TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
UNIT 5: TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the differences between analog and digital data, and the role of the modem.
• List and describe the key applications of communications technologies.
• Describe the various types of wired and wireless channels.
• Describe the factors affecting data transmission.
• Differentiate among different types of networks
• Explain the advantages of organisational networks.
• Explain the different Internet access methods
• Describe the common topologies of LANs.
• Differentiate between an intranet and an extranet.
• Discuss the ethical issues related to communications
5.1 THE ANALOG AND DIGITAL AGES
Computers use digital signals, which present information in a binary fashion. Most other
systems, such as telephones and TV, use analog signals, which continuously vary in
strength of quality. A modem (modulator/demodulator) converts digital signals into
analog signals, so that computer signals can be sent over normal phone lines.
5.2 MAIN APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATIONS
There are many forms of communications technologies on offer:
1. Videoconferencing, the linking of people through TV video and sound plus
computers, is useful for long-distance meetings.
2. Workgroup computing, in which microcomputer networks enable workers to
cooperate on projects, allows people to work on the same information at the same
time.
3. Telecommuting, working at home with telecommunications, can increase
productivity.
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4. Virtual offices, nonpermanent, mobile offices run with telecommunications and
computers, add workplace flexibility.
5. Home networks enable households to link and share all kinds of peripheral devices.
6. Information and Internet appliances deliver all types of data anywhere at any time.
7. Smart television consisting of interactive TV and Internet TV.
5.3 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Factors affecting data transmission
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of fields of electrical energy and magnetic energy,
which travel in waves. In the middle is the radio frequency spectrum, fields of electrical
and magnetic energy that carry communications signals, which vary according to
frequency, or repeating waves. A range of frequencies is called a band or bandwidth. The
wider the band, the faster data can be transmitted. Broadband connections are very high-
speed connections.
Types of communication channels
A communications channel is the path over which information travels in a
telecommunications system. Channels may be wired or wireless.
Three types of wired channels are the following:
1. Twisted-pair wire, or standard telephone wire, consists of two strands of insulated
copper wire twisted around each other; it can be used for both voice and data
transmission (ee below).
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2. Coaxial cable consists of insulated copper wire wrapped in an outer material; it is
better than twisted-pair for resisting noise (see below).
3. Fibre-optic cable consists of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmits beams of
light rather than electricity; it is very fast, noise-resistant and difficult to tap.
Fibre-optic cable
Four types of wireless channels are the following:
1. Infrared transmission sends data via infrared-light waves, as in some wireless
mouse.
2. Broadcast radio sends data over long distances, as between regions.
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3. Terrestrial microwave radio transmits voice and data via very high-frequency radio
waves, as between hilltops and buildings.
Communications satellites are extraterrestrial microwave relay stations that orbit the earth,
occupying low, medium, or high (geostationary) earth orbits.
Communication satellites
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Short-range wireless communication standards include:
1. Bluetooth, a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at linking cellphones, PDAs,
computers, and peripherals up to distances of 30 feet. Bluetooth technology provides
entirely wireless connections for all kinds of communication devices. For example,
Bluetooth could replace the cable connecting a notebook computer to a cellular
telephone. Virtually all digital devices, such as keyboards, joysticks, printers, and the
like, can be part of a Bluetooth system. Bluetooth is also adaptable to home
appliances like refrigerators, microwaves, and so on.
2. WiFi (wireless fidelity), a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at helping
machines inside offices to communicate at high speeds and share Internet connections
at distances up to 300 feet. WiFi (also known as IEEE 802.11b), is a way of
transmitting information in wave form that is reasonably fast and is often used for
notebooks. Apart from home networks, WiFi is used by companies to allow their
employees to go wireless, and is also available in various public places such as
airports, hotels, and restaurants like Starbucks. Very soon we’ll have WiFi-capable
airplanes.
3. HomeRF, a separate, incompatible standard designed to network up to 10 PCs and
peripherals as far as 150 feet apart.
Compression and Decompression Methods
Compression is a means of removing repetitive elements from a file to reduce its space so
that it requires less time to transmit; at the receiving end, the file is decompressed – the
repeated patterns are restored.
Two methods of compression are lossless and lossy.
Lossless compression uses mathematical techniques to replace repetitive patterns of
bits with a kind of coded summary; on decompression, the bits are restored, so that
the data is the exactly the same as what went in. This is important for database
records, computer data and financial data.
Lossy compression permanently discards some data during compression; it is often
used for graphics files and sound files. Two compression standards are JPEG, for still
images like photographs, and MPEG, for moving images like video.
5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING DATA TRANSMISSION
1. The transmission rate is a function of two variables – frequency and bandwidth.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second; bandwidth is the difference between
the highest and lowest frequencies. The higher the frequency and the greater a
channel’s bandwidth, the faster data can be transmitted.
2. Line configurations are the methods whereby communications lines are connected. A
point-to-point line directly connects the sending and receiving devices and is used
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when data is to be kept secured between the devices. A multipoint line is a single line
that interconnects several communications devices to one computer, and usually only
one communication device can send or receive data at any one time.
3. Serial transmission transmits the bits sequentially. Parallel data transmission
transmits many bits through separate lines simultaneously.
4. Data can flow in three ways: simplex (one way only); half-duplex (in both directions
but not simultaneously); and full-duplex (both directions simultaneously).
5. The transmission mode can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In asynchronous
transmission, data is sent one byte at a time, with a “start” bit and a “stop” bit to
demarcate a byte. With synchronous transmission, data is transmitted in blocks, with
a start and a stop bit pattern to define each block of data.
6. In circuit switching, the transmitter has full use of the circuit until all the data has
been transmitted and the circuit is terminated. In packet switching, electronic
messages are divided into packets for transmission over a wide area network to their
destination, through the most convenient route. Circuit switching is best for voice
transmission, whereas packet switching is best for high-volume data transmission.
7. Transmitting multiple signals over a single communications channel (a process
known as multiplexing) can increase the efficiency of data transmission. Multiplexing
devices include multiplexers, concentrators, and front-end processors.
8. A protocol is a set of principles that determines the exchange of data between
hardware and/or software components within a communications network and between
different networks.
5.5 DEFINITION OF A NETWORK
What is a Network?
A network connects two or more computers, allowing them to communicate with each
other and share resources. Computers and other devices (like printers) connected to the
network are called nodes. Nodes on the network can be connected by cables (twisted-
pair, coaxial, or fiber optic) or through wireless technologies (infrared, satellite, or
microwave transmission).
Some networks include a hub which is the piece of hardware where all the nodes connect
to one another. Networks can be connected to other networks through a gateway or
bridge. (These devices serve the same purpose, but gateways connect networks of the
different types; bridges connect networks of the same type.) A router manages data
traffic within the network and to other networks (in connection with a gateway or bridge).
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5.6 BENEFITS OF NETWORKS
1. Enable sharing of peripheral devices, programs, and data
2. Promote better communications through emails and discussion groups
3. Enhanced security of information through regular backups.
4. Permits access to numerous databases (internal and public).
5.7 TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks come in all sizes, generally described in these terms:
Wide Area Networks (WAN) have a national or global reach. With satellite technology,
WANs can connect nodes that have no physical connection to one another. The Internet is
the best example of a WAN — a global network of networks.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) have a larger geographical range, connecting
nodes in separate buildings within a few miles of each other. Cellular phone systems are
good examples of MANs. In order to have national coverage, the cellular company
connects all of its MANs into a larger network, known as a WAN.
Local Area Networks (LAN) connect nodes that are in close physical proximity to each
other — in the same office or building for example. Most of the examples we use
throughout this lesson refer to LANs.
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Two forms of LANs are as follows:
1. Client/server LAN: consists of microcomputers requesting data and service (clients)
and powerful computers supplying data and service (servers). A file server, for
example, stores programs and data files; other servers are database server, printer
server, Web server, and mail server.
A typical client/server LAN setup
The Client/Server Relationship
Nodes that use the network's resources are called clients (usually computers), and nodes
that manages the sharing of resources are called servers. Servers are specialized
computers with their own operating systems and network administration software.
Servers can be specialized for a variety of functions:
• File servers are data repositories with large hard drives. By storing files on the
server rather than on the individual client computers, multiple clients have access
to the same files. File servers are designed to handle multiple file requests at the
same time.
• Database servers store data in a large database. Rather than requesting data in
the form of files, clients can request data from the database. Database servers
include powerful data search and query functions. Database servers are optimized
to search through large amounts of data and return only the records required to
answer the question.
• Application servers allow clients to run applications from the server, rather than
installing the application on each client individually.
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2. Peer-to-peer LAN: there is no server; PCs on a network communicate with each
other directly.
Peer to Peer Systems
Peer-to-peer networks connect individual computers directly with one another without
requiring a server. All nodes share resources with all the other nodes directly. Peer-to-
Peer networks are used for small offices and home networks.
One advantage of peer-to-peer networks is that they don't require specialized
networking software.
• Windows 98, ME, 2000, and XP operating systems all include the Client for
Microsoft Networking which is usually installed automatically with the operating
system.
• Macintosh computers usually come with a built-in Ethernet connection and
AppleTalk networking software.
Standard Components of a LAN
These include the cabling system, microcomputers with network interface cards (NICs),
network operating system (e.g. Novel NetWare, Microsoft Windows NT/2000, Unix, or
Linux), and other shared peripheral devices (printers, scanners, storage devices).
Other components are: a router (a special device that directs communicating messages
when networks are linked together); a bridge (a device used to connect the similar types
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of networks); and a gateway (a device allowing communication between different
networks).
5.8 INTERNET ACCESS METHODS
Consumers can access the Internet by several different ways:
Telephone Modem
A telephone modem is essentially a telephone for a computer so that it can talk to other
computers with modems. A telephone modem (modem) is a device that connects your
computer through a phone line to a network of other computers.
DSL
A DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a high-speed Internet connection using a phone line,
which allows you to use your phone for voice communication at the same time.
There are various types of DSL systems. One of the popular ones, ADSL, divides the
phone line into three channels, one for sending information, one for receiving
information, with the one remaining serving as a regular phone line. Speeds vary from
144 Kbps (144,000 bits per second) to 1.54 Mbps (1,540,000 bits per second) and can
even go as high as 6.0 Mbps.
DSL have four advantages over a phone modem.
1. DSL is much faster.
2. It’s an “always-on” connection giving you Internet access without having to first dial
in to your ISP.
3. DSL doesn’t tie up the phone.
4. A DSL connection will allow multiple computers to share one connection.
Cable Modem
A cable modem is a device that uses your TV cable to produce an Internet connection.
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Messages readable by a cable modem arrive at your home on the same cable as your cable
television. A splitter divides the line into TV delivery and Internet delivery through a
cable modem. Conceptually it works in much the same way as the DSL connection.
A cable modem shares many of the same advantages as the DSL connection in that it is
faster, does not tie up the phone, is always on, and you can connect a router between the
cable modem and the computers. The router enables all the computers on your home
network access to the Internet simultaneously.
The one drawback of a cable modem as opposed to a DSL modem is that cable modem
access time slows as more users sign on using the same TV cable.
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Satellite Modem
A satellite can bring the Internet to a home or business. It’s necessary to have a satellite
modem as well as a satellite dish (or antenna). A satellite modem is a modem that allows
you to get Internet access using a satellite dish. The satellite dish that delivers television
channels is not necessarily geared to Internet access. A different dish is probably
necessary.
Satellite Internet access
5.9 LAN TOPOLOGIES
Networks can be laid out in three main topologies (physical structures):
Star: all devices are connected to a central server
Ring: all devices are connected in a continuous loop
Bus: all devices are connected to a common channel (backbone)
Networks are often described by their topology — the way in which the nodes of the
network are physically connected together.
In a bus topology, all nodes are joined along a shared connection. One problem with a
bus topology is that there is no central management of data transmissions. If multiple
nodes send data transmissions at the same instant, the data can “collide”. Too many data
collisions at once, and the network goes down. This problem can be overcome by using
Ethernet for the physical connections in the network.
In a star topology, a hub is placed in the center of the network, and each node connects
to the hub individually. No single node's connection to the hub is affected by any other
node. However, if the hub goes down, the entire network becomes inoperable.
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In a ring topology, all the nodes are connected one-to-another in a circle, so the last node
is connected to the first (completing the circle). There is no danger of data collisions,
because data only moves in one direction. However, if the connection goes down at any
point, the circle is broken and the network become inoperable.
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5.10 MODERN DAY NETWORKS
Organizations today use two alternative networks that make use of the Internet’s
infrastructure and standards. An intranet is an organization’s internal private network for
employee use. An extranet is used by selected suppliers and other trading parties as well
as employees. A firewall maintains security for such networks; it comprises of a system
of hardware and software that blocks unauthorized users inside and outside the
organization.
Intranets and Extranets
Intranets and extranets are special types of networks that use the same technology as the
World Wide Web. Data is stored on servers and is communicated via the TCP/IP
protocol. If the Internet is the global village, then intranets and extranets are private, gated
communities within that village. As an authorized user, you can access the intranet or
extranet through your regular browser, but if you aren't an authorized user, you won't be
able to get past the gate.
Intranets are commonly used for internal communications in corporations or educational
institutions. Strictly speaking, an intranet does not allow any access from the outside
Internet. Only computers connected to the internal network can connect to the intranet.
Once you allow authorized external users to connect to an intranet, it becomes an
extranet. An extranet is still restricted, but allows access by certain networks, computers,
or individual users.
5.11 ETHICAL, SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES RELATED TO
COMMUNICATIONS
Ethical Issues
Three main ethical issues are raised:
1. Protect children against access to controversial material (e.g. pornography and
materials of objectionable contents found on the Internet).
2. Pressure by technology on privacy (e.g. cookies).
3. Intellectual property rights are threatened by applications such as file sharing
programs (e.g. the network-based music exchange called Napster, which was later
banned).
Security Issues
If your computer never interacts with other computers, then it is relatively safe from
security violations. Chances are, however, that you come into contact with thousands of
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other computers every day through the Internet, e-mail, a corporate network, or file
sharing. There are a number of security issues that every computer user should be aware
of and guard against:
A computer virus is a malicious computer program. Viruses can be relatively benign —
displaying a graphic on your web site or showing an animation when you boot your
system — or they can be destructive — destroying files or entire hard drives. Anti-virus
software can protect you from computer viruses.
Identity theft is a relatively new type of computer crime. Identity theft occurs when a
hacker or other unscrupulous person steals your personal information (often from an
online database). This information is then used to open new credit card accounts and
make purchases, using your good name. One way to protect against identity theft is to
safeguard your passwords.
Crackers are unscrupulous computer experts (usually programmers) who engage in
illegal computer activities ranging from breaking into “secure” networks to creating
computer viruses. Often the term hacker is used interchangeably with cracker, but
generally hackers do not engage in destructive behaviour. A good firewall can protect
your computer against unauthorized access. A firewall is a set of hardware and software
designed to act essentially as a filter set up to block suspicious data from entering the
network.
Privacy Issues
Every purchase you make, every e-mail you send, every Web site you visit – all of your
actions online are subject to tracking and surveillance. Your personal information is
stored in enormous corporate and government databases. What is the information used
for? In the case of private industry, the information is used mainly for marketing purposes
– sending you unsolicited offers for credit cards, magazine subscriptions, etc. This is how
telemarketers get your phone number and where all that junk mail and spam (junk e-mail)
come from!
Opting Out: Certain laws require that credit card companies and other organizations that
collect your personal data inform you of the data collection and give you the option of
“opting out” of having that information shared with third parties. When you sign up for a
user account at an online shopping site, look for the site’s privacy statement and the
option of “opting out” of having your personal information shared.
Cookies are small files written to your computer’s hard drive by Web sites. Cookies
usually contain an anonymous id used to track your actions on Web sites, including
shopping purchases and personalization preferences. Cookies do not store your personal
information or credit card numbers. You can set your browser’s preferences to warn you
before it accepts a cookie, or you can set it to disable cookies altogether. However,
disabling cookies will prevent some Web sites from functioning properly.
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Review Questions
1. What is a client/server network?
(a) It is a network where all the computers are equal.
(b) It has one or more computers that provide services to the other computers, called
clients.
(c) It is the control unit and it directs information around the motherboard.
(d) It carries information between the CPU and RAM.
(e) It is none of the above.
2. Communication that travels without cables is called _______
(a) wireless.
(b) twisted pair cable.
(c) fibre optic cable.
(d) network interface card.
(e) network cable.
3. A company’s extranet may be set up for use by all of the following groups of users with the
exception of
(a) Suppliers
(b) Distributors
(c) Customers
(d) Competitors
(e) Employees
4. Which of the following is a device for converting digital signals to analog signals and then
back again?
(a) Transformer
(b) Modem
(c) Packet Switcher
(d) Interpreter
(e) Converter
5. A message sent across a telecommunications network usually contains the message itself,
error control information and details of the sender and the recipient. This set of information
is collectively known as a _______.
(a) Package
(b) Packet
(c) Page
(d) Posting
(e) Pointer
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Short Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between an intranet and an extranet.
2. Distinguish between s a LAN and a WAN.
3. Why is bandwidth an important factor in telecommunications? What is this concept of
“broadband access” referring to?
4. Briefly describe any five advantages that e-mail offers users compared with conventional
mail.
Useful websites
LAN protocols: [Link]/ethernet; [Link]
WAN technologies: [Link]/products/business/fas-trak/[Link]
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