2 y 3 74x6 y 4
86. 90.
40x3 y 2 −52xy 3

−2y 6 x4 36x3 y 2
87. 91.
−94y 2x5 −98x4 y 5

90y 6 x3 84x3 y
88. 92.
39y 3 x5 16x4 y 2
 246 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

−8x6 y 3 −36y 3x5

93. 97.
54x3 y 5 51y 2 x
70y 5 x2 44y 5 x5
94. 98.
16y 4 x5 −88y 4x
34yx6 91y 3 x2
95. 99.
−58y 5 x4 −28y 5x5
99y 2 x3 −76y 2 x
96. 100.
88y 6 x −57y 5x6

101. Hurricanes. According to the National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration, in 2008 there
were 16 named storms, of which 8 grew into hurricanes and 5 were major.
i) What fraction of named storms grew into hurricanes? Reduce your answer to lowest terms.
ii) What fraction of named storms were major hurricanes? Reduce your answer to lowest terms.
iii) What fraction of hurricanes were major? Reduce your answer to lowest terms.

102. Tigers. Tigers are in critical decline because of human encroachment, the loss of more than
nine-tenths of their habitat, and the growing trade in tiger skins and body parts. Associated
Press-Times-Standard 01/24/10 Pressure mounts to save the tiger.

i) Write the loss of habitat as a fraction.

ii) Describe in words what the numerator and denominator of this fraction represent.
iii) If the fraction represents the loss of the whole original habitat, how much of the original
habitat remains?

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. 8 11
13.
49
3. 4 31
15.
5
5. 9
23
17.
7
7. 4
37
19.
9. 8 6
22
11. 12 21.
19
 4.1. EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS 247

1 93n
23. 57.
3 62n
23 78m
25. 59.
8 60m
23 75n
27. 61.
22 50n

72 44m
29. 63.
24 4m

75 30m
31. 65.
57 10m

4 30n
33. 67.
2 5n

90 41y 4
35. 69. −
95 24

8 7x
37. 71. −
24 4

64 7y 3
39. 73. −
4 27

17 14
41. − 75.
43 27x2
6
18 77. −
43. 7x
23
37
46 79. −
45. − 11x
41
6
7 81. −
47. − 49y
11
11 x4
49. − 83. −
49 3

21 13x2
51. − 85. −
44 31y 4

47 y4
53. − 87.
3 47x
5 15y 4 x
55. − 89. −
43 13
 248 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

18 13
91. − 99. −
49xy 3 4y 2 x3

4x3 1
93. − 101. i)
27y 2 2
5
17x2 ii)
95. − 16
29y 4
5
4 iii)
12yx 8
97. −
17
4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 249

4.2 Multiplying Fractions

Consider the image in Figure 4.5, where the vertical lines divide the rectangular
region into three equal pieces. If we shade one of the three equal pieces, the
shaded area represents 1/3 of the whole rectangular region.

Figure 4.5: The shaded region is 1/3 of the whole region.

We’d like to visualize taking 1/2 of 1/3. To do that, we draw an additional

horizontal line which divides the shaded region in half horizontally. This is
shown in Figure 4.6. The shaded region that represented 1/3 is now divided
into two smaller rectangular regions, one of which is shaded with a different
color. This region represents 1/2 of 1/3.

Figure 4.6: Shading 1/2 of 1/3.

Next, extend the horizontal line the full width of the rectangular region, as
shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7: Shading 1/2 of 1/3.

Note that drawing the horizontal line, coupled with the three original vertical
lines, has succeeded in dividing the full rectangular region into six smaller but
equal pieces, only one of which (the one representing 1/2 of 1/3) is shaded in a
new color. Hence, this newly shaded piece represents 1/6 of the whole region.
The conclusion of our visual argument is the fact that 1/2 of 1/3 equals 1/6.
In symbols,
1 1 1
· = .
2 3 6

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 1. Create a visual argument showing that 1/3 of 2/5 is 2/15. Create a visual argument
showing that 1/2 of 1/4 is
Solution. First, divide a rectangular region into five equal pieces and shade
1/8.
two of them. This represents the fraction 2/5.
 250 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Next, draw two horizontal lines that divide the shaded region into three equal
pieces and shade 1 of the three equal pieces. This represents taking 1/3 of 2/5.

Next, extend the horizontal lines the full width of the region and return the
original vertical line from the first image.

Note that the three horizontal lines, coupled with the five original vertical lines,
have succeeded in dividing the whole region into 15 smaller but equal pieces,
only two of which (the ones representing 1/3 of 2/5) are shaded in the new
color. Hence, this newly shaded piece represents 2/15 of the whole region. The
conclusion of this visual argument is the fact that 1/3 of 2/5 equals 2/15. In
symbols,
1 2 2
· = .
3 5 15
Answer:


Multiplication Rule
In Figure 4.7, we saw that 1/2 of 1/3 equals 1/6. Note what happens when we
multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators of the fractions 1/2
and 1/3.

1 1 1·1
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
2 3 2·3
1
= Simplify numerators and denominators.
6
We get 1/6!
Could this be coincidence or luck? Let’s try that again with the fractions
from Example 1, where we saw that 1/3 of 2/5 equals 2/15. Again, multiply
4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 251

the numerators and denominators of 1/3 and 2/5.

1 2 1·2
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
3 5 3·5
2
= Simplify numerators and denominators.
15
Again, we get 2/15!
These two examples motivate the following definition.

Multiplication Rule. To find the product of the fractions a/b and c/d,
multiply their numerators and denominators. In symbols,
a c a·c
· =
b d b·d

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 2. Multiply 1/5 and 7/9. Multiply:

Solution. Multiply numerators and multiply denominators. 1 2
·
1 7 1·7 3 5
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
5 9 5·9
7
= Simplify numerators and denominators.
45
6
Multiply:
15


You Try It!

EXAMPLE 3. Find the product of −2/3 and 7/9. Multiply:

Solution. The usual rules of signs apply to products. Unlike signs yield a 3 2
negative result. − ·
5 7
2 7 2·7
− · =− Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
3 9 3·9
14
=− Simplify numerators and denominators.
27
It is not required that you physically show the middle step. If you want to do
that mentally, then you can simply write
2 7 14
− · =− .
3 9 27
6
Answer: −
35

 252 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Multiply and Reduce

After multiplying two fractions, make sure your answer is reduced to lowest
terms (see Section 4.1).

You Try It!

Multiply: EXAMPLE 4. Multiply 3/4 times 8/9.

3 14 Solution. After multiplying, divide numerator and denominator by the great-
· est common divisor of the numerator and denominator.
7 9
3 8 3·8
· = Multiply numerators and denominators.
4 9 4·9
24
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
36
24 ÷ 12
= Divide numerator and denominator by GCD.
36 ÷ 12
2
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
3
Alternatively, after multiplying, you can prime factor both numerator and de-
nominator, then cancel common factors.
3 8 24
· = Multiply numerators and denominators.
4 9 36
2·2·2·3
= Prime factor numerator and denominator.
2·2·3·3
2 · 2 · 2 ·
3
=

Cancel common factors.

·2
2
· 3 · 3

2
=
3
2
Answer:
3


You Try It!

Multiply: EXAMPLE 5. Multiply −7x/2 and 5/(14x2 ).

3x 6 Solution. After multiplying, prime factor both numerator and denominator,
− · then cancel common factors. Note that unlike signs yields a negative product.
2 21x3
7x 5 35x
− · =− Multiply numerators and denominators.
2 14x2 28x2
5·7·x
=− Prime factor numerator and denominator.
2·2·7·x·x
5 · 7
· x


=− Cancel common factors.
2 · 2 ·
7 · x

·x
5
=−
4x
3
Answer: −
7x2

4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 253

Multiply and Cancel or Cancel and Multiply

When you are working with larger numbers, it becomes a bit harder to multiply,
factor, and cancel. Consider the following argument.
18 35 630
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
30 6 180
2·3·3·5·7
= Prime factor numerators and denominators.
2·2·3·3·5
2·


3·

3·

5·7
= Cancel common factors.
2·

2·

3·

3·

5
7
= Remaining factors.
2
There are a number of difficulties with this approach. First, you have to mul-
tiply large numbers, and secondly, you have to prime factor the even larger
results.
One possible workaround is to not bother multiplying numerators and de-
nominators, leaving them in factored form.
18 35 18 · 35
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
30 6 30 · 6
Finding the prime factorization of these smaller factors is easier.

(2 · 3 · 3) · (5 · 7)
= Prime factor.
(2 · 3 · 5) · (2 · 3)

Now we can cancel common factors. Parentheses are no longer needed in the
numerator and denominator because both contain a product of prime factors,
so order and grouping do not matter.

·

2 3·

3·

5·7
= Cancel common factors.
2·


3·

5·2·

3
7
= Remaining factors.
2
Another approach is to factor numerators and denominators in place, cancel
common factors, then multiply.
18 35 2·3·3 5·7
· = · Factor numerators and denominators.
30 6 2·3·5 2·3
2·3·3 ·7
=


·

5
Cancel common factors.
2·


3·

5 2·
3
7
= Remaining factors.
2
Note that this yields exactly the same result, 7/2.
 254 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Cancellation Rule. When multiplying fractions, cancel common factors ac-

cording to the following rule: “Cancel a factor in a numerator for an identical
factor in a denominator.”

You Try It!

Multiply: EXAMPLE 6. Find the product of 14/15 and 30/140.

6 70 Solution. Multiply numerators and multiply denominators. Prime factor,
·
35 36 cancel common factors, then multiply.

14 30 14 · 30
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
15 140 15 · 140
(2 · 7) · (2 · 3 · 5)
= Prime factor numerators and denominators.
(3 · 5) · (2 · 2 · 5 · 7)
2·


7·
2 ·
3 ·
5
= Cancel common factors.


3 · 5 ·
·2
2
· 5
· 7

1
= Multiply.
5

Note: Everything in the numerator cancels because you’ve divided the numer-
1
Answer: ator by itself. Hence, the answer has a 1 in its numerator.
3


When Everything Cancels. When all the factors in the numerator cancel,
this means that you are dividing the numerator by itself. Hence, you are left
with a 1 in the numerator. The same rule applies to the denominator. If
everything in the denominator cancels, you’re left with a 1 in the denominator.

You Try It!

6x 110y 2
EXAMPLE 7. Simplify the product: − · − .
Simplify: 55y 105x2

6a 35b2 Solution. The product of two negatives is positive.

· −
15b 10a2
6x 110y 2 6x 110y 2
− · − = · Like signs gives a positive.
55y 105x2 55y 105x2
4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 255

Prime factor numerators and denominators, then cancel common factors.

2·3·x 2 · 5 · 11 · y · y
= · Prime factor numerators & denominators.
5 · 11 · y 3·5·7·x·x
2·
3·x
2·
5·
11 · y
· y
= · Cancel common factors.
5·1 ·

y

1

7·x
3 · 5 ·
·x
2·2·y
= Remaining factors
5·7·x
4y
= Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
35x
21b
Answer: −
5a


Parallelograms
In this section, we are going to learn how to find the area of a parallelogram.
Let’s begin with the definition of a parallelogram. Recall that a quadrilat-
eral is a polygon having four sides. A parallelogram is a very special type of
quadrilateral.

Parallelogram. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are

parallel.

b
The side on which the parallelogram rests is called its base (labeled b in the
figure) and the distance from its base to the opposite side is called its height
(labeled h in the figure). Note that the altitude is perpendicular to the base
(meets the base at a 90◦ angle).

Figure 4.8 shows a rectangle having length b and width h. Therefore, the
area of the rectangle in Figure 4.8 is A = bh, which is found by taking the
product of the length and width. Take a pair of scissors and cut a triangle
from the right end of the rectangle as shown in Figure 4.9(a), then paste the
cut triangle to the left end as shown in Figure 4.9(b). The result, seen in
Figure 4.9(b) is a parallelogram having base b and height h.
Because we’ve thrown no material away in creating the parallelogram from
the rectangle, the parallelogram has the same area as the original rectangle.
That is, the area of the parallelogram is A = bh.
 256 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

b
Figure 4.8: The area of the rectangle is A = bh.

h h

b b
(a) Cut a triangle from right end. (b) Paste the triangle on left end.

Figure 4.9: Creating a parallelogram from a rectangle.

Area of a Parallelogram. A parallelogram having base b and height h has

area A = bh. That is, to find the area of a parallelogram, take the product of
its base and height.

You Try It!

The base of a parallelogram EXAMPLE 8. Find the area of the parallelogram pictured below.
measures 14 inches. The
height is 8/7 of an inch.
What is the area of the
parallelogram? 5/3 ft

6 ft

Solution. The area of the parallelogram is equal to the product of its base
and height. That is,

A = bh Area formula for parallelogram.

5
= (6 ft) ft Substitute: 6 ft for b, 5/3 ft for h.
3
30 2
= ft . Multiply numerators and denominators.
3
= 10 ft2 . Divide.

Answer: 16 square inches Thus, the area of the parallelogram is 10 square feet.

4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 257

Triangles
Let’s turn our attention to learning how to find the area of a triangle.

Triangle. A triangle is a three-sided polygon. It is formed by plotting three

points and connecting them with three line segments. Each of the three points
is called a vertex of the triangle and each of the three line segments is called a
side of the triangle.

b
The side on which the triangle rests is called its base, and the distance between
its base and opposite vertex is called its height of altitude. The altitude is
always perpendicular to the base; that is, it forms a 90◦ angle with the base.

It’s easily seen that a triangle has half the area of a parallelogram.

b
The parallelogram has area A = bh. Therefore, the triangle has one-half that
area. That is, the area of the triangle is A = (1/2)bh.

Area of a Triangle. A triangle having base b and height h has area A =

(1/2)bh. That is, to find the area of a triangle, take one-half the product of
the base and height.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 9. Find the area of the triangle pictured below. The base of a triangle
measures 15 meters. The
height is 12 meters. What is
the area of the triangle?
6 cm

13 cm
 258 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Solution. To find the area of the triangle, take one-half the product of the
base and height.

1
A= bh Area of a triangle formula.
2
1
= (13 cm)(6 cm) Substitute: 13 cm for b, 6 cm for h.
2
78 cm2
= Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
2
= 39 cm2 . Simplify.

Answer: 90 square meters Therefore, the area of the triangle is 39 square centimeters.


Identifying the Base and Altitude. Sometimes it can be a bit difficult to

determine the base and altitude (height) of a triangle. For example, consider
the triangle in Figure 4.10(a). Let’s say we choose the bottom edge of the
triangle as the base and denote its length with the variable b, as shown in
Figure 4.10(a).

b b
(a) The base is easy. (b) Adding the altitude (height).

Figure 4.10: Identifying the base and altitude (height) of a triangle.

The altitude (height) of the triangle is defined as the distance between the
base of the triangle and its opposite vertex. To identify this altitude, we must
first extend the base, as seen in the dashed extension in Figure 4.10(b), then
drop a perpendicular dashed line from the opposite vertex to the extended
base, also shown in Figure 4.10(b). This perpendicular is the altitude (height)
of the triangle and we denote its length by h.
But we can go further. Any of the three sides of a triangle may be designated
as the base of the triangle. Suppose, as shown in Figure 4.11(a), we identify a
different side as the base, with length denoted by the variable b.
The altitude to this new base will be a segment from the opposite vertex,
perpendicular to the base. Its length in Figure 4.11(b) is denoted by h.
In like manner, there is a third side of the triangle that could also be used as
the base. The altitude to this third side is found by dropping a perpendicular
from the vertex of the triangle directly opposite from this base. This would
also require extending the base. We leave this to our readers to explore.
4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 259

b b
h

(a) A different base. (b) Adding the altitude (height).

Figure 4.11: Identifying the base and altitude (height) of a triangle.

Key Point. Any of the three sides of a triangle may be used as the base. The
altitude is drawn by dropping a perpendicular from the opposite vertex to the
chosen base. This sometimes requires that we extend the base. Regardless of
which side we use for the base, the formula A = bh/2 will produce the same
area result.
 260 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

1. Create a diagram, such as that shown in 3. Create a diagram, such as that shown in
Figure 4.7, to show that 1/3 of 1/3 is 1/9. Figure 4.7, to show that 1/3 of 1/4 is 1/12.
2. Create a diagram, such as that shown in 4. Create a diagram, such as that shown in
Figure 4.7, to show that 1/2 of 1/4 is 1/8. Figure 4.7, to show that 2/3 of 1/3 is 2/9.

In Exercises 1-28, multiply the fractions, and simplify your result.

−21 22 17 3
5. · 17. ·
4 19 12 4
−4 21 7 10
6. · 18. ·
19 8 13 21
20 −17 −6 9
7. · 19. ·
11 22 23 10
−9 6 12 −5
8. · 20. ·
2 7 11 2
21 −14 −23 −6
9. · 21. ·
8 15 24 17
−17 −3 4 −21
10. · 22. ·
18 4 9 19
−5 7 24 5
11. · 23. ·
11 20 7 2
−5 −20 −20 −1
12. · 24. ·
2 19 23 2
8 −1 1 −8
13. · 25. ·
13 6 2 11
−12 5 −11 −20
14. · 26. ·
7 9 18 3
2 −9 −24 −7
15. · 27. ·
15 8 13 18
2 −21 21 −4
16. · 28. ·
11 8 20 5
 4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 261

In Exercises 29-40, multiply the fractions, and simplify your result.

−12y 3 2 13x6 9
29. · 6 35. ·
13 9y 15 16x2
−8x3 −6 −22x6 17
30. · 5 36. ·
3 5x 15 16x3
11y 3 6 −6y 3 −20
31. · 37. ·
24 5y 5 5 7y 6
11y 21 −21y −8
32. · 38. · 2
18 17y 6 5 3y
−8x2 −18 −3y 3 23
33. · 39. ·
21 19x 4 12y
2y 4 −7 −16y 6 −21
34. · 40. ·
11 18y 15 13y 4

In Exercises 41-56, multiply the fractions, and simplify your result.

13y 6 2x 19y 2 10x3

41. · 49. ·
20x4 7y 2 18x 7y 3
−8y 3 7x2 −20x −y 6
42. · 50. ·
13x6 10y 2 9y 3 4x3
23y 4 −7x6 −4y 3 −10x
43. · 51. ·
21x 4y 2 5x5 21y 4
−2x6 y 5 11y 2 −22x
44. · 52. ·
9y 4 20x 14x4 21y 3
11y 6 −2x4 −16x −7y 3
45. · 53. ·
12x6 7y 2 21y 2 5x2
16x3 11y 2 −4y 10x3
46. · 54. ·
13y 4 18x 5x 7y 6
x6 −7y 4 17x3 −12y 2
47. · 55. ·
21y 3 9x5 3y 6 7x4
−3y 3 14x5 −6x4 13y 2
48. · 56. ·
5x 15y 2 11y 3 8x5
 262 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

In Exercises 57-62, find the area of the parallelogram having the given base and altitude.

57. base = 8 cm, altitude = 7 cm 60. base = 2 cm, altitude = 6 cm

58. base = 2 cm, altitude = 11 cm 61. base = 18 cm, altitude = 14 cm
59. base = 6 cm, altitude = 13 cm 62. base = 20 cm, altitude = 2 cm

In Exercises 63-68, find the area of the triangle shown in the figure. (Note: Figures are not drawn to
scale.)

63. 66.

9 ft 15 ft

14 ft 10 ft

64. 67.

6 cm 4 cm

8 cm 5 cm
65. 68.

12 in 14 in
5 in 6 in

69. Weight on the Moon. On the moon, you would only weigh 1/6 of what you weigh on earth. If
you weigh 138 pounds on earth, what would your weight on the moon be?
 4.2. MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS 263

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. This shows that 1/3 of 1/3 is 1/9. 28

27.
39
8
29. −
39y 3
11
3. This shows that 1/3 of 1/4 is 1/12. 31.
20y 2
48x
33.
133
39x4
35.
231 80
5. −
38
24
37.
170 7y 3
7. −
121
23y 2
39. −
49 16
9. −
20
13y 4
41.
7 70x3
11. −
44
23y 2 x5
43. −
4 12
13. −
39
11y 4
45. −
3 42x2
15. −
20 xy
47. −
17 27
17.
16 95x2
49.
27 63y
19. −
115 8
51.
23 21yx4
21.
68 16y
53.
60 15x
23.
7 68
55. −
7xy 4
4
25. −
11 57. 56 cm2
 264 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

59. 78 cm2 65. 30 in2

61. 252 cm2 67. 10 cm2

63. 63 ft2 69. 23 pounds

4.3. DIVIDING FRACTIONS 265

4.3 Dividing Fractions

Suppose that you have four pizzas and each of the pizzas has been sliced into
eight equal slices. Therefore, each slice of pizza represents 1/8 of a whole pizza.

Figure 4.12: One slice of pizza is 1/8 of one whole pizza.

Now for the question: How many one-eighths are there in four? This is a
division statement. To find how many one-eighths there are in 4, divide 4 by
1/8. That is,
1
Number of one-eighths in four = 4 ÷ .
8
On the other hand, to find the number of one-eights in four, Figure 4.12 clearly
demonstrates that this is equivalent to asking how many slices of pizza are there
in four pizzas. Since there are 8 slices per pizza and four pizzas,

Number of pizza slices = 4 · 8.

The conclusion is the fact that 4 ÷ (1/8) is equivalent to 4 · 8. That is,

1
4÷ = 4·8
8
= 32.

Therefore, we conclude that there are 32 one-eighths in 4.

Reciprocals
The number 1 is still the multiplicative identity for fractions.
 266 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Multiplicative Identity Property. Let a/b be any fraction. Then,

a a a a
·1= and 1· = .
b b b b
The number 1 is called the multiplicative identity because the identical number
is returned when you multiply by 1.

Next, if we invert 3/4, that is, if we turn 3/4 upside down, we get 4/3. Note
what happens when we multiply 3/4 by 4/3.
3 4 3·4
· = Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
4 3 4·3
12
= Simplify numerators and denominators.
12
=1 Divide.

The number 4/3 is called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of 3/4. The
product of reciprocals is always 1.

Multiplicative Inverse Property. Let a/b be any fraction. The number

b/a is called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a/b. The product of
reciprocals is 1.
a b
· =1
b a
Note: To find the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of a number, simply invert
the number (turn it upside down).

For example, the number 1/8 is the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of 8

because
1
8 · = 1.
8
Note that 8 can be thought of as 8/1. Invert this number (turn it upside down)
to find its multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) 1/8.

You Try It!

Find the reciprocals of: EXAMPLE 1. Find the multiplicative inverses (reciprocals) of: (a) 2/3,
(a) −3/7 and (b) 15 (b) −3/5, and (c) −12.
Solution.

a) Because
2 3
· = 1,
3 2
the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of 2/3 is 3/2.
4.3. DIVIDING FRACTIONS 267

b) Because
3 5
− · − = 1,
5 3
the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of −3/5 is −5/3. Again, note that we
simply inverted the number −3/5 to get its reciprocal −5/3.
c) Because
1
−12 · − = 1,
12
the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of −12 is −1/12. Again, note that
we simply inverted the number −12 (understood to equal −12/1) to get its
reciprocal −1/12. Answer: (a) −7/3, (b) 1/15

Division
Recall that we computed the number of one-eighths in four by doing this cal-
culation:
1
4÷ = 4·8
8
= 32.

Note how we inverted the divisor (second number), then changed the division
to multiplication. This motivates the following definition of division.

Division Definition. If a/b and c/d are any fractions, then

a c a d
÷ = · .
b d b c
That is, we invert the divisor (second number) and change the division to
multiplication. Note: We like to use the phrase “invert and multiply” as a
memory aid for this definition.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 2. Divide 1/2 by 3/5. Divide:

Solution. To divide 1/2 by 3/5, invert the divisor (second number), then 2 10
÷
multiply. 3 3
1 3 1 5
÷ = · Invert the divisor (second number).
2 5 2 3
5
= Multiply.
6
Answer: 1/5

 268 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

You Try It!

2 4
Divide: EXAMPLE 3. Simplify the following expressions: (a) 3 ÷ and (b) ÷ 5.
3 5
15 Solution. In each case, invert the divisor (second number), then multiply.
÷5
7
a) Note that 3 is understood to be 3/1.
2 3 3
3÷ = · Invert the divisor (second number).
3 1 2
9
= Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
2

b) Note that 5 is understood to be 5/1.

4 4 1
÷5= · Invert the divisor (second number).
5 5 5
4
= Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
25
3
Answer:
7


After inverting, you may need to factor and cancel, as we learned to do in

Section 4.2.

You Try It!

Divide: EXAMPLE 4. Divide −6/35 by 33/55.

6 42 Solution. Invert, multiply, factor, and cancel common factors.
÷ −
15 35 6 33 6 55
− ÷ =− · Invert the divisor (second number).
35 55 35 33
6 · 55
=− Multiply numerators; multiply denominators.
35 · 33
(2 · 3) · (5 · 11)
=− Factor numerators and denominators.
(5 · 7) · (3 · 11)
2·3·5· 1
=−


1
Cancel common factors.


5 · 7 · ·

1
3 
1
2
=− Remaining factors.
7
Answer: −1/3 Note that unlike signs produce a negative answer.


Of course, you can also choose to factor numerators and denominators in

place, then cancel common factors.
4.3. DIVIDING FRACTIONS 269

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 5. Divide −6/x by −12/x2 . Divide:

Solution. Invert, factor numerators and denominators, cancel common fac- 12 15
tors, then multiply. − ÷ − 3
a a
6 12 6 x2
− ÷ − 2 =− · − Invert second number.
x x x 12
2·3 x·x
=− ·− Factor numerators and denominators.
x 2·2·3
2·


3 x·x
=− ·−
Cancel common factors.
x

2 ·2

· 3

x
= Multiply.
2
4a2
Note that like signs produce a positive answer. Answer: −
5

 270 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

In Exercises 1-16, find the reciprocal of the given number.

1. −16/5 9. −46
2. −3/20 10. −50
3. −17 11. −9/19
4. −16 12. −4/7
5. 15/16 13. 3/17
6. 7/9 14. 3/5
7. 30 15. 11
8. 28 16. 48

In Exercises 17-32, determine which property of multiplication is depicted by the given identity.

2 9 4 1
17. · =1 25. − · − =1
9 2 1 4
12 19
18. · =1 9 10
19 12 26. − · − =1
10 9
−19 −19
19. ·1= 8 8
12 12 27. ·1 =
1 1
−19 −19
20. ·1= 13 13
8 8 28. ·1=
15 15
1
21. −6 · − =1 1
6 29. 14 · =1
14
1 1
22. −19 · − =1 30. 4· =1
19 4
−16 −16 13 13
23. ·1= 31. ·1=
11 11 8 8
−7 −7 1 1
24. ·1 = 32. ·1=
6 6 13 13
 4.3. DIVIDING FRACTIONS 271

In Exercises 33-56, divide the fractions, and simplify your result.

8 −6 2 24
33. ÷ 45. ÷
23 11 19 23
−10 −6 7 −10
34. ÷ 46. ÷
21 5 3 21
18 −16 −9 −24
35. ÷ 47. ÷
19 23 5 19
13 17 14 −22
36. ÷ 48. ÷
10 18 17 21
4 −6 18 14
37. ÷ 49. ÷
21 5 11 9
2 −12 5 20
38. ÷ 50. ÷
9 19 6 19
−1 8 13 4
39. ÷ 51. ÷
9 3 18 9
1 −15 −3 −7
40. ÷ 52. ÷
2 8 2 12
−21 3 11 −21
41. ÷ 53. ÷
11 10 2 10
7 −23 −9 −13
42. ÷ 54. ÷
24 2 2 22
−12 2 3 12
43. ÷ 55. ÷
7 3 10 5
−9 6 −22 −18
44. ÷ 56. ÷
16 7 7 17

In Exercises 57-68, divide the fractions, and simplify your result.

20 −10
57. ÷5 63. 8 ÷
17 17
21 20
58. ÷7 64. −6 ÷
8 21
21 18
59. −7 ÷ 65. −8 ÷
20 5
12 −21
60. −3 ÷ 66. 6÷
17 8
8 3
61. ÷2 67. ÷ (−9)
21 4
−3 2
62. ÷ (−6) 68. ÷ (−8)
4 9
 272 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

In Exercises 69-80, divide the fractions, and simplify your result.

11x2 8x4 −3x4 −4x

69. ÷ 75. ÷
12 3 10 5
−4x2 11x6 18y 4 4y 2
70. ÷ 76. ÷
3 6 11 7
17y 10y 6 −15y 2 −10y 5
71. ÷ 77. ÷
9 3 14 13
−5y −3y 5 3x 2x3
72. ÷ 78. ÷
12 2 20 5
−22x4 12x −15x5 20x2
73. ÷ 79. ÷
13 11 13 19
−9y 6 24y 5 18y 6 14y 4
74. ÷ 80. ÷
4 13 7 9

In Exercises 81-96, divide the fractions, and simplify your result.

11y 4 −9y 2 −16y 2 2y 6

81. ÷ 89. ÷
14x2 7x3 3x3 11x5
−5x2 −22x −20x −22x5
82. ÷ 90. ÷
12y 3 21y 5 21y 2 y6
10x4 7x5 −x −23x3
83. ÷ 91. 4
÷
3y 4 24y 2 12y 16y 3
20x3 5x5 20x2 8x3
84. ÷ 3 92. ÷
11y 5 6y 17y 3 15y
22y 4 −5y 2 y2 −9y 5
85. ÷ 93. ÷
21x5 6x4 4x 8x3
−7y 5 21y −10y 4 −5y 6
86. ÷ 5 94. ÷
8x6 5x 13x2 6x3
−22x4 −17x3 −18x6 3x
87. ÷ 95. ÷ 2
21y 3 3y 4 13y 4 y
−7y 4 −15y 20x4 14x2
88. ÷ 96. ÷
4x 22x4 9y 6 17y 4
 4.3. DIVIDING FRACTIONS 273

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

5 10
1. − 37. −
16 63
1 1
3. − 39. −
17 24
16 70
5. 41. −
15 11

1 18
7. 43. −
30 7

1 23
9. − 45.
228
46
19 57
11. − 47.
9 40

17 81
13. 49.
3 77

1 13
15. 51.
11 8
55
17. multiplicative inverse property 53. −
21
19. multiplicative identity property 1
55.
8
21. multiplicative inverse property
4
57.
23. multiplicative identity property 17

25. multiplicative inverse property 20

59. −
3
27. multiplicative identity property 4
61.
21
29. multiplicative inverse property
68
31. multiplicative identity property 63. −
5
44 20
33. − 65. −
69 9
207 1
35. − 67. −
152 12
 274 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

11 80
69. 83.
32x2 7xy 2

71.
17 44y 2
30y 5 85. −
35x

121x3 22xy
73. − 87.
78 119

3x3 88x2
75. 89. −
8 3y 4

39 4
77. 91.
28y 3 69x2 y

57x3 2x2
79. − 93. −
52 9y 3

11y 2 x 6x5
81. − 95. −
18 13y 2
4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 275

4.4 Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Paul and Tony order a pizza which has been cut into eight equal slices. Thus,
each slice is 1/8 of the whole pizza. Paul eats two slices (shaded in light gray in
Figure 4.13), or 2/8 of the whole pizza. Tony eats three slices (shaded in light
red (or a darker shade of gray in black-and-white printing) in Figure 4.13), or
3/8 of the whole pizza.

Figure 4.13: Paul eats two slices (2/8) and Tony eats three slices (3/8).

It should be clear that together Paul and Tony eat five slices, or 5/8 of the
whole pizza. This reflects the fact that
2 3 5
+ = .
8 8 8
This demonstrates how to add two fractions with a common (same) denomi-
nator. Keep the common denominator and add the numerators. That is,
2 3 2+3
+ = Keep denominator; add numerators.
8 8 8
5
= Simplify numerator.
8

Adding Fractions with Common Denominators. Let a/c and b/c be two
fractions with a common (same) denominator. Their sum is defined as

a b a+b
+ = .
c c c
That is, to add two fractions having common denominators, keep the common
denominator and add their numerators.

A similar rule holds for subtraction.

Subtracting Fractions with Common Denominators. Let a/c and b/c be

two fractions with a common (same) denominator. Their difference is defined
as
a b a−b
− = .
c c c
 276 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

That is, to subtract two fractions having common denominators, keep the com-
mon denominator and subtract their numerators.

You Try It!

Add: EXAMPLE 1. Find the sum of 4/9 and 3/9.

1 2
+ Solution. Keep the common denominator and add the numerators.
8 8
4 3 4+3
+ = Keep denominator; add numerators.
9 9 9
7
= Simplify numerator.
9

Answer: 3/8


You Try It!

Subtract: EXAMPLE 2. Subtract 5/16 from 13/16.

11 7 Solution. Keep the common denominator and subtract the numerators.
−
12 12
13 5 13 − 5
− = Keep denominator; subtract numerators.
16 16 16
8
= Simplify numerator.
16

Of course, as we learned in Section 4.1, we should always reduce our final

answer to lowest terms. One way to accomplish that in this case is to divide
numerator and denominator by 8, the greatest common divisor of 8 and 16.

8÷8
= Divide numerator and denominator by 8.
16 ÷ 8
1
= Simplify numerator and denominator.
2

Answer: 1/3


You Try It!

3 7
EXAMPLE 3. Simplify: − − .
Subtract: x x
5 2
− − −
y y
4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 277

Solution. Both fractions share a common denominator.

3 7 3 7
− − = + Add the opposite.
x x x x
3+7
= Keep denominator, add numerators.
x
10
= Simplify.
x
Answer: −3/y


Adding Fractions with Different Denominators

Consider the sum
4 1
+ .
9 6
We cannot add these fractions because they do not have a common denomina-
tor. So, what to do?

Goal. In order to add two fractions with different denominators, we need to:
1. Find a common denominator for the given fractions.
2. Make fractions with the common denominator that are equivalent to the
original fractions.

If we accomplish the two items in the “Goal,” we will be able to find the sum
of the given fractions.
So, how to start? We need to find a common denominator, but not just
any common denominator. Let’s agree that we want to keep the numbers as
small as possible and find a least common denominator.

Least Common Denominator. The least common denominator (LCD) for

a set of fractions is the smallest number divisible by each of the denominators
of the given fractions.

Consider again the sum we wish to find:

4 1
+ .
9 6
The denominators are 9 and 6. We wish to find a least common denominator,
the smallest number that is divisible by both 9 and 6. A number of candidates
278 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

come to mind: 36, 54, and 72 are all divisible by 9 and 6, to name a few. But
the smallest number that is divisible by both 9 and 6 is 18. This is the least
common denominator for 9 and 6.
We now proceed to the second item in “Goal.” We need to make fractions
having 18 as a denominator that are equivalent to 4/9 and 1/6. In the case of
4/9, if we multiply both numerator and denominator by 2, we get
4 4·2
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 2.
9 9·2
8
= . Simplify numerator and denominator.
18
In the case of 1/6, if we multiply both numerator and denominator by 3, we
get
1 1·3
= Multiply numerator and denominator by 3.
6 6·3
3
= . Simplify numerator and denominator.
18
Typically, we’ll arrange our work as follows.
4 1 4·2 1·3
+ = + Equivalent fractions with LCD = 18.
9 6 9·2 6·3
8 3
= + Simplify numerators and denominators.
18 18
8+3
= Keep common denominator; add numerators.
18
11
= Simplify numerator.
18
Let’s summarize the procedure.

Adding or Subtracting Fractions with Different Denominators.

1. Find the LCD, the smallest number divisible by all the denominators of
the given fractions.
2. Create fractions using the LCD as the denominator that are equivalent
to the original fractions.
3. Add or subtract the resulting equivalent fractions. Simplify, including
reducing the final answer to lowest terms.
4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 279

You Try It!

3 2
EXAMPLE 4. Simplify: − . Subtract:
5 3
Solution. The smallest number divisible by both 5 and 3 is 15. 3 7
−
4 5
3 2 3·3 2·5
− = − Equivalent fractions with LCD = 15.
5 3 5·3 3·5
9 10
= − Simplify numerators and denominators.
15 15
9 − 10
= Keep LCD; subtract numerators.
15
−1
= Simplify numerator.
15

Although this answer is perfectly acceptable, negative divided by positive gives

us a negative answer, so we could also write

1
=− .
15
Answer: −13/20


You Try It!

1 5
EXAMPLE 5. Simplify: − − . Subtract:
4 6
Solution. The smallest number divisible by both 4 and 6 is 12. 3 1
− −
8 12
1 5 1·3 5·2
− − =− − Equivalent fractions with LCD = 12.
4 6 4·3 6·2
3 10
=− − Simplify numerators and denominators.
12 12
−3 − 10
= Keep LCD; subtract numerators.
12
−13
= Simplify numerator.
12
Answer: −11/24

 280 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

You Try It!

5 3
Add: EXAMPLE 6. Simplify: + .
5 2 x 4
+
z 3 Solution. The smallest number divisible by both 4 and x is 4x.

5 3 5·4 3·x
+ = + Equivalent fractions with LCD = 4x.
x 4 x·4 4·x
20 3x
= + Simplify numerators and denominators.
4x 4x
20 + 3x
= Keep LCD; add numerators.
4x
15 + 2z
Answer:
3z


You Try It!

2 x
Simplify: EXAMPLE 7. Simplify: − .
3 5
3 y Solution. The smallest number divisible by both 3 and 5 is 15.
−
7 4
2 x 2·5 x·3
− = − Equivalent fractions with LCD = 15.
3 5 3·5 5·3
10 3x
= − Simplify numerators and denominators.
15 15
10 − 3x
= Keep LCD; subtract numerators.
15
12 − 7y
Answer:
28


Least Common Multiple

First we define the multiple of a number.

Multiples. The multiples of a number d are 1d, 2d, 3d, 4d, etc. That is, the
multiples of d are the numbers nd, where n is a natural number.

For example, the multiples of 8 are 1 · 8, 2 · 8, 3 · 8, 4 · 8, etc., or equivalently,

8, 16, 24, 32, etc.
4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 281

Least Common Multiple. The least common multiple (LCM) of a set of

numbers is the smallest number that is a multiple of each number of the given
set. The procedure for finding an LCM follows:
1. List all of the multiples of each number in the given set of numbers.
2. List the multiples that are in common.
3. Pick the least of the multiples that are in common.

You Try It!

EXAMPLE 8. Find the least common multiple (LCM) of 12 and 16. Find the least common
denominator of 6 and 9.
Solution. List the multiples of 12 and 16.

Multiples of 12 : 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, . . .

Multiples of 16 : 16, 32, 48, 64, 80, 96, 112, . . .

Pick the common multiples.

Common Multiples : 48, 96, . . .

The LCM is the least of the common multiples.

LCM(12,16) = 48

Answer: 18


Important Observation. The least common denominator is the least com-

mon multiple of the denominators.

For example, suppose your problem is 5/12 + 5/16. The LCD is the smallest
number divisible by both 12 and 16. That number is 48, which is also the LCM
of 12 and 16. Therefore, the procedure for finding the LCM can also be used
to find the LCD.

Least Common Multiple Using Prime Factorization

You can also find the LCM using prime factorization.
 282 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

LCM by Prime Factorization. To find an LCM for a set of numbers, follow

this procedure:

1. Write down the prime factorization for each number in compact form
using exponents.
2. The LCM is found by writing down every factor that appears in step 1
to the highest power of that factor that appears.

You Try It!

Use prime factorization to EXAMPLE 9. Use prime factorization to find the least common multiple
find the least common (LCM) of 12 and 16.
denominator of 18 and 24.
Solution. Prime factor 12 and 16.

12 = 2 · 2 · 3
16 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2

Write the prime factorizations in compact form using exponents.

12 = 22 · 31
16 = 24

To find the LCM, write down each factor that appears to the highest power
of that factor that appears. The factors that appear are 2 and 3. The highest
power of 2 that appears is 24 . The highest power of 3 that appears is 31 .

LCM = 24 · 31 Keep highest power of each factor.

Now we expand this last expression to get our LCM.

= 16 · 3 Expand: 24 = 16 and 31 = 3.
= 48. Multiply.

Note that this answer is identical to the LCM found in Example 8 that was
Answer: 72 found by listing multiples and choosing the smallest multiple in common.


You Try It!

5 11
Simplify: EXAMPLE 10. Simplify: + .
28 42
5 5
+
24 36
4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 283

Solution. Prime factor the denominators in compact form using exponents.

28 = 2 · 2 · 7 = 22 · 7
42 = 2 · 3 · 7 = 21 · 31 · 71

To find the LCD, write down each factor that appears to the highest power of
that factor that appears. The factors that appear are 2, 3, and 7. The highest
power of 2 that appears is 22 . The highest power of 3 that appears is 31 . The
highest power of 7 that appears is 71 .

LCM = 22 · 31 · 71 Keep highest power of each factor.

= 4·3·7 Expand: 22 = 4, 31 = 3, 71 = 7.
= 84 Multiply.

Create equivalent fractions with the new LCD, then add.

5 11 5·3 11 · 2
+ = + Equivalent fractions with LCD=84.
28 42 28 · 3 42 · 2
15 22
= + Simplify numerators and denominators.
84 84
37
= Keep LCD; add numerators.
84

Answer: 25/72


You Try It!

11 1
EXAMPLE 11. Simplify: − − . Simplify:
24 18
Solution. Prime factor the denominators in compact form using exponents. 5 11
− −
24 36
24 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 = 23 · 31
18 = 2 · 3 · 3 = 21 · 32

To find the LCD, write down each factor that appears to the highest power of
that factor that appears. The factors that appear are 2 and 3. The highest
power of 2 that appears is 23 . The highest power of 3 that appears is 32 .

LCM = 23 · 32 Keep highest power of each factor.

= 8·9 Expand: 23 = 8 and 32 = 9.
= 72. Multiply.
 284 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

Create equivalent fractions with the new LCD, then subtract.

11 1 11 · 3 1·4
− − =− − Equivalent fractions with LCD=72.
24 18 24 · 3 18 · 4
33 4
=− − Simplify numerators and denominators.
72 72
−33 − 4
= Keep LCD; subtract numerators.
72
−37
= Simplify numerator.
72

Of course, negative divided by positive yields a negative answer, so we can also

write our answer in the form
11 1 37
− − =− .
24 18 72
Answer: −37/72


Comparing Fractions
The simplest way to compare fractions is to create equivalent fractions.

You Try It!

Compare −3/8 and −1/2. EXAMPLE 12. Arrange the fractions −1/2 and −4/5 on a number line, then
compare them by using the appropriate inequality symbol.
Solution. The least common denominator for 2 and 5 is the number 10. First,
make equivalent fractions with a LCD equal to 10.
1 1·5 5
− =− =−
2 2·5 10
4 4·2 8
− =− =−
5 5·2 10
To plot tenths, subdivide the interval between −1 and 0 into ten equal incre-
ments.
8 5
− −
10 10
 

−1 4 1 0
− −
5 2
Because −4/5 lies to the left of −1/2, we have that −4/5 is less than −1/2, so
we write
4 1
− <− .
5 2
1 3
Answer: − <−
2 8

 4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 285

❧ ❧ ❧ Exercises ❧ ❧ ❧

In Exercises 1-10, list the multiples the given numbers, then list the common multiples. Select the
LCM from the list of common multiples.

1. 9 and 15 6. 6 and 10
2. 15 and 20 7. 20 and 12
3. 20 and 8 8. 12 and 8
4. 15 and 6 9. 10 and 6
5. 16 and 20 10. 10 and 12

In Exercises 11-20, for the given numbers, calculate the LCM using prime factorization.

11. 54 and 12 16. 108 and 72

12. 108 and 24 17. 36 and 24
13. 18 and 24 18. 18 and 12
14. 36 and 54 19. 12 and 18
15. 72 and 108 20. 12 and 54

In Exercises 21-32, add or subtract the fractions, as indicated, and simplify your result.

7 1 3 4
21. − 27. −
12 12 7 7
3 5 6 2
22. − 28. −
7 7 7 7
1 1 4 9
23. + 29. +
9 9 11 11
1 3 10 4
24. + 30. +
7 7 11 11
1 4 3 4
25. − 31. +
5 5 11 11
3 2 3 2
26. − 32. +
5 5 7 7
 286 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

In Exercises 33-56, add or subtract the fractions, as indicated, and simplify your result.

1 1 1 2
33. − 45. +
6 8 6 3
7 2 4 7
34. − 46. +
9 3 9 8
1 2 7 1
35. + 47. +
5 3 9 8
7 2 1 1
36. + 48. +
9 3 6 7
2 5 1 1
37. + 49. +
3 8 3 7
3 5 5 1
38. + 50. +
7 9 6 4
4 5 1 2
39. − 51. −
7 9 2 7
3 7 1 1
40. − 52. −
5 8 3 8
2 3 5 4
41. − 53. −
3 8 6 5
2 1 1 1
42. − 54. −
5 8 2 9
6 1 1 1
43. − 55. +
7 6 3 8
1 1 1 7
44. − 56. +
2 4 6 9

In Exercises 57-68, add or subtract the fractions, as indicated, by first using prime factorization to find
the least common denominator.

7 11 7 5
57. + 63. −
36 54 24 36
7 7 11 7
58. + 64. +
54 24 54 72
7 5 11 5
59. − 65. +
18 12 12 18
5 7 11 11
60. − 66. +
54 12 24 108
7 7 11 5
61. + 67. −
36 54 54 24
5 5 7 5
62. + 68. −
72 108 54 24
 4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 287

In Exercises 69-80, add or subtract the fractions, as indicated, and simplify your result.

3 3 3 4
69. − + − 75. − −
7 7 5 5
5 1 7 1
70. − + − 76. − −
9 9 9 9
7 1 7 1
71. − − 77. − +
9 9 8 8
8 4 2 1
72. − − 78. − +
9 9 3 3
7 2 1 2
73. + − 79. − − −
9 9 3 3
2 1 7 5
74. + − 80. − − −
3 3 8 8

In Exercises 81-104, add or subtract the fractions, as indicated, and simplify your result.

2 4 1 1
81. − + 91. + −
7 5 9 3
1 2 1 1
82. − + 92. + −
4 7 8 2
1 4
83. − − − 93.
2
+ −
1
4 9 3 9
3 1 3 2
84. − − − 94. + −
4 8 4 3
2 3 1 6
85. − + 95. − + −
7 4 2 7
1 5
86. − + 4
96. − + −
1
3 8 5 2
4 1
87. − − 1 3
9 3 97. − + −
2 4
5 1
88. − − 3 1
6 3 98. − + −
5 2
5 1
89. − − − 1 1
7 5 99. − −
4 2
6 1 8 2
90. − − − 100. − −
7 8 9 3
 288 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

5 3 1 1
101. − − 103. − −
8 4 8 3
3 3 1 4
102. − − 104. − −
4 8 2 9

In Exercises 105-120, add or subtract the fractions, as indicated, and write your answer is lowest terms.

1 3q 4b 2
105. + 113. +
2 5 7 3
4 b 2a 5
106. − 114. +
7 3 5 8
4 3a 2 9
107. − 115. −
9 4 3 t
4 b 4 1
108. − 116. −
9 2 7 y
2 1 9 7
109. + 117. +
s 3 s 8
2 3 6 1
110. + 118. −
s 7 t 9
1 7 7b 5
111. − 119. −
3 b 8 9
1 9 3p 1
112. − 120. −
2 s 4 8

In Exercises 121-132, determine which of the two given statements is true.

2 8 2 8 5 5 5 5
121. − <− or − >− 127. < or >
3 7 3 7 7 9 7 9
1 8 1 8 1 1 1 1
122. − <− or − >− 128. < or >
7 9 7 9 2 3 2 3
6 7 6 7 7 1 7 1
123. < or > 129. − < − or − > −
7 3 7 3 2 5 2 5
1 2 1 2 3 5 3 5
124. < or > 130. − < − or − > −
2 7 2 7 4 9 4 9
9 2 9 2 5 6 5 6
125. − <− or − >− 131. < or >
4 3 4 3 9 5 9 5
3 9 3 9 3 7 3 7
126. − <− or − >− 132. < or >
7 2 7 2 2 9 2 9
 4.4. ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS 289

❧ ❧ ❧ Answers ❧ ❧ ❧

1. 45 31
37.
24
3. 40 1
39.
63
5. 80
7
41.
7. 60 24
29
9. 30 43.
42
11. 108 5
45.
6
13. 72
65
47.
15. 216 72
10
17. 72 49.
21
19. 36 3
51.
14
1
21.
2 1
53.
30
2
23. 11
9 55.
24
3
25. − 43
5 57.
108
1
27. − 1
7 59. −
36
13
29. 35
11 61.
108
7 11
31. 63.
11 72
1 43
33. 65.
24 36
13 1
35. 67. −
15 216
 290 CHAPTER 4. FRACTIONS

6 11
69. − 101.
7 8
8 11
71. 103.
9 24
5 5 + 6q
73. 105.
9 10
7 16 − 27a
75. − 107.
5 36
3 6+s
77. − 109.
4 3s
1 b − 21
79. 111.
3 3b
18 12b + 14
81. 113.
35 21
7 2t − 27
83. 115.
36 3t
13 72 + 7s
85. 117.
28 8s
7 63b − 40
87. − 119.
9 72
18 2 8
89. − 121. − >−
35 3 7
2 6 7
91. − 123. <
9 7 3
5 9 2
93. 125. − <−
9 4 3
19 5 5
95. − 127. >
14 7 9
5 7 1
97. − 129. − <−
4 2 5
3 5 6
99. − 131. <
4 9 5