MODULE – 1
INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to
medicine and biology
Provides electrical, electronic, electro-optical, and computer engineering support to
clinical and biomedical applications.
Helps in improving techniques in the field of healthcare diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.
Bio-instrumentation Measurement of biological variables
Field of measurement is known as biometrics [Mathematical and statistical methods
applied to biology]
Biomedical Engineer
Person working in research or development in the interface area of medicine and
engineering
Clinical Engineer
Professional who supports and provides patient care by applying engineering and
managerial skills
In other words, it can be defined as the application of engineering and technology to
analyse and provide solutions to clinical needs of the patients
Specifications in Biomedical Instrumentation System
Range
Defined as the entire range of values for input amplitude and frequency over which
the device is expected to operate
Sensitivity
Determines how small a variation of variable or parameter can be measured reliably
Directly determines the resolution of the device Minimum variation that can
accurately be read
Linearity
Degree to which variations in the output of an instrument follows input variations is
referred to as linearity of device
In a linear system, sensitivity would be same for all absolute levels of input.
Hysteresis
Characteristic feature of some instruments where a given value of the measured
variable results in a different reading when reached in an ascending direction from that
obtained when it is reached in a descending direction.
Frequency Response
Variation in sensitivity over the frequency range of measurement.
Response should be displayed which is the reproduction of physiological signal
Accuracy
Measure of systemic error (related to a system)
Following errors should be considered
Errors due to tolerances of electronic components
Mechanical errors in meter movements
Component errors due to temperature variation
Errors due to poor frequency response
Errors due to change in atmospheric pressure or temperature
Reading errors due to parallax, inadequate light etc.
Signal to Noise Ratio
SNR should be as high as possible
In hospitals, power line frequency noise or interference is common and is usually
picked up in leads of the instruments
Interference due to electromagnetic, electrostatic equipments is possible
Stability
Ability of the system to resume a steady state condition following any disturbance at
input rather than being driven into uncontrollable situations
Isolation
To provide electrical safety or to avoid interference between different instruments
used simultaneously.
Achieved by magnetic or optical coupling
INTRODUCTION TO BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
Instrumentation system is defined as set of instruments and equipments utilized in
measurement of one or more characteristics, plus presentation of information obtained.
Objectives of any instrumentation system
Information Gathering – Gather the required information about the subject being
analysed.
Diagnosis – Helps in the detection and correction of some malfunction
Evaluation – Used to determine the ability of system to meet functional requirements
Monitoring – Monitor some process to obtain continuous or periodic information of
the state being measured
Control – Automatically controls the operation of system based on changes in one or
more internal parameters or a output value
Measurement in biomedical instrumentation systems is divided into two:
In Vivo
Measurement made on or within the human body
Eg – Inserting a device into blood stream to measure pH of blood
In Vitro
Measurement is performed outside the human body
Eg – Measurement of blood pH from blood samples
Components of Medical Instrumentation System
Energy Source/Stimulus
Used to energize the entire instrumentation system
Response to some form of external stimulus is required
Eg – Visual (Flash of light); direct electrical simulation; mechanical or an ultrasound
signal
Measurand/Subject
Physical quantity, property or condition that an instrument measures is called
measurand.
Examples
Internal (Blood pressure)
On the body surface (Electrocardiogram)
Derived from tissue sample (such as blood or a biopsy)
Sensor/Transducer
Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another
In biomedical instrumentation system, transducer is used to produce an electrical
signal i.e. analog in nature of the quantity being measured
Sensors should be non-invasive (not involving introduction into the body) or minimally
invasive
Signal Conditioning Equipment
Amplifies, modifies or filters the electrical output of the transducer.
Eg- Signal filtering may reduce undesirable sensor signals.
Other signal conditioning technique involves averaging out repetitive signals to reduce
noise, or it may convert information from time domain to frequency domain.
Purpose – Signals from transducers are processed so as to make it suitable for
operating the display or recording equipment.
Output Display
Results of the measurement process must be displayed in a form that humans can
understand
Display may be
Numerical
Graphical Discrete or continuous
CRT Display
Visual or Hearing
The processed signal after conditioning is passed through
1. Alarm System: Indicates when a measurand goes above a pre-set limit.
2. Data Storage: To store the data for future reference
3. Data Transmission: Used to transmit the information obtained from one location to
another such as nurses station, doctors room etc.
Auxiliary Components
Calibration Signal – Signal with the properties of the measurand should be applied to
the sensor input or in the signal processing chain as early as possible
This is for calibrating the equipment to the desired signal characteristics.
Control and Feedback Signals
To adjust the sensor and signal conditioning process
To direct the flow of output for display, storage or transmission.
Control and feedback may be automatic or manual.
Data may be stored for some time to meet the requirements of signal conditioning or
to enable the operator to examine the data that causes alarm.
Principles of communication can often be used to transmit data to remote displays at
nurses station, medical centres.
Classification of Medical Instruments
1. Quantity that sensed
Pressure
Flow
Temperature
2. Principle of Transduction
Resistive
Inductive
Capacitive
Ultrasonic (sound waves)
Electrochemical (pH probe)
3. Organ system
Isolates all important measurements for specialists who need to know only about a specific
area
Cardiovascular System
Pulmonary System
Nervous System
Endocrine System
4. Clinical medicine specialities
Valuable for medical personnel who are interested in specialized instruments
Paediatrics
Obstetrics
Cardiology
Radiology
Input Sources
Desired Inputs
Measurand that the instrument is designed to measure
Interfering Inputs
Quantities that accidentally affect the instrument as a consequence of principles used
to acquire and process the desired inputs
Modifying inputs
Quantities that causes a change in the input – output relations of the instrument
OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
ANATOMY
Study of the structure and shape of the body and different parts & their relationships to
one another.
Anatomy comes from the Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana).
Gross anatomy (macroscopic anatomy)
Study of large, easily observable structures (by naked eye), such as the heart or bone.
Microscopic anatomy (cytology, histology)
Study of very small structures, where a magnifying lens or microscope is required.
Physiology
Study of how the body and each of its part work or function
Physiology can be classified in to
Human body consists of electrical, mechanical, chemical, thermal and various other
systems
Each of the system communicates with external environment and internally with other
systems of the body.
Functional systems can be broken down into sub systems and organs – can be further
divided into smaller and smaller units
Major goal of biomedical instrumentation – It should be able to measure the information
provided by the various sub systems.
If it could be measured and inter relationships can be determined, then functions of body
can be completely defined by presently known law of physics, chemistry and other
sciences.
Communication of man with environment
MAJOR SUBSYSTEMS OF THE BODY
BIOCHEMICAL SYSTEM
Human body has an integrated combination of chemical systems that produces
Energy for the various activities of the body
Materials for body repair and growth
Agents for communication among the various parts of the body
From a single point of intake for food, water and air – all the materials for other chemical
reactions are produced within the body
System has monitoring equipments to control the chemical reactions and also it has
efficient waste disposal system.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM – HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Complex closed hydraulic system with a 4-chamber pump (heart), connected to flexible
elastic tubing (blood vessels).
In arteries, blood vessels change its diameter to control the pressure
System performs functions like transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, numerous chemical
compounds
System make the blood cells to maintain optimum environment for cellular operations.
Heart is the power source which provides energy to move the blood through the body and
remove waste products.
Heart – the four chamber pump acts as 2 synchronized but functionally isolated 2 stage
pumps
First stage of each pump (atrium) collects fluid (blood) from the system and pumps into
the second system (ventricle).
One of the 2 stage pump (right side of heart) – Collects fluid from main hydraulic system
and pumps to the lungs
Other pump (left side of heart) receives fluid (blood) from lungs and pumps into the main
hydraulic system.
Blood flows in a laminar fashion – acts as communication and supply network for all other
parts of the system
Blood also has mechanisms for repairing small system failures (platelets) and for rejecting
foreign elements (WBC) from system
Sensors that detects the relative concentration of various molecular compounds and a
response is generated if the required concentration is not obtained Chemoreceptors
Sensors that detect changes in build up of waste materials PCO2 sensors
Sensors that modulates a response based on change in pressure Baroreceptors
Sensors controls the pump speed, efficiency, fluid low pattern, diameters of blood vessels
etc.
Variables of primary importance in the system
Pump (Cardiac) output
Pressure, flow rate and volume of fluid (blood) at various locations throughout the
system
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
The respiratory system supplies blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide waste that
cells produce.
• Nasal Cavity: Passes air through nose
Mouth: Passes air through if there is a nasal block
Pharynx: The throat. Cone shaped passage way leading to trachea.
Trachea: Windpipe. Main tube connecting nose/mouth to lungs.
Epiglottis: Flap that covers the entrance to the trachea.
Lungs: Main organ of the respiratory system.
Bronchi: Two tubes inside the lungs through which air passes to the bronchioles.
Bronchioles: Small branching out tubes divided into alveoli.
Alveoli: Tiny air sacs that do the oxidation and the exhale of carbon dioxide.
Capillaries: Blood vessels that are embedded in the walls of the alveoli. While in the
capillaries the blood discharges carbon dioxide into the alveoli and takes up oxygen from
the air in the alveoli.
Cilia: Hair like structures that remove dust and dirt from the air.
Working
Air that flows from the mouth or nasal cavity travels through the pharynx and moves down
to the trachea.
Then the air moves to the bronchi tubes as they enter the lungs.
Primary organ of the respiratory system is lungs and the function is to take in oxygen and
breathe out carbon dioxide.
Gas exchange process is performed by the lungs and respiratory system. Air, which is a
mixture of oxygen and other gases, is inhaled.
In the throat, the trachea or windpipe filters the air. The trachea branches into two
bronchi, tubes that lead to the lungs.
Once it reaches the lungs, oxygen is moved into the bloodstream. Blood carries the oxygen
through the body to where it is needed.
RBC collect carbon dioxide from the body cells and transports it back to the lungs.
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli, small structures within
the lungs.
Carbon dioxide, a waste gas, is exhaled and the cycle begins again with the next breath.
Air pump (Diaphragm) is a dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that controls breathing.
Diaphragm flattens out and pulls forward, drawing air into the lungs for inhalation.
During exhalation the diaphragm expands to force air out of the lungs.
System variables
Respiratory rate, airflow and volume
Concentration of carbon dioxide in the exhaled air
Adults normally take 12 to 20 breaths per minute. During stressful exercise, it drives the
breath rate up to an average of 45 breaths per minute.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Communication network for the body
Includes the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons.
Responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all parts of the body.
Monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the external
environment.
System can be divided into two parts: the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
Brain - central processor with memory,
computational power, decision making capability
There are millions of communication lines
(nerves) that bring sensory information into and
transmit control information out of the brain
Output control signals are transmitted to specific
motor devices (motor units in muscles) – it
responds to signals with some type of motion or force.
Feedback for every action is provided back to the brain.
Information is coded by means of electrochemical pulses (nerve action potentials) that
travel along the nerves.
Pulses can be transferred from one element to another in one direction only.
In addition to brain, a large number of simple decision making devices (spinal reflexes) are
also present.
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
Processing centre for the nervous system.
Receives information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous system.
Two main organs of the CNS are the brain and spinal cord.
Brain processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord.
Both the brain and spinal cord are protected by a three-layered covering of connective
tissue called the meninges.
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs, limbs and skin.
Nerves that make up the PNS are actually the axons or bundles of axons from neuron cells.
PNS is divided into two parts: Somantic Nervous system and autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Part of the PNS responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and from
CNS.
This system contains two major types of neurons:
Sensory neurons - Carries information from the nerves to the central nervous
system.
Motor neurons - Carries information from the brain and spinal cord to muscle
fibers throughout the body.
Autonomic nervous system
Responsible for regulating involuntary (reflex/Unintentional)body functions, such as
blood flow, heartbeat, digestion and breathing.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN MEASURING A LIVING SYSTEM
Inaccessibility of variables for measurement
Eg- Dynamic neurochemical activity in brain – Impossible to place a suitable transducer
in the position to make measurement
Problem arises because of physical size of transducer being large and space available
for measurement is less
When a variable is inaccessible – Indirect measurement – Some other related variable
is measured and a suitable estimate is obtained
Variability of data
Physiological variables can never be strictly deterministic in nature.
Statistical or probabilistic distributions must be used to estimate relation among
variables.
Lack of knowledge about interrelationships
Better understanding of physiological relationships would permit more effective use
of indirect measurements.
Interaction among physiological systems
Large number of feedback loops are involved in major physiological systems – high
degree of interaction exists within the system and among the major systems
Due to which, results of one part of the system affect the results of all other parts in
some way.
Artifacts
Refers to any component of a signal i.e. not naturally present.
Eg- Random noise generated within measuring instrument, electrical interference,
cross talk etc.
Effect of transducer on measurement
Physical presence of transducer changes the observations.
Eg- Transducer placed in blood stream partially blocks the vessel and changes
the pressure flow characteristics of the system
Presence of transducer in one system can affect responses in other systems.
Eg- Local cooling of skin to estimate circulation in that area – causes feedback
that affects the circulation system as a whole
Safety Considerations
Methods employed in measuring variables must in no way cause any damage to
normal functioning of human being
Also, measurements should not cause pain, trauma or discomfort.
SOURCES OF BIO ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
In carrying out various functions, the sub systems of the body generate their own
monitoring signals which convey useful information about the functions they represent
Bio electric potentials associated with nerve conduction, brain activity, heart beat,
muscle activity etc.
Bio electric potentials are ionic voltages produces as a result of electro chemical activity
of certain type of cells
Transducer converts ionic potential into electric voltage signals which can be measured
and displayed to help doctors for diagnosis
RESTING POTENTIAL [POLARIZATION]
Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve and muscle cells are cased in a semi
permeable membrane.
Membrane permits some substances to pass through while others are kept out.
Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids.
Fluids are conductive solutions containing charged atoms known as ions.
Principle ions are sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-).
Membrane of excitable cells permits entry of K+ and Cl- ions but blocks the entry of Na+
ions.
Charges want balance in terms of charge and concentration inside and outside the cell
Inability of sodium to penetrate the membrane results in 2 conditions:
Concentration of sodium ions inside the cell becomes much lower Since sodium ion
is positive and due to less concentration of Na inside the cell – outside of cell becomes
more positive
In an attempt to balance electric charge – More K ions move inside the cell But due
to which K concentration inside the cell increases.
Neither charge nor concentration balance takes place due to concentration imbalance
of potassium ions
So, an equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane – Negative
on the inside and positive on outside.
Semi permeable membrane potential is called Resting potential of cell.
This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect to body fluids. So resting
potential of a cell is negative.
This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.
Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.
Fig: Polarized cell with its resting potential
ACTION POTENTIAL [DEPOLARIZATION]
If a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of ionic current or by some form of
externally applied energy, membrane changes its properties.
Now, the membrane allows some Na+ and try to reach some balance of potential inside
and outside.
Movement of Na ions into cell causes an ionic current Further reduces the barrier of
membrane to Na ions.
Net result Avalanche effect where Na ions move inside rapidly to make the
concentration equal inside and outside the cell
At same time, K ions (higher concentration inside cell during resting state) tries to leave
the cell but unable to move at the same speed as of Na ions.
Result Cell has slight positive potential inside due to imbalance of K ions.
An equilibrium is reached when the cell has slightly Positive potential on the inside and
negative on outside. This potential is known as “action potential” and is approximately +20
mV.
A cell that has been excited and that displays an action potential is said to be depolarized
Process from resting to action potential is called depolarization.
Fig: Ionic movements associated with depolarization &
Depolarized cell during action potential
After the entry of Na ions through cell membrane has stopped new state of equilibrium
is reached – Ionic currents that lowered the barrier is no longer present Membrane
comes back to selectively permeable condition.
If we are going this way, it would take a long time to achieve resting potential
But, if a sodium pump is used – cell becomes polarized and have the resting potential
Process of changing from action potential to resting potential is called repolarization
ACTION POTENTIAL WAVEFORM
Waveform begins at resting potential, depolarizing and returning back to resting potential
after repolarization.
Irrespective of the method by which a cell is excited – action potential remains the same
for any given cell.
Time scale of action potential depends on type of cell
Lasts for 1msec in nerve cells
150 – 300 msec in heart muscle.
Regardless of the method by which the cell is excited or intensity of stimulus, action
potential is always the same All or nothing law
Period of time in which cell does not respond to any new stimulus is called as absolute
refractory period.
Period of time after absolute refractory period in which cell responds to new stimulus –
such as action potential Relative refractory period.
PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS
When a cell is exited and generates an action potential -- allows ionic currents to flow.
This process excites neighbouring cells or adjacent area of the same cell.
Eg- In nerve cell with long fiber- Potential is generated over a very small segment of the
fiber length but it is propagated in both directions,
Action potential propagates from one cell to another
The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or is propagate from cell to
another is called the propagation rate.
In nerve fiber, the propagation rate is also called the nerve conduction rate, or conduction
velocity.
Velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second.
In heart muscle, the rate is slower, average 0.2 to 0.4 m/sec.
BIOELECTRIC POTENTIALS
Bio electric potential of a cell Gives information about normal and abnormal working of
the system
Transducer is used to measure bio electric potential by converting ionic potential and
currents into electric potential and current.
Transducers have 2 electrodes – and it measures the ionic potential difference between
the points of application.
Name of the waveforms corresponding to potentials – ends with suffix gram
Name of the instrument used to measure potential and graphically reproduce waveforms
– ends with suffix graph
Examples:
The Electrocardiogram(ECG)
The Electroencephalogram(EEG)
The Electromyogram(EMG)
The Electroretinogram(ERG)
The Electro-oculogram(EOG)
The Electrogastrogram(EGG)
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)
The bio-potentials generated by the muscles of the heart result in the electrocardiogram
(ECG). German word EKG (Electro-kardiogram).
Electrical activity of the heart is recorded by electrocardiogram (ECG).
Internal structure of Heart
ANATOMY OF HEART
• Heart is divided into 4 chambers.
• 2 upper chambers – left and right arteria are synchronized.
• 2 lower chambers – ventricles operate together
• Oxygen enriched blood then enters left atrium – from which it is pumped into left ventricle
• Left ventricle pumps blood into arteries to circulate through the body
• Right atrium receives blood from veins and pumps into right ventricle
Right ventricle pumps the blood to lungs to pick up oxygen
Action potential originates from top of right atrium at a point called pacemaker or
sinoatrial(SA) node.
Pacemaker – group of specialized cells spontaneously generating action potential at
regular rate
To initiate heartbeat – action potentials generated by pacemaker propagate in all
directions along surface of both atria.
Wave terminates at a point near centre of heart – Atrioventricular (AV) node
Fibres present act as delay lines to synchronize action between atria and ventricles
Once electrical excitation has passed through delay line – its rapidly spread to all parts of
both ventricles.
Combination of action potential from different regions of heart that makes up ECG
ECG signal is generated by the heart’s muscle and measured on the skin surface of the
body
Regular measurement of standard clinical ECG – 12 different leads are connected to the
body of a resting patient
Typical ECG Waveform
• P wave Sequential contraction of left and right
atria [depolarization of atrial muscles]
• QRS complex Represents the contraction of
left and right ventricles [combined result of
repolarization of atria and depolarization of ventricles]
First –ve deflection - Q wave, 1st positive – R wave;
-ve deflection after R wave – S wave
T wave Represents ventricular relaxation [ventricular repolarization]
R-R interval Represents length of complete cardiac cycle
P-Q interval Time for which excitation wave is delayed in fibres
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM(EEG)
Recorded representation of bioelectric potential by the neuronal activity of the brain is
called the electroencephalogram.
The waveform varies greatly with the location of the measuring electrodes on the surface
of the scalp.
The EEG measured directly from the cortical surface is called electrocortiogram while when
using depth probes it is called electrogram.
EEG reading is a completely non-invasive (doesn’t involve introduction of instruments into
body) procedure
Can be applied repeatedly to patients, normal adults, and children with virtually no risk or
limitation.
Frequency of EEG is affected by mental activity of person
When brain cells (neurons) are activated, local current flows are produced.
EEG measures mostly the currents that flow during excitations of the dendrites of neurons
in the cerebral cortex.
EEG has been utilized to diagnose different disorders of the nervous system such as
epilepsy, classifying stages of sleep in patients, seizures and brain damage.
Phase relationships between different EEG patterns – Provides additional information
about functioning of brain
Evoked Response – Measure of disturbance in EEG pattern – Resulting from external
stimulus such as flash of light or click of sound
ELECTROMYOGRAM [EMG]:
The bioelectric potentials associated with muscle activity constitute the electromyogram.
Can be measured on the surface of the body or by penetrating the skin using needle
electrodes.
Movement and position of limbs are controlled by electrical signals travelling back & forth
between the muscles and central nervous system
When some problems arise in the motor system (of muscles) – Characteristics of electrical
signals in the muscles change
Thus, study of electrical signals in muscle – EMG – Aid in discovering and diagnosing
abnormalities not only in muscle but also in motor system as a whole
Measures the electrical signal associated with the activation of the muscle – Voluntary or
involuntary muscle contraction
Amount of activity of a given muscle or a group of muscles Summation of individual
action potentials from fibres making up the muscles.
Amplitude of measured EMG waveform – Instantaneous sum of all action potentials
generated at any given time
Action potentials occur in both positive and negative polarities – Sometimes they add and
sometimes they cancel
EMG waveform appears like a random noise waveform.
Energy of EMG signal – Function of amount of muscle activity and electrode potential.
ELECTRO-RETINOGRAM [ERG]:
Record of the complex pattern of the bioelectric potentials obtained from the retina of the
eye.
It is usually a response to a visual stimulus.
Two components that are most often measured are a- and b-waves.
The a-wave is the first large negative component, followed by the b-wave which is corneal
positive and usually larger in amplitude.
• When light falls on photo receptors outer
portion of photoreceptor becomes positive and
inner part becomes negative
• ‘a’ wave - Shows the potential of photoreceptors
in outer retina
• ‘b’ wave - Shows the function of the inner layers
of the retina
ELECTRO-OCULOGRAM [EOG]
Measure of the variation in the corneal-retinal potential due to changes in position and
movement of eye.
Clinical EOG makes an indirect measurement with
Minimum amplitude of the standing potential in the dark
Again at its peak when there is bright phase of light.
ELECTRO-GASTROGRAM [EGG]:
EGG is a non-invasive technique
Recording of the electrical signals that travel through the stomach muscles and controls
the muscle contraction.
The surface recording obtained using electrography is called the electrogastrogram.
Used when there is a suspicion that muscles of the stomach or the nerves controlling
muscles are not working normally
Suspicion arises when there is a problem with recurrent nausea and vomiting
For performing EGG, several electrodes are placed on the abdomen over the stomach
Can be performed in empty stomach or full stomach
Similar to ECG, irregularities will be seen in the pattern if the person suffers from a problem
ELECTRODE THEORY
Devices that convert ionic potentials into electric potentials are called electrodes.
To measure bio electric potentials, a transducer is required.
Electrical signals produced by various body activities are used in monitoring/ diagnosis.
In order to measure and record potentials and currents in the body, it is necessary to
provide some interface between the body and measuring apparatus.
Bio-potential electrodes carry out this interface function.
Transducer consists of two electrodes, which measure ionic potential difference between
two points.
Propagation of action potential through different body tissues produces final waveform
recorded by electrodes.
Electrical activity is explained by differences in ion concentrations within the body (sodium,
Na+; chloride, Cl-; potassium, K+).
A potential difference (voltage) occurs between 2 points with different ionic
concentrations
Interface of metallic ions in solution with the associated metals – results in an electric
potential called electrode potential
Potential is due to the difference in diffusion rates of ions into and out of the metal.
Equilibrium is achieved by the formation of layer of charge at interface.
Double layer – Layer nearest to metal will be of one polarity and layer next to solution
being of opposite polarity.
Propagation of action potential through different body tissues produces final waveform
recorded by electrodes.
Electrical activity is explained by differences in ion concentrations within the body (sodium,
Na+; chloride, Cl-; potassium, K+).
A potential difference (voltage) occurs between 2 points with different ionic
concentrations
Interface of metallic ions in solution with the associated metals – results in an electric
potential called electrode potential
Potential is due to the difference in diffusion rates of ions into and out of the metal.
Equilibrium is achieved by the formation of layer of charge at interface.
Double layer – Layer nearest to metal will be of one polarity and layer next to solution
being of opposite polarity.
NERNST RELATION
It can be shown that an electric potential, E will exist between the solutions on either side
of the membrane, based upon the relative activity of the permeable ions in each of these
solutions. This relationship is known as the Nernst equation.
The relationship between the ionic concentration (activity) and the electrode potential is
given by the Nernst equation.
=− ln
• R – Universal gas constant = 8.31J/(mol K)
• T – Absolute temperature in K
• n – Valence of the ion (No. of electrons added or removed to ionize atom)
• F – Faraday constant [96500C]
• , - Concentration of ion on either side of membrane
• , - Activity coefficients of ion on 2 sides of membrane
• Activity coefficients - , depends on charges of all ions in the solution and distance
between ions
• = Activity of ion responsible for electrode potential
• If a very dilute solution is used, f approaches 1
o Electrode potential becomes a function of logarithm of ratio of 2 concentrations
HALF CELL POTENTIAL
When a metal comes in contact with an electrolyte, either oxidation ( →
+ ) or reduction
( + → ) begins immediately
Local concentration of cations at surface changes
Electrolyte surrounding the metal assumes a different potential from rest of the solution
Characteristic potential is established by the electrode and surrounding electrolyte which depends
on metal, concentration of ions and temperature Half Cell Potential
Can’t be measured without a second electrode
Hydrogen electrode is chosen as the reference
For other metals, half cell potential is expressed as a potential difference with hydrogen electrode
Eg – Al: E = -1.706V, Zn: E = -0.763V, H: E=0, Ag: E = 0.799V, Au: E = 1.68V
Reason for Half Cell Potential : Charge Separation at Interface
Oxidation or reduction reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface leading to a double-
charge layer
It is similar to that which exists along electrically active biological cell membranes.
=
− ln
!"#
Half cell potential
Standard half cell potential
R – Universal gas constant = 8.31J/(mol K)
T – Absolute temperature in K
n – Valence of the ion (No. of electrons added or removed to ionize atom)
F – Faraday constant [96500C]
[red] is the concentration of ion that gained electrons
[oxi] is the concentration of ion that lost electrons
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Nernst equation is also can be used to calculate the potential of an ion across the
membrane.
In its equilibrium state, the Nernst equation should be zero.
$ = ln % '
&
Concentration of ions outside the membrane
& Concentration of ions inside the membrane
POLARIZABLE AND NON-POLARIZABLE ELECTRODES
1. Polarizable Electrodes
No charge crosses the electrode-electrolyte interface when a current is applied.
Current crossing interface is a displacement current and electrode behaves like a capacitor
Eg – Ag/AgCl Electrode – Used for Recording
2. Non-Polarizable Electrode
Current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte interface.
Requires no energy for transition and electrode behaves like a resistor
Eg. Platinum Electrode- Used in stimulation
BIO POTENTIAL ELECTRODES
Electrodes transform ionic conduction to electronic conduction so that bio potential
signals can be obtained
Consists of metal contacts packed so that they can be easily attached to skin or other body
tissues
Electrodes are of different types
Micro Electrodes – To measure potential near or within a single cell
Skin Surface Electrode – To measure ECG, EEG, EMG from surface of skin
Needle Electrode – Electrodes to penetrate the skin to record EEG from local region of
brain or potential from specific form of muscles
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR BIO-POTENTIAL ELECTRODE
• Electrode potential is developed across metal-electrolyte interface – proportional to
exchange of ions between metal and electrolyte.
• Double layer of charge acts as a capacitor
• Equivalent circuit consists of a voltage in series with RC network
Rd and Cd components that represent the impedance associated with the electrodes.
Impedance is frequency dependent because of effect of capacitance
Rs Series resistance associated with electrode materials.
Electrode potential and impedance is also affected by polarization
Polarization – Due to direct current passing through metal electrolyte interface
If the amplifier to which electrodes are connected have extremely high input impedance –
Effect of polarization in impedance is reduced.
Size and type of electrode – Important in determining the electrode impedance
Larger electrodes – Lower impedances
Surface electrodes ~ 2 to 10 k ohm.
Small needle and micro electrodes – Larger impedance
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR BIO-POTENTIAL WITH TWO ELECTRODE
To measure bio electric potential, 2 electrodes are required
Voltage measured is the difference between the instantaneous potentials of the 2
electrodes
If the 2 electrodes are of same material – Potential is the actual difference of ionic potential
between 2 points
If 2 electrodes are different – It produces a significant dc voltage that can cause current to
flow through both electrodes as well as other circuits
DC voltage due to difference in electrode potentials – Electrode offset voltage
In addition to offset voltage – chemical activities that take place within an electrode can
cause voltage fluctuations Signals appear as noise on a bio electric signal
Noise can be reduced by choice of proper materials for electrodes
Ag/AgCl electrode is very stable
Prepared by electrolytically coating a pure silver with silver chloride
Coating is done by placing a cleaned piece of silver into bromium free NaCl solution
2nd piece of Ag is also placed in the solution and connected to a voltage source such
that electrode to be chloride is made positive w.r.t other.
Silver ions combine with chloride ions from salt to produce neutral silver chloride
molecules that coat silver electrode.
MICRO ELECTRODES
To measure potential across the cell membrane
Features
Smaller in size with respect to cell dimension
Tip should be small to permit penetration without damaging cell
Doesn’t change the cell’s behaviour
Tip diameter ranging from approximately 0.05 to 10 microns
Types
Solid metal (Electrolytically etching Tungsten or stainless steel wire to desired size)
Glass micropipette (2 interfaces – Metal in contact with electrolyte solution and other
is interface between electrolyte and fluids outside)
Types of Micro Electrodes
1. Metal Electrodes
Fine needle of strong metal, stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloy, tungsten or
tungsten carbide
Insulated with appropriate insulator up to tip
Used typically in extracellular recording – Eg in brain where you are interested
in recording the firing of neurons (spikes).
Advantages of Micro electrodes
Lower impedance than micro pipet electrodes
Long life
Easy cleaning and maintenance
As microelectrodes have small surface areas – impedance ~Mega ohms Amplifiers with
high impedance is required to avoid loading effects.
2. Glass Micropipette
Glass micropipette filled with an electrolytic solution
(a) Section of fine bore glass capillary
(b) Capillary narrowed through heating and stretching
(c) Final structure of glass pipet microelectrode
Prepared from glass capillaries
Filled with an electrolyte solution normally 3M KCl
Cap containing a metal electrode is then sealed to pipette
Intracellular recording – Typically for recording from cells such as cardiac myocyte
BODY SURFACE ELECTRODES
Electrodes to measure bio electric potential from surface of the body
Larger electrodes can be used with ECG
Since specific points are required for EEG and EMG – smaller electrodes are used
(a) Immersion Electrodes
• Earliest form
• A bucket of saline water is used – subject like hands and feet are placed in it
• Difficulties – Restricted areas can only be analysed, electrolyte spill
• Improved version is plate electrode
(b) Metal Plate Electrodes
One of the most frequently used forms of bio potential sensing electrodes
Simple form – Metal conductor in contact with the skin
An electrolyte soaked pad or conductive gel is used to establish and maintain the
contact.
Plates are usually made up of or plated with silver, nickel or a similar alloy.
Difficulty – possibility of electrode slip or movement
(c) Suction Cup Electrode
Modification of metal plate electrode
No straps or adhesives required
Frequently used for Chest ECG
Can be used only for short periods
Consists of hollow metal cylindrical electrode that
makes contact with skin
Rubber suction bulb fit over its base
Bulb is squeezed and placed on the chest wall and then the bulb is released and applies
suction against skin
Immersion electrodes, metal plate electrodes, suction type electrodes They are all
sensitive to movements.
Slight movement can even cause a change in value of potential
Then, a new type of electrode called floating electrode was introduced.
(d) Floating Electrodes
Principle – Practically eliminate movements by avoiding any direct contact of metal
with skin.
Only conductive path between metal and skin – Electrolyte paste or jelly (Electrolyte
bridge)
Electrode is filled with electrolyte gel and then attached to skin surface by means of a
double sided adhesive tape
Electrode element can be disk made of a metal such as silver coated with AgCl
Spray on electrodes
Small spot of conductive adhesive is sprayed or painted over the skin, which is
previously treated with electrolyte coating
Mainly for astronauts
Scalp surface electrodes
Small disks about 7mm in diameter placed on a clean scalp.
Disposable Electrodes
Eliminates the requirement of cleaning and care after
each use
Primarily used for ECG monitoring
Low cost
Read for immediate use
Ear clip electrodes
Reference electrode for EEG measurements
NEEDLE ELECTRODES
To reduce interface impedance and movement distortions
Unipolar Electrode – Single wire inside a needle – Measures potential at point of contact
Bipolar electrode – Two wires inside a needle – Measurement between 2 wire tips
Mostly used for contacting with internal body tissues
Needle electrodes for EMG – Consists of fine insulated wires placed so that tips are contact
with nerve, muscle or tissues
Remaining portion of the wire is covered with insulation – To prevent short circuit
Wire electrodes of Cu or Pt are used for EMG
Wires are surgically implanted or introduced by means of a needle
Needle electrodes create an interface beneath surface of skin – Less susceptible to
movements than surface electrodes
Lower impedances
BIO POTENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
These are very important part of modern medical instrumentation.
We need to amplify bio-potentials which are generated in the body at low levels with high
source impedance.
Required to increase signal strength while maintaining fidelity
To take a weak bio-potential and increase its amplitude so that it can be processed,
recorded or displayed
To amplify voltage, power and current.
In some cases, a bio potential amplifier is used to isolate the load from the source current
gain only
Characteristics
1. High input impedance
2. Low output impedance
3. Bio potential amplifier must be sensitive to important frequency components of the
biological signal.
4. Bio potential amplifiers have a gain of 1000 or greater.
5. Most bio potential amplifiers are differential
6. High Common Mode Rejection Ratio.
Amplifiers used for biophysical measurements include
a. AC/DC universal amplifier with features such as low leakage current, low dc drift
suitable for intracellular measurements or to make extracellular measurements using
metal micro electrodes for ECG, EEG, EMG etc
b. ECG amplifier with full 12 lead selection and patient isolation
c. Transducer amplifier used for bridge measurements on strain gauges in strain gauge
based pressure transducers, resistance temperature devices
d. Amplifier used with standard thermistor probes for the accurate measurement of
temperatures.
Basic requirements of a bio potential amplifier
a. Physiological process to be monitored should not be affected in any way by the
amplifier
b. Measured signal should not be distorted
c. Amplifier should provide the best possible separation between signal and
interferences
d. Amplifier has to offer protection of patient from any hazard of electrical shock
e. Amplifier itself has to be protected from damages that might result from high input
voltages from biomedical instruments
MAIN STAGES OF BIO POTENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Commonly used Bio-potential Amplifier is Differential amplifier.
Rejects any common mode signal that appears simultaneously at both amplifier input
terminals and amplifies only the voltage difference that appears across its input terminals.
But it has some limitations
Amplifier has limited input impedance – therefore, draws some current from signal source
and loads them to some extent
CMRR may not exceed 60dB in most of the cases, which is inadequate in biomedical
instrumentation systems
These limitations can be overcome with the use of improved version of differential
amplifier called Instrumentation Amplifier
An important stage of all bio potential amplifiers is input preamplifier which contributes
to the overall quality of the system
Main tasks of preamplifier
Sense the voltage between two measuring electrodes while rejecting the common
mode signal
Minimizing the effect of electrode polarization over potentials
To meet the above requirements, it can’t be realized using a single op-amp differential
amplifier
Limited input impedance and therefore draws some current from signal source
CMRR may not exceed 60dB – This is inadequate for biomedical systems
So, we go for the combination of voltage follower with non-inverting amplifier
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
• Instrumentation amplifier is a device that provides voltage gain.
• Basic construction – Buffer amplifiers connected to differential amplifier.
Two buffer amplifiers A1 and A2 connected to a differential amplifier A3.
Op-amp A3 with four equal resistors R forms a differential amplifier with gain 1.
Rvar = Variable resistance, used to balance out any common mode voltage.
Rg = used to set the gain using the formula
()
= 1 + - / , where 0
12
(* (+ . 1
Vo is proportional the difference between the two input voltages
Characteristics of instrumentation amplifier
Input resistance is very high and it does not change as the gain is varied
Output voltage does not depend on common mode voltage, but only on the difference
between two inputs
Voltage gain from differential input to single ended output is set by one resistor.
If inputs are prone to high voltage spikes – which the op-amps cannot withstand; they
can be protected using back to back diodes at input. But it reduces input impedance
and also limits bandwidth.
Advantages
Extreme high i/p impedance
Very high CMRR
Low power consumption
High slew rate
Low bias & offset currents
Available as single IC - µA725, ICL7605, LH0036 etc
CARRIER AMPLIFIER
Carrier amplifier consists of oscillator and a capacitor coupled amplifier
Oscillator is used to energize the transducer with an alternating carrier signal
Eg – Capacitance based pressure transducer
Used to obtain zero frequency of dc amplifier
1. Carrier Oscillator:
Used to energize the transducer with an alternating carrier voltage. Frequency ~
2.5KHz
2. Strain gauge transducer:
The information signal from the body electrodes reaches the transducer where it is
amplitude modulated using carrier signal from the carrier oscillator.
The transducer changes the amplitude of carrier signal with respect to the
physiological variable being measured.
The output of transducer is amplitude modulated signal.
3. Amplifier
Amplifier used is Multistage Capacitance coupled Amplifier
The modulated signal from the transducer is given to this amplifier.
The first stage produces amplification of AM signal.
Second stage responds to signal frequency components of carrier signal only.
Further amplified in the third stage.
4. Rectifier
Output from the amplifier is converted into unidirectional signal using a rectifier.
5. Phase sensitive Detector
The signal is demodulated and extracts the amplified information signal.
6. Direct Writing Recorder
The voltage produced by the detector stage is then fed to the driver stage of the
recording system.
Features of carrier amplifier
• Used to obtain zero frequency response of dc amplifier.
• Inherent stability of capacitance coupled amplifier.
• Lock in amplifier – Version of carrier amplifier designed for measurement of low level
signals buried in noise
• Difference between carrier amplifier and lock in amplifier
o Carrier amplifier – General purpose instrument amplifier
o Lock in amplifier – Measure signals in a noisy background
• Lock in amplifier works by synchronizing with a single frequency called reference frequency
• Frequency is made to contain the signal of interest
• Signal is modulated by the reference frequency in such a way that all desired data is at the
single reference frequency whereas noise (being broadband) is at all frequencies
• This allows the signal to be recovered from noise.
CHOPPER AMPLIFIER
Used to achieve low frequency response and to avoid the drift problem that occurs in the
direct coupled amplifier.
Circuit uses a chopping device which converts slowly varying dc to an alternating form with
amplitude proportional to the input direct current and phase is dependent on the polarity
of original signal.
AC voltage is then amplified by an ac amplifier whose output is then rectified back to get
an amplified direct current.
Excellent device for signals of narrow bandwidth and it reduces drift problem
• Figure shows a single ended chopper stabilizer amplifier.
• Aim of the circuit is to avoid the dc offset voltage present in the output signal.
• For that purpose, we first convert the dc signal into ac using a chopper.
• Amplifier achieves this operation by chopping low frequency components of input
signal – amplifying the chopped signal in ac amplifier (A1) – Demodulating the output
of ac amplifier.
1. Low Pass Filter
The low frequency components derived from the input signal by passing it through
low pass filter R2C2 and R2
2. Chopper
The output of LPF is then chopped using a transistor switch w.r.t a carrier signal
from the oscillator.
3. Demodulator
The original signal recovered in demodulator which is again applied to second
stage of amplification.
4. Low Pass Filter
Before giving to the amplifier (A2), low frequency components again derived using
LPF
5. Second Stage of Amplification (A2)
At the input of A2, a HPF C1R1 is used to derive the high frequency signals.
This is to reduce the dc offset and drift of second amplifier A2.
Features of Chopper Amplifier
Insensitivity to component changes due to ageing, temperature change, power supply
variation, or other environmental factors.
Best choice where both offset voltage and bias current must be small over long periods
of time or when there are environmental changes.
Chopper amplifiers are available in single ended configuration and differential input
configurations.
Used in medical fields to amplify small dc signals of few microvolts.
Small amplitudes are obtained from transducers such as strain gauge pressure
transducers, thermistors etc.
ISOLATION AMPLIFIERS
Commonly used for providing protection against leakage currents
Amplifiers break the ohmic continuity of electric signals between the input and output of
the amplifier
Methods used for the design of isolation amplifiers
Transformer isolation
Optical isolation
Capacitive isolation
a. Transformer Isolation
Uses a frequency modulated or pulse width modulated carrier signal with small signal
bandwidth up to 30kHz to carry the signal
Uses an internal dc to dc converter – Consists of 20kHz oscillator, transformer, rectifier and
filter to supply isolated power
b. Optical Isolation
Isolation can also be achieved by optical techniques
Here the patient is electrically connected neither with hospital equipments nor the ground
line
Separate battery operated circuit supplies power to the patient circuit
Signal of interest is converted into light by a light source (LED)
Light falls on the phototransistor on the output side – which converts the light signal again
into electrical signal
Signal will have the original frequency, amplitude and linearity
No modulator/demodulator is required because the signal is transmitted in optical manner
all the way.
c. Capacitive Isolation
• Uses digital encoding of input voltage and frequency modulation to send the signal across
a differential capacitive barrier
• Separate power supply is required on both sides of the barrier
• Signals with bandwidth up to 70kHz can be handled using this method.
Relative Merits of Isolation type amplifiers
• Electrical isolation is the most commonly used technique to ensure patient protection –
against electrical hazards
• Instruments like ECG, pressure monitors, pressure transducers, pacemakers – Designed to
electrically separate circuit to which patient is connected from the portion of circuit
connected to ac power line and ground