CHAPTER-1

THE LIVING WORLD

The main characteristics of living are:

(i) Growth
(ii) Reproduction
(iii) Metabolism
(iv) Cellular organization
(v) Consciousness

→ Those characteristics which have no exception is called defining property of life.

→ Growth and Reproduction are not the defining property of life as well as metabolism,
cellular organization, consciousness is the defining property of life.

(i) Growth

→ Overall increase in mass or size of tissue or organism or its parts is called growth.

→ Increase in mass and increase in number are the twin characteristics of growth. This is an
irreversible permanent increase in size of the organ or its part or even of an individual cell.

→ Growth is of two types:

• Intrinsic growth: Growth from inside of the body of living organism. This is the defining
property of life.

• Extrinsic growth: Growth from outside of the body of the organism. Like accumulation of
material on any body surface . Non-living exhibits this type of growth.

→ Intrinsic Growth is of two types:

• Indeterminate growth\Unlimited growth: Growth which occurs continuously throughout

their life span. It occurs only in plants.

• Determinate growth\ limited growth: Growth which occurs only up to certain age. It occurs
only in animals. Cell division occurs only in certain tissues to replace lost cells.

(ii) Reproduction

→ Production of new individual or progeny is called as reproduction.

→ Reproduction in case of multicellular organism is production of progeny possessing

features more or less similar to those of parents.

→ Reproduction in case of unicellular organism like bacteria, unicellular algae or amoeba is

increaser in number of cell. Means in unicellular organism the growth and reproduction are
synonyms or same.

→ Reproduction is not found in any nonliving object. There are many living organism which
can\do not reproduce like mules, sterile human couples, worker bees. This is also not taken as
defining property of life.

→ Reproduction is of two types:

• Asexual reproduction: Reproduction in which fertilization or gametic fusion and meiosis is

not involved is called asexual reproduction.

(a) By Asexual spores: In algae and fungi.

(b) By Budding: In Yeast and Hydra.
(c) By Fragmentation: In filamentous Algae, Fungi and Protonema of moss plants.
(d) By True Regeneration: Fragmented organism regenerate the lost parts of its body and
becomes a new organism i.e. Planaria.

→ Regeneration is a process in which only lost part of the body is repaired or regenerated.
Ex: Star fish, Lizards.

• Sexual Reproduction: Reproduction in which gametes are formed by meiosis and

fertilization takes place to form progeny is called as sexual reproduction.

(iii) Metabolism

→ The sum total of all the chemical reaction occurring in our body is metabolism.

→ All organism, both unicellular as well as multicellular exhibit metabolism. No nonliving

objects show metabolism.

→ It is the defining property of life.

→ The isolated metabolic reaction outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube
(in vitro) is neither living nor living. These isolated reactions cannot be regarded as living
things, but they are definitely living reactions because they are similar to the reaction
performing in our body.

→ All plants, animals, fungi, and microbes exhibit metabolism.

(iv) Cellular organization

→ Cell is the basis unit of life. All organisms are composed of cells.

→ Some are composed of single cell and are called as unicellular organism while other are
composed of many cells, are called multicellular organism.

→ Unicellular organism is capable of independent existence and performing essential

functions of life. Anything less than a complete structure of a cell, does not ensure
independent living.

→ Cell is the fundamental structure and functional structural and functional unit of all living
organism. This is the defining property of life.

Consciousness

→Ability to sense the surrounding environment and respond to these environment stimuli is
called as consciousness. This is the most obvious and technically complicated features of all
living organism.

→All organisms from the prokaryotes to complex eukaryote show consciousness to

environmental clues.

→Self –consciousness is thought to be present only in human.

→The brain dead coma patient who is supported who is supported by machines which
replace heart and lungs also has consciousness so it is living but it does not has self-
consciousness because it has lost the co-ordination of organs of different body parts.

→Means all the living phenomena are due to underlying interactions between different
component of an individual or organ or tissue or cell.

→Living organism is self-replicating and self-regulating interactive system capable of

responding to external stimuli.

ASSIGNMENT
1. How is growth exhibited by non-living objects different from that in living
organisms?
2. Plants and animals grow by mitotic cell divisions. What differences do they exhibit in
their growth.
3. Why metabolism is considered as defining characteristic of living beings?

Diversity in Living World

→The number of species that are known and described range between 1.7-1.8 million.
→This refers to biodiversity or the number and types of organisms present on earth.

Systematics

→The study of different kind of organisms and their evolutionary relationships among
organisms.
→Explained by Carolus Linnaeus in his book Systema Naturae

Taxonomy

→ This is the study of principles and procedures of classification.

→The term ‘Taxonomy’ was given by de Candolle (1813).
→Characterization, identification , classification and nomenclature are the process of
taxonomy.

IDENTIFICATION
→It is about finding a correct name and place of an organism with the help of identification
keys and comparing similarities and dissimilar comparing similarities with already known
organism.

CLASSIFICATION

→By observing the fundamental characteristics of organism and their comparison with the
organism already known, we include the new organism in special class or group which
represent distinct biological entities.

NOMENCLATURE

→It is a science of providing distinct and proper names to organism so that they can easily be
recognized and differentiated from others.
→These are the names given to the organisms by biologists based on agreed principles and
criteria for their acceptability all over the world. These are

(i) Polynomial system of nomenclature : Prior to 1750, biologists used descriptive names
for organisms with each name being made up of several Latin words e.g.
‘Caryophyllumsaxnatilis, Folisgramineus, umbellatiscorymbis’ ( Caryophyllum growing on
rocks having grass-like leaves and umbellate corymb flower)
(ii) Trinomial system of nomenclature: Sometimes, binomial nomenclature can also be
extended to trinomial system of nomenclature, where the names of sub species or varieties
can be incorporated. Eg. Brassica oleracea botrytis.
(iii) Binomial system of nomenclature.
This system was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753 in his book species Plantarum.
As per this system, name of any organism consists of two parts or epithets i.e. Generic epithet
and Specific epithet.
The following rules are followed for Binomial Nomenclature as given below

 Scientific names are in Latin or Latinised and written in italics. When

handwritten, they are underlined separately.
 The first word is genus name (Generic name) and second word is the species
name (specific epithet).
 Genus name starts with capital letter and species name with small letter.
 Author’s name (in abbreviated form) appears at the end of biological name.
 Ex: Mangifera indica (Mango), Homo sapiens ( Human)

Codes for nomenclature

 ICBN – International code of Botanical Nomenclature.

 ICZN – International code of zoological Nomenclature.
 ICNB – International code for Nomenclature of Bacteria.
 ICNCP – International code for Nomenclature of cultivated Plants
 ICTV – International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the two codes of nomenclature of living organisms?
 2. Name the scientist who proposed the binomial nomenclature.
3. Name the four processes that are basic to taxonomy.
4. Describe the rules of binomial nomenclature with an example.

TAXONOMICAL HIERARCHY

→ The system by which various taxonomic categories are arranged in a proper descending
order is called taxonomic or systematic hierarchy.
→ A taxon is a taxonomic group belonging to any rank in a given system of classification.
→ The term ‘taxon’ was introduced for the first time by ICBN in 1956.

→ Kingdom is the highest rank and species is the lowest or basic rank.

SPECIES
 Species is the fundamental or smallest unit of classification. The concept of species
was proposed by John Ray. The definition of species is given by Ernst Mayer
 Species is a group of individuals which resemble each other in morphological,
physiological, biochemical and behavioral characters. These individuals are capable
of inbreeding freely in between themselves under natural conditions.
 Eg. Panthera leo, Panthera pardus, Panthera tigris.

GENUS
 Genus comprises a group of related species, which have more common characters in
comparsion to the species of another genera. Hence genera are aggregates of closely
related species.
 Some genera have only one species and is called monotypic, whereas others have a
large number of closely related species and are called polytypic.
 Eg. Panthera (Lion, Leopad, Tiger)

FAMILY
 Family is a taxonomic category, which contains a group of related genera with still
less number of similarities as compared to the genus and species.
 Eg. Panthera and Felis together belong to family Felidae

ORDER
 An order includes a group of related families. Generally, order and other higher
taxonomic categories are identified based on the aggregates of characters. Order is an
assemblage of families, which exhibit a few similar characters.
  Eg. Felideae (cat family) , Canideae (dog family) - Order Carnivora

CLASS
 Class is group of related order.
 Eg. Carnivora (tiger, cat, dog), Primata (monkeys )- Class Mammalia

PHYLUM
 Phylum is group of classes, in case of plants, classes with a few similar characters are
assigned to a higher category called division.
 Eg. Pisces, Amphibian, Reptilian, Aves & Mammals – Phylum Chordata

KINGDOM
 Kingdom is the highest taxonomic category. All the plants are included in kingdom-
plantae, while all animals to kingdom-Animalia

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is meant by taxonomic hierarchy?
2. Define species.
3. Brinjal and potato belong to the same genera, but two are different species.
What defines then as separate species?

CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Earlier attempts for classification –
→ Theophrastus (Historia plantarum) proposes the first classification of plant kingdom.
He classified plant kingdom into four groups on the basis of growth habit like trees, shrubs,
under shrubs, herbs.

→ Aristotle (Historia animalia) used simple morphological characters to classify plants into
trees, shrubs and herbs. He divided animals into two groups, those which had red
blood(Enaima) and those that did not(Anaima).

→ Linnaeus (Genera plantarum) gave a Two Kingdom system of classification

with Plantae and Animalia.

→ This system of classification was not accepted because it includes both prokaryotic &
eukaryotic, unicellular & multicellular and photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms
together.
→ Haeckel gave the three kingdoms (Protista, Plantae, Animalia) system of classification.
→ This system of classification was not accepted because it includes both prokaryotic &
eukaryotic chlorophyllous and non chlorophyllous organisms together.

→ COPELAND gave the four kingdom system of classification which includes

Monera/Mycota, Protista, Plantae & Animalia.

→ R.H. WHITTAKER (1969) gave the five kingdom system of classification.

→ The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.
→The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, thallus
organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Who was the first to attempt a classification of all living organisms? How did he
classify?
2. Highlight the criteria considered for five kingdom classification.
3. What were the drawbacks of two kingdom classification?
KINGDOM MONERA
→ Monera (Monos - single) includes prokaryotes unicellular organisms.
→ It consists of only Bacteria. Bacteria are the smallest free living organisms which are
mostly unicellular.

→ Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesize their own food from inorganic
substrates. They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic. The vast
majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they do not synthesise their own food but depend
on other organisms or on dead organic matter for food.

→ Classification of bacteria according to their shape –

1. Spherical – Coccus
2. rod-shaped – Bacillus
3. comma-shaped – Vibrium
4. spiral – Spirillum

STRUCTURE OF BACTERIAL CELL

→ CAPSULE : In a large number of bacteria, a slimy capsule is present outside the cell wall.
It is composed of polysaccharides and the nitrogenous substances (amino acids) are also
present in addition. This slime layer becomes thick called capsule.
→ CELL WALL : All bacterial cells are covered by a strong, rigid cell wall. It is made up of
polysaccharides, proteins and lipids. In the cell wall of bacteria, there are two important sugar
derivatives i.e., NAG and NAM (N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid)

→ PLASMA MEMBRANE : It is composed of large amounts of phospholipids, proteins

and some amounts of polysaccharides.

→ NUCLEOID : It is also known as genophore, naked nucleus. There is nuclear material

DNA which is double helical and circular. Histones (basic proteins) are altogether absent in
bacteria.

→ PLASMID : In addition to the normal DNA chromosomes, many bacteria have extra
chromosomal genetic elements or DNA. These elements are called plasmids. Plasmids are
small circular double stranded DNA molecules.

→ FLAGELLA : These are fine, thread-like, protoplasmic appendages which help bacteria
to swim about in the liquid medium.

→ PILI OR FIMBRIAE : Besides flagella, some tiny or small hair-like outgrowths are
present on bacterial cell surface. Fimbriae take part in attachment like holding the bacteria to
solid surfaces. Some sex pili act as conjugation canals through which DNA of one cell
passes into the other cell.

ARCHAEBACTERIA
→ These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats such as
extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas
(methanogens).
→Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this
feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
→In halophiles, a purple pigmented membrane containing bacteriorhodopsin is developed in
sunlight, which utilizes light energy for metabolic activities, e.g., Halobacterium and
Halococcus.
→Thermoacidophiles are aerobic bacteria and have the capacity to oxidize sulphur to H 2SO4
at high temperature and high acidity, e.g., Sulfobolus and Thermoplasma.
→Methanogens are present in the guts of several ruminant animals such as cows and
buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of
these animals.

EUBACTERIA / TRUE BACTERIA

→These are characterised by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum.

CYANOBACTERIA –
 Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) have chlorophyll–a similar to green plants and are
photosynthetic autotrophs.
 The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine or terrestrial algae.
 The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
 They often form blooms in polluted water bodies.

NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA –

  They fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells
called heterocysts, g., Nostoc and Anabaena. (heterocyst provide anaerobic condition
required for N2 fixatiom)

CHEMOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA –

 They oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and
use the released energy for their ATP production.
 They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and
sulphur.

HETEROTROPHIC BACTERIA –
 They are the mostly important decomposers.
 Some help in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in
legume roots, etc.
 Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
 Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different
bacteria.

REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA –
 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.
 Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.
 They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of
DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other. (Conjugation)

MYCOPLASMAS –
 These organisms completely lack a cell wall.
 They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen.
 Unit membrane is made up of lipoprotein. The genetic material is a single, linear,
double stranded molecule of DNA, without a nuclear envelope.

ASSIGNMENT
4. Name the smallest known prokaryote.
5. Why were bacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi included in plant kingdom in earlier
classification?
6. A. What is the name given to those that live in extreme salty areas and hot springs?
B. What facilitates them to live in such harsh habitat?
ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the smallest known prokaryote.
2. Name the most common method of reproduction in bacteria.
3. What is the important ecological role of chemosynthetic bacteria?
4. Mention any four significant impact of heterotrophic bacteria on human affairs.
5. Diagrammatically represent a heterocyst. State its function and name the organism that
possess it.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
→ All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under this kingdom.
→ Members of protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the others
dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
→ Being eukaryotes, the Protista cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia.
→ The photosynthetic, floating protists are collectively called phytoplankton. The free-
floating, holozoic protozoans are collectively termed zooplankton.
→ Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote
formation.
→ Unicellular protists have been broadly divided into three major groups :
o Photosynthetic protists : e.g., dinoflagellates, diatoms, euglenoids.
o Consumer protists : e.g., slime moulds or myxomycetes.
o Protozoan protists : e.g., zooflagellata, sarcodina, sporozoa, ciliata.

1. Chrysophytes: (diatoms / golden algae /desmids).

 Found in fresh water as well as in marine environments.
 Most of them are photosynthetic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
 The reserve food material is oil and a polysaccharide-chrysolaminarin (or leucosin).
 In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit together as in a
soap box.
 The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus,
diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this
accumulation over billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’.
 Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
 Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.

2. Dinoflagellates: (Pyrophyta)
 They are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
 They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments
present in their cells.
 The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
 Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely in a
furrow between the wall plates.
 The reserve food material is starch in fresh water forms and oil in marine forms.
 Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication that they make
the sea appear red (red tides).
 Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such as
fishes.

3. Euglenoids:
 Most of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
 Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their
body flexible.
 They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
 Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight
they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms. Therefore,
they are known as connecting link between plant and animal.
 The pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher plants.
Example: Euglena

4. Slime Moulds:
 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.
 The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
  Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may
grow and spread over several feet.
 During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting
bodies bearing spores at their tips. Each plasmodium reproduces asexually by the
formation of several, small, sessile or stalked, brightly coloured sporangia.
 The spores possess true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive for many
years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents.

5. Protozoans
 Protozoans were first studied by Leeuwenhoek and the name protozoa was coined by
Goldfuss.
 All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
 There are four major groups of protozoans –

(A) AMOEBOID PROTOZOANS:

 Amoeba belongs to the class sarcodina or rhizopoda.
 Body is covered by [Link] move and capture their prey by pseudopodia
(false feet).
 Marine forms have silica shells on their surface.
e.g., Amoeba, Entamoeba (Parasite)
(B) FLAGELLATED PROTOZOANS:
 either free-living or parasitic.
 They have flagella.
 Trypanosoma gambiense is the parasitic zooflagellate which causes one of the
deadliest ailments in human beings called African sleeping sickness or
Trypanosomiasis. It was discovered by Frode in 1901.
e.g., Trypanosoma.
(C) CILIATED PROTOZOANS:
 Aquatic, actively moving organisms. Paramecium is commonly called as ‘Slipper
animalcule’.
 Body is covered with a thin, firm, flexible membrane called pellicle and have
thousands of cilia.
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface.
 The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be
steered into the gullet.
e.g., Paramoecium.
(D) SPOROZOANS:
 The body is covered by a pellicle or cuticle.
 These organisms have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
 Laveran (1880) discovered that malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite,
Plasmodium vivax.
e.g., Plasmodium (malaria parasite).

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the dinoflagellate that causes red tides in the ocean.
2. Name the group of organism included in chrysophyta.
3. Differentiate between dinoflagellate and euglenoids.
4. What is diatomaceous earth? Mention any two economic uses of it.
5. Name any three parasitic protozoans and mention the diseases each of them causes in
human beings.
KINGDOM FUNGI
→ The fungi are a group of eukaryotic microorganisms that lack chlorophyll, are unable to
synthesize their own food and are therefore heterotrophic.
→ The branch of science that deals with the study of fungi is called Mycology.
STRUCTURE
→ With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
→ Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of
hyphae is known as mycelium.
→Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called
coenocytic hyphae. Others have septate or cross walls in their hyphae.
→ The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and cellulose. While, chitin is a polymer of
N-acetyl glucosamine, cellulose is a polymer of D-glucose.
→ Fungi possess all eukaryotic organelles and reserve food particles (glycogen, lipids etc.)
NUTRITION
→ Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and
hence are called saprophytes.
→ Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
→ They can also live as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of
higher plants as Mycorrhiza.
REPRODUCTION
→ vegetative – fragmentation, fission and budding.
→ Asexual reproduction – by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores.
→ sexual reproduction – by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
→ The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.

The sexual cycle involves the following three steps –

1. Plasmogamy – Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes.
2. Karyogamy – Fusion of two nuclei.
3. Meiosis – in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
→ When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come
together and fuse.
→ In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n).
However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryophase (2
nuclei per cell) occur.
→ Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies
in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores.
Haploid spores →fusion begins →dikaryophase →nuclei fuse →diploid body →meiosis
→haploid spores.
→ The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form
the basis for the division of the kingdom into various classes.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are coprophilous fungi?
2. What technical term is given to the association of fungi with algae and roots of higher
plants?
3. Mention the criteria used for classifying fungi into classes.
4. Describe the three common steps in the sexual reproduction of fungi.

CLASSES OF FUNGI

Class Habitat Mycelium Reproduction Spore Origin of Examples

spore
Phycomycetes Aquatic, Aseptate, Asexual Zoospores, Sporangium Mucor,
decaying Coenocytic aplanospores Rhizopus,
wood in Albugo
moist and Sexual Zygospore Fusion of
damp places (or) Oospore nuclei
or obligate
parasites on
plants.
Ascomycetes Saprophytic, Septate, Asexual Blastospore Budding Aspergillus,
decomposers, Branched Penicillium,
parasitic or Conidia Conidiophore Claviceps,
coprophilous Neurospora,
Sexual Ascospore Ascus Saccharomyces
(Ascocarps)
Basidiomycetes Soil, on logs Septate, Vegetative Fragmentation Fragmentation Agaricus,
and tree Branched Ustilago,
stumps and Puccinia
in plant Sexual Basidiospore Basidium
bodies as (Basidiocarps)
parasites
Deuteromycetes Saprophytes Septate, Asexual Thallospore Thallus Alternaria,
(Fungi or parasites. Branched (Hypha) Colletotrichum
imperfecti) Majority are and
decomposers Conidia Conidiophore Trichoderma
of litter and
help in
mineral
cycling

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is a dikaryon?
2. What is the difference between conidia and aplanospores?
3. Why is no sexual stage observed in Deuteromycetes?
4. Differentiate between Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
→ Kingdom plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly
called plants.
→ Cells are surrounded by cell wall and contain cellulose.
→ Few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.
e.g., Insectivorous plants – Bladderwort and Venus fly trap.
Parasitic Plants – Cuscuta.
→ Growth occurs due to the presence of definite growing points or cells. In higher forms,
growing areas are called meristems.
→ A multicellular embryo is formed during development from the zygote. Life cycle consists
of alternating haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generation. This phenomenon is
called alternation of generations.
→ August Wilhelm Eichler (1883), a Viennese botanist, divided plant kingdom into two
sub-kingdoms mainly on the basis of presence or absence of seeds.
 Cryptogamae are lower plants in which sex organs are hidden and seeds and flowers are
absent. It includes thallophytes, bryophytes, pteridophytes.
 Phanerogamae are higher plants in which sex organs are evident; seeds present. It includes
gymnosperms and angiosperms.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
→ They directly (herbivore) or indirectly (carnivore) depend on plants for food.
→ They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat.
→ Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
→ They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults with definite shape and size.
→ Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
→ Most of them are capable of locomotion.
→ The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by embryological
development.
→ Animal life cycle includes stages of embryonic development. Mitotic cell divisions
(cleavage) transform the animal zygote into a multicellular embryo.

VIRUSES, VIROIDS AND LICHENS

→ Some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and lichens are not included in the five
kingdom classification of Whittaker.

VIRUSES
→ The term 'virus' has been derived from Latin, which means poison or venom or viscous
fluid. They remain inactive outside a living host but become active inside the host and
multiply in it.
→ The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having an inert
crystalline structure outside the living cell.
→ D.J. Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic
disease of tobacco. These were found to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through
bacteria-proof filters.
→ M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco
could cause infection in healthy plants and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum
(infectious living fluid).
→ W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist
largely of proteins. They are inert outside their specific host cell.
→ In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or
DNA.
→ A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious. In general, viruses that
infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals have either single or
double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
→ Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are usually double
stranded DNA viruses and contain lysozyme enzyme.
→ The protein coat called a capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the
nucleic acid.
→ These capsomeres arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms possess antigenic
properties.
→ Viruses cause diseases like mumps, smallpox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is
also caused by a virus.
→ In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and
vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
VIROIDS
→ Discovered by T.O. Diener in 1971.
→ It was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease.
→ It was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence the
name viroid.
→ The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.

LICHENS
→ Lichens are symbiotic associations (mutually useful) between algae and fungi.
→ The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which
are autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively.
→ Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and
water for its partner.
→ So close is their association that if one saw a lichen in nature one would never imagine
that they had two different organisms within them.
→ Lichens reproduce both by asexual and sexual methods.
→ Lichens are very sensitive to SO2 and grow only in SO2 free atmosphere.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the two forms of food reserves in animal cells.
2. Why are viruses not included in any of the kingdoms?
3. Differentiate between the gametophyte and sporophyte of plants. What is meant
by alternation of generation?
4. What is a capsid in a virus? What are its components?
 CHAPTER – 3
PLANT KINGDOM
Systems of classification –

1. Artificial System of classification –

→ It was the earliest systems of classification.
→ It used only gross superficial morphological characters such as habit, colour, number and
shape of leaves, etc.
→They were based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure (system
given by Linnaeus).
Drawbacks
→They separated the closely related species since they were based on a few characteristics.
→ Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characteristics;
this is not acceptable since we know that often the vegetative characters are more easily
affected by environment.
e.g., Linnaeus classification of plants based on no of androecium.

2. Natural system of classification –

→It was based on natural affinities among the organisms.
→ It considers not only the external features, but also internal features, like ultrastructure,
anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry. This system is practically more useful.
e.g., George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker classification of flowering plants.

3. Phylogenetic classification systems –

→ It is most acceptable system proposed by "Adolf Engler and Karl Prantl".
→ It is based on evolutionary relationships between the various organisms.
→ This assumes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have a common ancestor.

New development in taxonomy –

1. Numerical Taxonomy –
→ It is carried out using computers and is based on all observable characteristics.
→ Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed.
→ In this way each character is given equal importance and at the same time hundreds of
characters can be considered.
2. Cytotaxonomy –
→ It is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour.
3. Chemotaxonomy –
→It is based on the chemical constituents of the plant.
Plant Classification

ALGAE / THALLOPHYTA

→ Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, avascular, autotrophic and largely aquatic
(both fresh water and marine) organisms with no cellular differentiation.
→ The branch of botany dealing with the study of algae is called phycology or algology.
→ Some Algae also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
→ Algae are plants because they have chlorophyll a, cellulosic cell wall and starch as reserve
food.

Size and form of algae –

→ The microscopic unicellular forms – Chlamydomonas
→ Colonial forms – Volvox
→ Filamentous forms – Ulothrix and
→ Marine and massive plant bodies – Kelps

Reproduction in Algae –
→ By vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
→ Structure and reproduction of algae was written by Fritsch. He is known as the father of
algae.
→ Vegetative reproduction – by fragmentation, each fragment develops into a thallus.
→ Asexual reproduction – by the production of different types of spores like
[Link] are flagellated (motile) and on germination gives rise to new plants.
→ Sexual reproduction – through fusion of two gametes.
1. Isogamous – If gametes are flagellated and similar in size – Chlamydomonas.
If gametes are non-flagellated and similar in size – Spirogyra.
2. Anisogamous – If gametes are dissimilar in size. e.g., some species of Chlamydomonas.
3. Oogamous – Fusion between one large, non-motile female gamete and a smaller, motile
male gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.

Economic importance of Algae –

→ At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through
photosynthesis.
→ They are primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form the basis of the food
cycles of all aquatic animals. Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum are used
as food.
→ Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids (water
holding substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae).
→ Agar, one of the commercial products obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to
grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies.
→ Chlorella and Spirullina are unicellular algae, rich in proteins and are used as food
supplements even by space travellers. (SCP – single cell protein).
→ The algae are divided into three main classes (on the basis of pigment and stored
food): Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

Chlorophyceae (Green algae)

→ The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.

→ They are usually grass green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b.
→ The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped
in different species.
→ Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the
chloroplasts.
→ Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil
droplets.
→ Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer
layer of pectose.
→ Vegetative reproduction – by fragmentation or by formation of different types of spores.
→ Asexual reproduction – by flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
→ Sexual reproduction – may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
e.g., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara.

Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)

→ It is found primarily in marine habitats.
→ Present in from simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched
forms as represented by kelps.
→ They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls (fucoxanthin).
→Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of laminarin or
mannitol.
→Cell wall made-up of cellulose and has outer coating of gelatinous substance algin.
→ The plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk – the
stipe and leaf like photosynthetic organ – the frond.
→ Vegetative reproduction – by fragmentation.
→ Asexual reproduction – by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped and have two
unequal laterally attached flagella.
→ Sexual reproduction – may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
→ Union of gametes may take place in water or within the oogonium (oogamous species).
→ The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear two laterally attached flagella.
e.g., Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus.

Rhodophyceae (Red algae)

→ Predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin.
→ Majority of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer
areas.
→ They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water and also at great
depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
→ The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular.
→ The food is stored as floridean starch which is very similar to amylopectin and glycogen
in structure.
→ Vegetative reproduction – by fragmentation.
→ Asexual reproduction – by non-motile spores.
→ Sexual reproduction – by non-motile gametes.
→ Sexual reproduction is oogamous.
e.g., Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium.

TABLE : DIVISIONS OF ALGAE AND THEIR MAIN

CHARACTERISTICS

Flagellar
Number
Common Major Stored Cell and
Classes Habitat
Name Pigments Food Wall Position
of
Insertions

Green Fresh
algae water,
Chlorophyll a, 2-8, equal,
Chlorophyceae Starch Cellulose brackish
b apical
water, sal
water

Fresh
water
Cellulose
Brown Chlorophyll a, Mannitol, 2, unequal, (rare)
Phaeophyceae and
algae c,fucoxanthin laminarin lateral brackish
algin
water, salt
water

Fresh
water
(some),
Chlorophyll a, Floridean
Rhodophyceae Red algae Cellulose Absent brackish
d,phycoerythrin starch
water, salt
water
(most)
ASSIGNMENT
1. What name is given to the storage bodies of green algae? Where are they located
in the cells?
2. What are phycocolloids? Name two of them and their respective sources.
3. Describe the structure of zoospores of Phaeophyceae.
4. Mention economic uses of agar.
5. Give a comparative account of (a) the nature of cell wall, (b) pigments and (c)
flagella among the three classes of algae.
BRYOPHYTES (Amphibians of the plant kingdom)

→Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts that are found commonly growing in
moist shaded areas in the hills.
→Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live
in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
→ They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.

Structure / Plant body –

→ The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.
→ It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum by unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids (root like structure). Rhizoids are organs of absorption and fixation.
→ They lack true roots, stem or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like
structures.
→ The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called a
gametophyte. Gametophyte lack vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).

Sex organs –
→ The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular.
→ The male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids.
→The female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped and produces a single egg.

Fertilization and development –

→ The antherozoids are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium.
→ An antherozoid fuses with the egg to produce the zygote.
→ Zygotes do not undergo reduction division immediately. They produce a multicellular
body called a sporophyte.
→ The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and
derives nourishment from it. (sporophyte is parasite or dependent on gametophyte).
→ Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid
spores.
→ The sporogonium is short lived & differentiated into either foot, seta and capsule.
→The foot is an anchorage and absorptive organ and remain embedded in gametophyte. The
seta is cylindrical to conduct food from gametophyte to capsule.
→ The spores, produced by sporogonium are all alike (homosporous). Then these spores
germinate to produce gametophyte.
Economic importance –
→ Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.
→ Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel, and because
of their capacity to hold water as packing material for trans-shipment of living material.
→ Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great
ecological importance.
→ They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants.
→ Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling rain and
prevent soil erosion.
→ The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
→ Bryophytes are divided into class Hepaticopsida (Eg. Riccia and Marchantia),
Anthocerotopsida (Eg. Anthoceros) and Bryopsida (E.g. Funaria, Sphagnum, Polytrichum
etc.).
Liverworts
→ The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid.
→ The thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate.
→ The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem-like structures.
→ Asexual reproduction – by fragmentation of thalli, or by the formation of specialised
structures called gemmae.
→ Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develop in small receptacles called
gemma cups located on the thalli.
→ The gemmae become detached from the parent body and germinate to form new
individuals.
→ Sexual reproduction – male and female sex organs are produced either on the same or on
different thalli.
→ The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule. After meiosis, spores are
produced within the capsule. These spores germinate to form free-living gametophytes.
e.g., Marchantia

Mosses
→ The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte which consists of
two stages.
→ The first stage is the protonema stage, which develops directly from a spore. It is a
creeping, green, branched and frequently filamentous stage.
→ The second stage is the leafy stage, which develops from the secondary protonema as a
lateral bud. It has upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. They are attached to
the soil through multicellular and branched rhizoids. This stage bears the sex organs.
→ Vegetative reproduction – by fragmentation and budding in the secondary protonema.
→ Sexual reproduction – by the sex organs antheridia and archegonia, which are produced at
the apex of the leafy shoots.
→ After fertilization – the zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisting of a foot, seta and
capsule.
→ The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in liverworts. The capsule contains
spores, which are formed after meiosis.
→ The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.

PTERIDOPHYTES
→ Pteridophytes are also called vascular cryptogams as they possess xylem and phloem.
→ They are nicknamed as botanical snakes as they evolved after bryophytes (botanical
amphibians).
→ The Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns.
→ Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and
phloem.
→ The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp, shady places though some may flourish well in
sandy-soil conditions.

Structure / Plant body –

→ The main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem and
leaves. These organs possess well-differentiated vascular tissues.
→ The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) – Selaginella or large (macrophylls) –
ferns.
→ The sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like appendages called
sporophylls.
→ In some cases sporophylls may form distinct compact structures called strobili or cones
(Selaginella, Equisetum).

Life cycle –
→ The sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells.
→ The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small but multicellular, free-living,
mostly photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
→ These gametophytes require cool, damp, shady places to grow. Because of this specific
restricted requirement and the need for water for fertilisation, the spread of living
pteridophytes is limited and restricted to narrow geographical regions.

Sexual Reproduction –
→ The gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia,
respectively.
→ Antheridia are completely embedded in the prothallus while archegonia are partially
embedded. Antherozoids, the male gamete released from antheridia, are uninucleate, spirally
coiled biflagellate or multiflagellate structures (ferns).
→ Water is required for transfer of antherozoids (the male gametes) to the mouth of
archegonium.
→ Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the archegonium result in the formation of
zygote.

Development of zygote –
→ Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte which is the
dominant phase of the pteridophytes.
→There are two types of sporophytes in pteridophytes –
i. Homosporous – all spores are of similar kinds, e.g., In majority of the pteridophytes.
ii. Heterosporous – 2 types of spores are produced, (a) small, male microspores, and (b)
large, female megaspores. e.g., Selaginella
→ The megaspores and microspores germinate and give rise to female and male
gametophytes, respectively.
→ The female gametophytes in these plants are retained on the parent sporophytes for
variable periods.
→ The development of the zygotes into young embryos takes place within the female
gametophytes. This event is a precursor to the seed habit considered an important step in
evolution.

Economic uses –
→ Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders.
→ They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
→ They are used for medicinal purposes.

The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes:

1. Psilopsida – e.g.,Psilotum.
2. Lycopsida – e.g., Selaginella, Lycopodium.
3. Sphenopsida – e.g., Equisetum.
4. Pteropsida – e.g., Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name two pteridophytes, where the sporophylls are organized into cones/strobili.
2. The spread of living pteridophytes is limited and restricted to narrow geographical
areas. Why?
3. Differentiate between the gametophyte of bryophytes and that of pteridophytes.
4. In which plant will you look for mycorrhiza and coralloid roots? Also explain what
these terms mean.

GYMNOSPERMS
→ Term gymnosperm was introduced by Theophrastus. It is a connecting link between
pteridophytes and angiosperms.
→ Plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both
before and after fertilisation.
→ The seeds that develop post-fertilisation, are not covered (naked).

Plant body / structure –

→ Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs. One of the
gymnosperms, the giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species.
→ Oldest gymnosperms is S. gigantea (4000-5000 years) and smallest gymnosperm is Zamia
(25 cm).
Roots –
→ The roots are generally tap roots.
→ Roots in Pinus have fungal association in the form of in Cycas small specialized roots
called coralloid roots are associated with N2- fixing cyanobacteria.
Stem –
→ The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus).
Leaves –
→ The leaves may be simple or compound.
→ In Cycas the pinnate leaves persist for a few years.
→ The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes of temperature,
humidity and wind.
→ In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken
stomata also help to reduce water loss.
Development of spores and gametophyte –
→ The gymnosperms are They produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
→ Spores are produced within sporangia that are borne on sporophylls, which are arranged
spirally along an axis to form lax or compact strobili or cones.

Male –
→ The strobili bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia are called microsporangiate or
male strobili.
→ The microspores develop into a male gametophytic generation which is highly reduced
and is confined to only a limited number of cells.
→ This reduced male gametophyte is called a pollen grain.

Female –
→ The cones bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia are called
macrosporangiate or female strobili.
→ The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of the cells of the nucellus.
→ The nucellus is protected by envelopes and the composite structure is called an ovule.
→ The megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four megaspores.
→ One of the megaspores enclosed within the megasporangium (nucellus) develops into a
multicellular female gametophyte that bears two or more archegonia or female sex organs.
→ The multicellular female gametophyte is also retained within megasporangium.
→ The male or female cones or strobili may be borne on the same tree –
bisexual/monoecious – Pinus Or on different trees – unisexual/dioecious – Cycas.
→ In gymnosperms, the male and the female gametophytes do not have an independent free-
living existence. They remain within the sporangia retained on the sporophytes.

Pollination and fertilisation –

→ Pollination occur By air.
→ The pollen grain develop pollen tube on opening of ovule to carry male gametes towards
archegonia in ovules.
→ Following fertilisation, zygote develops into an embryo and the ovules into seeds.
→ These seeds are not covered.

→ Gymnosperms are classified into three classes (Sporne, 1965). They are Cycadopsida
(e.g. Cycas), Coniferopsida (e.g. Pinus, Ginkgo) and Gnetopsida (e.g. Gnetum)

ASSIGNMENT
1. Where are the ovules borne in gymnosperms?
2. What are the different associations seen in gymnosperms that are symbiotic?
3. How are the male and female gametophytes of pteridophytes and gymnosperms
different from each other?

PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

→ In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can divide by mitosis. This ability leads to the
formation of different plant bodies – haploid and diploid and alternation of generation.
→ The haploid plant body produces gametes by mitosis. This plant body represents a
gametophyte.
→ Following fertilisation the zygote also divides by mitosis to produce a diploid sporophytic
plant body. Haploid spores are produced by this plant body by meiosis. These in turn, divide
by mitosis to form a haploid plant body once again.

Different types of life cycle in plants –

1. Haplontic life cycle –

→ In this, Sporophytic generation is represented only by the one-celled zygote and there are
no free-living sporophytes.
→ Meiosis in the zygote results in the formation of haploid spores.
→ The haploid spores divide mitotically and form the gametophyte. The dominant,
photosynthetic phase in such plants is the free-living gametophyte.
e.g., Volvox, Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas.(most of the algae)

2. Diplontic life cycle –

→ In this, diploid sporophyte is the dominant, photosynthetic, independent phase of the plant.
→ The gametophytic phase is represented by the single to few-celled haploid gametophyte.
e.g., All seed-bearing plants i.e. gymnosperms and angiosperms, some algae like Fucus.

3. Haplo-diplontic / Intermediate life cycle –

→ In this, both gametophytic and sporophytic phases are multicellular and often free living.
e.g., Bryophytes (dominant phase – gametophyte) and pteridophytes (dominanat phase –
sporophyte), some algae like Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia.

Assignment
1. a. Name the dominant phase of the plant showing haplontic cycle.
b. When does meiosis occur in these plants?
2. Differentiate between the haplodiplontic cycle seen in bryophytes and pteridopytes.
3. Describe the plant life cycle followed by a mustard plant.
 CHAPTER-4
ANIMAL KINGDOM
→ Animal kingdom comprises of multicellular eukaryotic animals and is one of the
kingdoms amongst five kingdom scheme of classification (by Whittaker).
→ Classification of the animal kingdom is based on different important characteristic
features.
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
I. HABITAT
→ Habitat is the place where an organism lives. On the basis of habitat, animals are divided
into - aquatic and terrestrial.
II. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
(1) Chemical Level- It is the lowest level of organization. Atoms join together to form
molecules. e.g., protozoa
(2) Cellular level- The chemicals are put together to form the cellular level. cells are the
basic structural and functional units of an organism (living thing), cells are of various types,
specialized for different function or functions. It is called ‘division of labour’ among the
cells. e.g., Sponges
(3) Tissue level- The cells that are similar in structure, origin and function form a tissue.
There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous. e.g.,
coelenterates.
(4) Organ level- It is appropriate to consider an organs as the combination of tissues into a
unit for the performance of a specific function or a series functions. e.g., Platyhelminthes,
aschelminthes
(5) Organ system level – organs are associated to form functional systems, each system
concerned with a specific physiological function. e.g., Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs,
Echinoderms and Chordates.

III. SYMMETRY
→ Symmetry refers to the similarity in the arrangement of parts on opposite sides of the
body.
(1) Asymmetrical – any plane that passes through the centre does not divide body into equal
halves. e.g., Sponges.
(2) Radial symmetry – When any plane passing through the central axis of the body divides
the organism into two identical halves. e.g., Coelenterates, ctenophores and echinoderms
(adults only).
(3) Bilateral symmetry – the body can be divided into identical left and right halves in only
one plane. e.g., Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms (larvae) and Chordates.

IV. GERM LAYERS

→ Germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm which differentiate at the time of
gastrulation in a developing embryo.
(1) Diploblastic – Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an
external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present
in between the ectoderm and the endoderm. e.g., Sponges, coelenterates.
(2) Triploblastic – Animals in which the cells are arranged in three embryonic layers, an
external ectoderm, an internal endoderm and middle mesoderm. e.g., Platyhelminthes,
aschelminthes, Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates.

ASSIGNMENT
When is the coelom said to be a true coelom?
What is a notochord?
What is metameric segmentation in an animal body? Give an example.
Differentiate between
a. diploblastic and triploblastic animals.
b. open and closed type of circulatory system

V. COELOM
→ The body cavity that separates the digestive tract from the outer body wall, which is lined
by mesoderm on both sides is called coelom.
→ Functions of body cavity are
 Cushions the organs thus, preventing injury.
 Allows internal organs to grow and move independently of the outer body wall.
 Serves as a hydrostatic skeleton in soft bodied coelomates, such as earthworms.
(1) Acoelomates – animals in which the body cavity is absent. e.g., Sponges, coelenterates,
platyhelminthes.
(2) Pseudocoelomates – In some animals, the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead,
the mesoderm is present as scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a
body cavity is called pseudocoelom and the animals possessing them are called
pseudocoelomates, g., aschelminthes
(3) Coelomates/Eucoelomates – Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates, g.,
annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates.

VI. SEGMENTATION
→ In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into segments with a serial
repetition of at least some organs.
→ The body shows this pattern is called metameric segmentation and the phenomenon is
known as metamerism. e.g., in earthworm.

VII. BODY PLAN

→ Animals have three types of body plans – cell aggregate plan, blind sac plan & tube
within a tube plan.
VIII. NOTOCHORD
→ Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side during
embryonic development in some animals.
(1) Chordates – Animals with notochord in any stage of life. e.g., Fishes, Amphibians,
Reptiles, Birds, Mammals etc.
(2) Nonchordates – Those animals which do not form this structure are called non-chordates,
e.g., Porifera to echinoderms.

IX. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

(1) Incomplete digestive system – digestive system has only a single opening to the outside
of the body that serves as both mouth and anus. e.g., Coelenterates, Platyhelminthes
(2) Complete digestive system – digestive system has two openings, mouth and anus. e.g.,
aschelminthes to chordates.

X. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
(1) Open type – Blood is pumped out of the heart and the cells and tissues are directly bathed
in it.
(2) Closed type in which the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying
diameters (arteries, veins and capillaries).

XI. SKELETON
→ Skeleton of animals provide shape, support, protection and help in locomotion.
(1) Exoskeleton is secreted by skin or ectoderm and made of non-living materials, e.g.,
calcareous shell of molluscs, chitinous cuticle of arthropods, hair, nail, scale, hoofs, horns,
feathers.
(2) Endoskeleton is internal skeleton which is produced by mesoderm or occasionally
endoderm. Endoskeleton consists of cartilages, bones and connective tissue of various types.

XII. BODY TEMPERATURE

→ On the basis of body temperature, the animals are categorised into warm blooded and cold
blooded animals.
(1) WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS (OR HOMOIOTHERMIC ANIMALS)
→ Also known as endotherms.
→ These have relatively constant body temperature and their body temperature is
independent of that of their external environment.
(2) COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS (OR POIKILOTHERMIC ANIMALS)
→ Also known as ectotherms.
→ Their body temperature varies. These do not keep their body temperature constant.
XII. DEVELOPMENT
→ Development is of two types- direct and indirect.
(1) In direct development, without any intermediate stage, the young ones resemble the adult
in all respects. E.g., silverfish.
(2) In indirect development, young ones do not resemble the adults. The young ones pass
through many intermediate stages before obtaining the shape of the adults. The phenomenon
of passing through different stages during transition from larval to adult stage is called
metamorphosis.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What is a notochord?
2. What is metameric segmentation in an animal body? Give an example.
3. Animals of platyhelminthes are described as acoelomates. Justify.
4. Name the following.
a. Type of skeleton seen in cockroach
b. The middle gelatinous layer of body wall of Hydra.
5. Distinguish between Poikilotherms and homoiotherms.

I. Phylum – Porifera (Sponges)

→ The word “Porifera” means pore bearers (Gr., porus = pore; ferre = to bear)
→ Habitat – Aquatic – generally marine, some are fresh water.
→ Symmetry – mostly asymmetric.
→ Organization level – multicellular with cellular level of organisation.
→ Canal system – Sponges have a water transport or canal system. Water enters through
minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central cavity, spongocoel, from where it goes out
through the osculum. This pathway of water transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory
exchange and removal of waste.
→ Special cells – Choanocytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals. These cells
are flagellated.
→ Digestion – Intracellular.
→ Skeleton – Made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
→ Reproduction – Bisexual or hermaphrodite animals.
→ Sponges reproduce asexually (fragmentation) and sexually.
→ Fertilisation – Internal
→ Development – Indirect having a larval stage which is morphologically distinct from the
adult.
→ Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (Bath sponge).
II. Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
→ The term “Coelenterata” signifies the presence of a single internal cavity called
coelenteron, or gastrovascular cavity, combining functions of both digestive and body
cavities. The term “Cnidaria” indicates the presence of stinging cells (Gr., knide = nittle or
stinging cells).
→ Habitat – Aquatic, mostly marine, sessile or free-swimming
→ Symmetry – Radially symmetrical
→ Special cells – cnidoblasts or cnidocytes (which contain the stinging capsules or
nematocytes) present on the tentacles and the body.
→ Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.
→ Level of organization – tissue level of organisation and diploblastic.
→ Body Cavity – Absent, central gastro-vascular cavity present with a single opening,
hypostome.
→ Digestion – both extracellular and intracellular.
→ Skeleton – Some of the cnidarians – corals have a skeleton composed of calcium
carbonate.
→ Basic body forms – Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa.
a. Polyp – It is a sessile and cylindrical form, May be solitary or often lives in large colonies.
like Hydra, Adamsia, etc.
b. Medusa – it is umbrella-shaped and free-swimming, Always solitary like Aurelia or jelly
fish.
→ Alternation of generation (Metagenesis) – some cnidarians exist in both polyp and
medusa forms and exhibit alternation of generation (Metagenesis), i.e., polyps produce
medusae asexually and medusae form the polyps sexually (e.g., Obelia).

→ Examples: Hydra, Aurelia (Jelly fish), Obelia (Sea Fur), Physalia (Portuguese man-of-
war), Adamsia (Sea anemone), Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan)
and Meandrina (Brain coral).

III. Phylum – Ctenophora (Sea walnuts or Comb jellies)

→ Ctenophora name was given by Eschescholtz.
→ Habitat – Exclusively marine.
→ Symmetry – radially symmetrical.
→ Level of organization – tissue level of organization and diploblastic.
→ Special organ – eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion.
→ Digestion – both extracellular and intracellular.
→ Special property – Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light).
→ Reproduction – Bisexual animals (Hermaphrodites).
Only sexual reproduction.
→ Fertilisation – external.
→ Development – indirect development.
→ Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.
IV. Phylum – Platyhelminthes
→ Body shape – They have dorso-ventrally flattened body, hence are called flatworms.
→ Habitat – Mostly endoparasites found in animals.
→ Symmetry – bilaterally symmetrical.
→ Body organization – organ level of organisation and triploblastic.
→ Body cavity – Absent, acoelomates.
→ Special structures – Hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic forms for support and
absorption. Some of them absorb nutrients from the host directly through their body surface.
Epidermis is syncytial and sometimes ciliated. On the body wall of parasitic animals, a thick
cuticle is present i.e., tegument. Thick cuticle protects the parasite from the digestive-
enzymes of the host. It is secreted by the epidermis.
→ Excretory cells – flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion. Flame-cells are also
termed as the solenocytes. These also help in osmoregulation.
→ Reproduction – Bisexual animals (Hermaphrodites).
→ Fertilisation – Internal.
→ Development – Indirect through many larval stages.
→ Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
→ Examples: Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke), Planaria.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Why are animals of phylum platyhelminthes known as flatworms?
2. What is bioluminescence?
3. How do flatworms obtain their nutrition?
4. How does Ctenoplana locomote?
5. Why do some flatworms possess parasitic mode of nutrition?

V. Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemathelminthes/ Nematoda)

→ Body shape – Circular in cross-section, hence, the name roundworms.
→ Body wall consists of–
Cuticle - Firm, non-living, resistant to digestive enzymes of host.
Epidermis - Without cilia. Syncytial i.e., a continuous layer of cytoplasm having scattered
nuclei.
Muscle layer
→ Habitat – They may be free living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and
animals.
→ Level of organization – organ-system level of body organization and triploblastic.
→ Symmetry – bilaterally symmetrical.
→ Body Cavity – Pseudocoelomate animals.
→ Digestive system – Alimentary canal is complete with a well developed muscular
pharynx.
→ Excretion – An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the
excretory pore.
→ Reproduction – unisexual or dioecious. Also show sexual dimorphism (females are
longer than males)
→ Fertilisation – internal.
→ Development – direct (the young ones resemble the adult) or indirect (larvae is present).
→ Examples: Ascaris (Round Worm), Wuchereria (Filaria
worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm).
VI. Phylum – Annelida
→ Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres (Latin, annulus :
little ring) and, hence, the phylum name Annelida.
→ Habitat – aquatic (marine and fresh water) or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes
parasitic.
→ Level of organization – organ-system level and triploblastic animals.
→ Symmetry – bilateral symmetry.
→ Body cavity – present and coelomates.
→ Body wall consists of
Cuticle - Thin moist albuminoid cuticle allowing free exchange of gas.
Epidermis - Single layered epidermis made up of supporting, sensory and glandular cell.
Muscle layer - (a) Circular layer, (b) Longitudinal layer.
→ Muscles are smooth/non striated.
→ Locomotory organ – Body wall which has longitudinal and circular muscles. Presence of
chitinous setae. Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia (for
swimming).
→ Circulatory system – closed circulatory system.
→ Excretory organ – Nephridia which help in osmoregulation and excretion.
→ Nervous system – consists of paired ganglia connected by lateral nerves to a double
ventral nerve cord.
→ Reproduction – some are unisexual or dioecious (Nereis) and some are bisexual or
monoecious (earthworms and leeches). Reproduces sexually.
→ Examples: Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm) and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech).

ASSIGNMENT
1. Why is the coelom in Ascaris described as pseudocoelom?
2. What is the function of parapodia? Name one animal that possess it.
3. Differentiate between platyhelminthes and aschelminthes.
4. Explain sexual dimorphism with suitable example.

VII. Phylum – Arthropoda

→ This is the largest phylum of Animalia which includes insects. About 9,00,000 species
are there.
→ Level of organization – organ-system level of organisation.
→ Symmetry, body cavity – bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and coelomate
animals.
→ Skeleton – exoskeleton made up of chitin.
→ Body division – The body consists of head, thorax and abdomen.
→ Locomotion – by jointed appendages (arthros-joint, poda-appendages), hence name
arthropoda.
→ Respiration – by gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
→ Circulatory system – open type.
→ Sensory organs – antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts or balance organs are
present.
→ Excretion – through malpighian tubules.
→ Reproduction – mostly dioecious animals.
→ Fertilisation – usually internal. They are mostly oviparous.
→ Development – direct or indirect.
→ Examples:
Economically important insects – Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac
insect)
Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (Mosquitoes)
Gregarious pest – Locusta (Locust)
Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the excretory organ of cockroach and earthworm.
2. What speciality do the legs of animals belonging to phylum arthropoda have?
3. What is the role of radula in Mollusca?
4. Mention one example each for animals with chitinous exoskeleton and those
covered by a calcerous shell.
5. Why is the phylum Echinodermata termed so?
6. Differentiate between water canal and water vascular system.
7. Why were hemichordata earlier placed under chordata?
8. Differentiate between chordates and non-chordates.

VIII. Phylum – Mollusca

→ This is the second largest animal phylum.
→ Habitat – terrestrial or aquatic (marine or fresh water).
→ Symmetry, coelom – bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate animals.
→ Body division – Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a
distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump.
→ Special structure – A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral
hump.
→ Respiration and excretion – The space between the hump and the mantle is called the
mantle cavity in which feather like gills are present. They have respiratory and excretory
functions.
→ Sense organs – The anterior head region has sensory tentacles.
→ Feeding organ – The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding, called radula.
→ Reproduction and development – usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect
development.
→ Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl
oyster), Sepia (Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid), Octopus (Devil
fish), Aplysia (Seahare), Dentalium (Tusk shell) and Chaetopleura (Chiton).

IX. Phylum – Echinodermata

→ These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles and, hence, the name
Echinodermata (Spiny bodied).
→ Habitat – All are marine.
→ Symmetry – The adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.
→ Body wall of echinoderms consists of–
o Epidermis - Single layered & ciliated.
o Dermis - Below the epidermis, thick dermis having mesodermal endoskeleton
of calcareous plate (Ossicles) is present. It has spines.
o Muscles - Smooth and lie below the dermis.

→ Digestive system – complete with mouth on the lower (ventral) side and anus on the
upper (dorsal) side.
→ Water vascular system – distinctive feature. Helps in locomotion, capture and transport
of food and respiration.
→ Excretory system – absent.
→ Reproduction – Dioecious animals , Reproduction is sexual.
→ Fertilisation – usually external.
→ Development – indirect with free-swimming larva.
→ Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (Sea
cucumber) and Ophiura (Brittle star).

X. Phylum – Hemichordata
→ Earlier considered as a sub-phylum under phylum Chordata, but now it is placed as a
separate phylum under non-chordata.
→ Habitat – consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals.
→ Level of organization, symmetry, body cavity – organ-system level of organization,
bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate animals.
→ Body shape and division – The body is cylindrical and is composed of an
anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk.
→ Circulatory system – Open type.
→ Respiration – through gills.
→ Excretory organ – proboscis gland.
→ Reproduction, fertilisation, development – Dioecious animals, external Fertilisation,
indirect Development.
→ Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

XI. Phylum – Chordata

→ CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES –
a) a notochord,
b) a dorsal hollow nerve cord
c) paired pharyngeal gill slits
d) post anal tail
e) closed circulatory system
→ Symmetry, body cavity, level of organization – These are bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic, coelomate with organ-system level of organisation.
→ Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla : Urochordata or Tunicata,
Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
→ Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates.

Subphylum – Urochordata
 Exclusively marine.
 notochord is present only in larval tail,
 Examples: Ascidia, Salpa ,Doliolum.
 All the adult members have test all over their body, made up of tunicin just like
cellulose [tunicine = C6H10O5], so these animals are also called tunicata. The test is
secreted by specific cells of mesoderm.

Subphylum – Cephalochordata
 Notochord extends from head to tail region and is persistent throughout their life.
 Example: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).

Subphylum – Vertebrata
 Possess notochord during the embryonic period.
 The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult.
 Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
 Vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three or four chambers, kidneys
for excretion and osmoregulation and paired appendages which may be fins or limbs.

TABLE: Comparison of Chordates and Non- chordates

Chordates Non-chordates

Notochord present Notochord absent

 Central nervous system is Central nervous system is
dorsal, hollow and single. ventral, solid and double.

Pharynx perforated by gill slits Gill slits are absent

Heart is ventral Heart is dorsal (if present).

A post-anal part (tail) is

Post-anal tail is absent.
present.

1. Why are tunicates called as invertebrate chordates?

2. Give four basic chordate characteristics.
3. Describe the characteristics of class cyclostomata.
4. Explain the classification of chordata till class level.
5. Which of the following structures is present in all the chordates?
a) cranium
b) notochord
c) spinal chord
d) vertebral column
6. The tunicates are:
a) Urochordata
b) Cephalochordata
c)Vertebrata
d) None
7. Amphioxus belongs to:
a) Urochordata
b) Cephalochordata
c)Vertebrata
d) None
8. The larva of the hemichordates is ciliated and is named as
a) trochophore
b) tornaria
c) planula larva
d) Muller 's larva
9. The phylum Hemichordata share characteristics with
a) chordata only
b) echinodermata only
c) annelid
d) chordata and Echinodermata
10. In which of the following jaws are found
a) Herdmania
b) Fish
c) Petromyzon
d) Amphioxus

Classification of Vertebrata –

Class – Cyclostomata
 Habitat – ectoparasites on some fishes. Body shape – elongated body
 Respiration – 6-15 pairs of gill slits.
 Mouth – Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
 Scales and paired fins are absent.
 Cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
 Circulation is of closed type.
 Marine but migrate to fresh water for spawning. After spawning, within a few days,
they die. Their larvae, after metamorphosis, return to the ocean.
 Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).

Class – Chondricthyes
  marine animals.
 Their body is streamlined and they have cartilaginous endoskeleton.
 Mouth is located ventrally.
 Notochord is persistent throughout life.
 Gill slits are separate and without operculum (gill cover).
 The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
 Teeth are modified placoid scales which are backwardly directed.
 Their jaws are very powerful. These animals are predaceous.
 Due to the absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
 Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
 Some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) and some possess poison
sting (e.g., Trygon).
 They are cold-blooded (poikilothermous) animals, i.e., they lack the capacity to
regulate their body temperature.
 Sexes are separate. In males pelvic fins bear claspers. They have internal fertilisation
and many of them are viviparous.
 Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish), Carcharodon (Great white
shark), Trygon (Sting ray), Torpedo (electric ray).

Class – Osteichtyes
 Both marine and fresh water fishes
 Their body is streamlined and they have bony endoskeleton skeleton.
 Mouth is mostly terminal.
 They have four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
 Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
 Air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy.
 Heart is two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
 They are cold-blooded animals.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is usually external. They are mostly oviparous and
development is direct.
 Examples:
Marine – Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse);
Freshwater – Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur);
Aquarium – Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angel fish).

1. A supportive rod that extends dorsally in the animals to the body cavity into the tail is
called
A. backbone
B. vertebrae
C. notochord
D. chord
2. The unique characteristic of chordates is the presence of
A. endopodite
B. endocuticle
C. endostyle
D. tail
3. The members of phylum Chordata are
A. radially symmetrical
B. bilateral symmetrical
C. one plane
 D. dorsoventral
4. In which of the following jaws are found–
A. Herdmania
B. Fish
C. Petromyzon
D. Amphioxus
5. Chordates are distinguished from non-chordates by the presence of–
A. Ventral nerve cord
B. Dorsal nerve cord
C. Brain
D. Dorsal tubular nerve cord
6. In Urochordata notochord is found in–
A. Head of adult
B. Tail of adult
C. Tail of larva
D. Test of adult
7. How do animals of urochordata differ from cephalochordate?
8. “All vertebrates are chodates but all chordates are not vertebrates.” Justify the statement.
9. How important is the presence of air bladder in Pisces?
10. Differentiate between Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.

Class – Amphibia
 amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats.
 Most of them have two pairs of limbs.
 Body is divisible into head and trunk. Tail may be present in some.
 The amphibian skin is moist (without scales).
 The eyes have eyelids.
 A tympanum represents the ear.
 Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber
called cloaca which opens to the exterior.
 Respiration is by gills, lungs and through skin.
 The heart is three chambered (two auricles and one ventricle).
 These are cold-blooded animals.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. They are oviparous and development is
direct or indirect.
 Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree
frog), Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless amphibia).

Class – Reptilia
 Locomotion is creeping or crawling.
 mostly terrestrial animals.
 body is covered by dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes
 They do not have external ear openings. Tympanum represents ear.
 Limbs, when present, are two pairs.
 Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles.
 Reptiles are poikilotherms.
 Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
  Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and development is
direct.
 Examples: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree
lizard), Calotes (Garden
lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator (Alligator). Hemidactylus (Wall lizard),
Poisonous snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).

Class – Aves
 The characteristic features are the presence of feathers and most of them can fly
except flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich).
 They possess beak.
 The forelimbs are modified into wings.
 The hind limbs generally have scales and are modified for walking, swimming or
clasping the tree branches.
 Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the tail.
 Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air
cavities (pneumatic).
 The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop and gizzard.
 Heart is completely four chambered.
 They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are able to maintain a
constant body temperature.
 Respiration is by lungs. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement respiration.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and development is
direct.
 Examples
: Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo (Pea
cock), Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture).

Class – Mammalia
 They are found in a variety of habitats – polarice caps, deserts, mountains, forests,
grasslands and dark caves.
 Some of them have adapted to fly or live in water.
 The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of milk producing glands
(mammary glands) by which the young ones are nourished.
 They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running, climbing, burrowing,
swimming or flying.
 The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair.
 External ears or pinnae are present.
 Different types of teeth are present in the jaw.
 Heart is four chambered.
 They are homoiothermous.
 Respiration is by lungs.
 Sexes are separate and fertilisation is internal.
 They are viviparous with few exceptions and development is direct.
 Examples:
Oviparous – Ornithorhynchus (Platypus);
Viviparous – Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying
fox), Camelus (Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas (
Elephant), Equus (Horse), Delphinus (Common dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue
whale), Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
ASSIGNMENT
1. An example of a tetrapod is
a) Flesh fly
b) Blue-ringed octopus
c) Hummingbird
d) Tarantula
2. Which one of the following is not a true amphibian animal
a) Frog
b) Tortoise
c) Salamander
d) Toad
3. Amphibians breed
a) In crevices
b) In water
c) On trees
d) In soil
4. An animal having pentadactyl limbs without claws belongs to the class
a) Amphibia
b) Reptilia
c) Aves
d) Mammalia
5. Which one of the following is a limbless lizard
a) Hemidactylus
b) Chamelion
c) Anguis
d) Phrynosoma
6. Describe the class amphibia with respect to their body, respiration and reproduction.
7. Name the two additional chambers found in the alimentary canal of birds.
8. Mention any two modifications in reptiles required for terrestrial mode of life.
9. What is the role of feathers in class aves?
10. Write any four difference between reptiles and mammals

ASSIGNMENT
1. Out of the following, reptiles and birds differ in only one, which is it
a) The skin possesses scales
b) They lay eggs
c) Capacity of laying hard shelled eggs
d) There is regulation of the body temperature
2. Poison glands of snake are modified
a) Sebaceous glands
b) Ceruminous glands
c) Salivary glands
d) Endocrine glands
3. Besides mammals, diaphragm also occurs in
a) Birds
b) Crocodiles
c) Fishes
d) Toads
4. Most favourable land adaptation for reptile is [CBSE PMT 2001]
a) Moist skin
b) Scales on body
c) Pulmonary respiration
d) None of these
5. To which of the following category dinosaurs belong
a) Reptiles
b) Amphibians
c) Mammals
d) Birds
6. Pneumatic bones of birds
a) Increase the respiratory rate
b) Increase the heart beat rate
c) Increase the CO2 output
d) Increase the buoyancy
7. What are pneumatic bones? State its advantage.
8. Name the two additional chambers found in the alimentary canal of birds.
9. What is the role of feathers in class aves?
10. Write any four difference between reptiles and mammals.
TABLE : SALIENT FEATURES OF DIFFERENT PHYLA OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

Level
of Symme- Segmen- Digestive Circulatory Respiratory Distinctive
Phylum Coelom
Organi- try tation System System System Features
sation

Body with
pores and
Porifera Cellular Many Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent
Canals In
walls.

Coelenterata Cnidoblasts
Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent
(Cnidaria) present

Comb
Ctenophora Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent plates for
locomotion.

Organ
& Flat body,
Platyhelminthes Bilateral Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent
Organ- suckers.
system

Often worm
Organ- Pseudo
Aschelminthes Bilateral Absent Complete Absent Absent shaped,
system coelomate
elongated.

Body
Organ- segment
Annelida Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present
system ation like
rings.

Exoskeleton
Organ- of cuticle,
Arthropoda Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present
system jointed ap-
pendages.

External
skeleton
Organ-
Mollusca Bilateral Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present shell
system
usually
present.

Water
vascular
Organ-
Echinodermata Radial Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present system,
system
radial
symmetry.

Worm-like
Organ-
Hemi-chordata Bilateral Coelornate Absent Complete Present Present with
system
proboscis,
 collar and
trunk.

Notochord,
dorsal
hollow
Organ-
Chordata Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present nerve cord,
system
gill slits
with limbs
or fins.
 CHAPTER-5
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

THE INFLORESCENCE
 A flower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot apical meristem changes to floral
meristem. Internodes do not elongate and the axis gets condensed.
 The apex produces different kinds of floral appendages laterally at successive nodes
instead of leaves. When a shoot tip transforms into a flower, it is always solitary.
 The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as inflorescence.
 Depending on whether the apex gets converted into a flower or continues to grow,
two major types of inflorescences are defined –
1. Racemose inflorescence – the main axis continues to grow, the flowers are borne
laterally in an acropetal succession
2. Cymose inflorescence – the main axis terminates in a flower, hence is limited in
growth. The flowers are borne in a basipetal order

THE FLOWER
 The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for sexual
reproduction.
 A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the
swollen end of the stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle.
These are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Calyx and corolla are accessory organs, while androecium and gynoecium are reproductive
organs.
 Perianth : In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not distinct and are
termed as perianth.

TYPES OF FLOWER
1. Reproductive organs –
 Unisexual – when either only stamens or only carpels is present.
 Bisexual – When both androecium and gynoecium are present.
2. Symmetry –
 actinomorphic (radial symmetry) – When a flower can be divided into two
equal radial halves in any radial plane passing through the centre. e.g.,
mustard, datura, chilli.
 zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry) – When a flower can be divided into two
similar halves only in one particular vertical plane. e.g., pea, gulmohur, bean,
Cassia.
 asymmetric (irregular) – if a flower cannot be divided into two similar
halves by any vertical plane passing through the centre. e.g., canna.
3. A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when the floral appendages
are in multiple of 3, 4 or 5, respectively.
4. Bracts –
 Bracteate – Flowers with bracts (reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel)
are called bracteates.
 Ebracteate – Flowers without bracts are called ebracteate.
5. Based on the position of calyx, corolla and androecium in respect of the ovary on
thalamus –
  Hypogynous – the gynoecium occupies the highest position while the other
parts are situated below it. The ovary in such flowers is said to be superior.
e.g., mustard, china rose and brinjal.
 Perigynous – If gynoecium is situated in the centre and other parts of the
flower are located on the rim of the thalamus almost at the same level, it is
called perigynous. The ovary here is said to be half inferior. e.g., plum, rose,
peach.
 Epigynous – the margin of thalamus grows upward enclosing the ovary
completely and getting fused with it, the other parts of flower arise above the
ovary. Hence, the ovary is said to be inferior. e.g., guava and cucumber, and
the ray florets of sunflower.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define inflorescence. Explain the basis for the different types of inflorescence in flowering
plants.
2. Differentiate between
(a) Racemose and cymose inflorescence
(b) Actinomorphic and zygomorphic flower
3. What are trimerous flowers? Which group of plants has trimerous flowers?
4. State the condition in which the flowers are described
(a) perigynous (b) Epigynous (c) Hypogynous
Give an example of each.

Parts of a Flower
Each flower normally has four floral whorls, viz., calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium.
1. Calyx (Sepals) –
 The calyx may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous (sepals free).
 Generally, sepals are green, leaf like and protect the flower in the bud stage.
 outermost whorl of the flower.
2. Corolla (Petals) –
 Petals are usually brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.
 corolla may be also free (gamopetalous) or united (polypetalous).
 The shape and colour of corolla vary greatly in plants. Corolla may be tubular,
bell-shaped, funnel-shaped or wheel-shaped.
 3. Androecium (Stamens) –
 Represents the male reproductive organ.
 Each stamen consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther.
 Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the pollen-
sacs.
 The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.
 A sterile stamen is called staminode.
 When stamens are attached to the petals, they are
called epipetalous. e.g., brinjal.
 When stamens are attached to the perianth, they are
called epiphyllous. e.g., lily.
 Fusion of stamen –
 If the stamens in a flower remain free – Polyandrous.
 If the stamens are united into one bundle – monoadelphous. e.g., china
rose.
 If the stamens are united into two bundles – diadelphous. e.g., pea.
 If the stamens are united into more than two bundles – Polyadelphous.
e.g., citrus.
 There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower, as in
Salvia and mustard.
4. Gynoecium (Carpels/Pistils) –
 Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower.
 A carpel consists of three parts – stigma, style and ovary.
 Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated tube, the
style.
 The style connects the ovary to the stigma.
 The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the receptive surface
for pollen grains.
 Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened, cushion-
like placenta.
 Types of gynoecium –
 Monocarpellary – when only one carpel is present.
 Multicarpellary – When more than one carpel is present.
 Apocarpous – if carpels are free. e.g., lotus and rose.
 Syncarpous – when carpels are fused. e.g., mustard and tomato.
 After fertilisation, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a
fruit.

AESTIVATION
The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other
members of the same whorl is known as aestivation.
1. Valvate – When sepals or petals in a whorl just touch one another at the margin,
without overlapping. e.g., Calotropis.
2. Twisted – If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the next one and so on.
e.g., china rose, lady’s finger and cotton.
3. Imbricate – If the margins of sepals or petals overlap one another but not in any
particular direction. e.g., Cassia and gulmohur.
4. Vexillary (papilionaceous) – it’s special type of aestivation. It has five petals, the
largest (standard) overlaps the two lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two
smallest anterior petals (keel). e.g., Pea, Bean.
PLACENTATION
The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as placentation.
1. Marginal – The placenta forms a ridge along the ventral suture of the ovary and the
ovules are borne on this ridge forming two rows. e.g., pea.
2. Axile – When the placenta is axial and the ovules are attached to it in a multilocular
ovary. e.g., china rose, tomato and lemon.
3. Parietal – the ovules develop on the inner wall of the ovary or on peripheral part.
Ovary is one-chambered but it becomes two chambered due to the formation of the
false septum(Replum) e.g., mustard and Argemone.
4. Basal – the placenta develops at the base of ovary and a single ovule is attached to it.
e.g., sunflower, marigold.
5. Free Central – When the ovules are borne on central axis and septa are absent. e.g.,
Dianthus, Primrose.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name two plants whose flowers have stamens of varying lengths.
2. How is valvate aestivation different from twisted aestivation?
3. Explain the following terms:
a. Gamosepalous b. Syncarpous c. Epiphyllous d. Staminode
e. Monoadelphous
4. What do you understand by placentation? Explain its types.
 CHAPTER-5
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

 A group of similar cells of common origin along with intercellular substances

performing a specific function is known as tissue.
 Term tissue was used by Bichat (1972).
 The tissues are different and are broadly classified into four types : epithelial,
connective, muscular and neural.

1) Epithelial Tissue
 The word epithelium was introduced by Ruysch.
 The cells in epithelial tissue are very closely packed together and joined with little
space between them.
 This tissue has a free surface, which faces either a body fluid or the outside
environment and thus provides a covering or a lining for some part of the body.
 Common structures present in epithelial membrane are – intercellular junctions,
basement membrane and structures on the free surface of cell like microvilli, cilia,
flagella etc.
 All cells in epithelium are held together with little intercellular material.
 Basement membrane is composed of a network of fibres which includes collagen (in
a matrix) and proteoglycans and sieves a selective filter determining which molecules
diffuse
 Types of epithelial tissues are – simple epithelium and compound epithelium.
CELL JUNCTIONS
 Specialised junctions provide both structural and functional links between its
individual cells.
 Three types of cell junctions are - tight, adhering and gap junctions.
 Tight junctions help to stop substances from leaking across a tissue.
 Adhering junctions perform cementing to keep neighbouring cells together.
 Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the
cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small molecules and
sometimes big molecules.

ASSIGNMENT
1. How is ciliated epithelium different from brush bordered epithelium?
2. Distinguish between (a) simple and compound epithelium (b) Simple gland and
compound gland.
 3. How does a gap junction facilitate intercellular communication?

2) Connective Tissue

 Connective tissues are most abundant and widely distributed in the body of
complex animals.
 They are named connective tissues because of their special function of linking and
supporting other tissues/organs of the body.
 Matrix accumulate between cells and fibres. Matrix is a non-living material
which may be liquid (e.g., blood), semisolid (e.g., connective tissue) and solid
(e.g., bone).
 Matrix consists of mainly water and sulfated mucopolysaccharide.
 The cells of connective tissue are living and responsible for secreting the large
amount of intercellular ground substance (matrix).
 Types of connective tissue cells are - fibroblast, macrophages, mast cells,
lymphocytes and plasma cells.
 In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibres of structural proteins
called collagen or elastin which provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the
tissue.
 Connective tissues are classified into three types: (i) Loose connective
tissue, (ii) Dense connective tissue and (iii) Specialised connective tissue.
3) Muscle Tissue
 Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel arrays.
These fibres are composed of numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils.
 Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and
return to their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion.
 Two proteins-actin & myosin are part of the machinery & ATP is the immediate
energy source for the contraction.
 Their action moves the body to adjust to the changes in the environment and to
maintain the positions of the various parts of the body.
 In general, muscles play an active role in all the movements of the body.
 Muscles are of three types, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
Neural Tissue
 Neural tissue consists of neuron and neuroglial cells.
 Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing
conditions.
 Neuron, an excitable cell is the unit of neural system.
 The neuroglial cells which constitute the rest of the neural system protect and support
neurons.
 Neuroglia make up more than one half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
 When a neuron is suitably stimulated, an electrical disturbance is generated which
swiftly travels along its plasma membrane.
 Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s endings, or output zone, triggers events that
may cause stimulation or inhibition of adjacent neurons and other cells
 CHAPTER-8
CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living beings.
 Cytology – study of cell and cellular structures.
 Types of organisms –

 All unicellular organisms are capable of

(i) Independent existence.
(ii) Performing the essential functions of life.
 Some important scientists –
Name of scientist Their work

Robert hooke Discovered cell

first saw and

Anton von Leeuwenhoek described a live
cell

Robert Brown Discovered nucleus

Schleiden (German botanist), Formulated Cell

Schwann (British Zoologist) Theory
 Robert hooke first time describe about cell in his book ‘Micrographia’. He actually
saw cell wall of dead cells not cell itself.
CELL THEORY
 Formulated by Schleiden(1838) and Schwann(1839).
 Modified by Rudolf Virchow(1855) – he explained that new cells develop
from pre-existing cells by cell division (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
 Exception of cell theory – virus, viriods,
1. All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
 2. Cell is structural unit of life.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
 Each cell has a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus which contains the
chromosomes that in turn contain the genetic material, DNA.
 Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a
membrane bound nucleus are prokaryotic.
 The eukaryotic cells have membrane bound distinct structures called organelles like
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria,
microbodies and vacuoles. The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound
organelles.
TYPES OF CELL

PROKARYOTIC CELL
 Represented by Blue Green Algae, mycoplasmas, bacteria etc.
 Cell wall
 Determine shape of cell.
 Provide strong, structural support
 Prevent bacteria from bursting or collapsing

 Plasma membrane
 Semipermeable
 Structurally similar to that of eukaryotes.
 Mesosomes
 Formed by extension of plasma membrane into cell.
 In the form of vesicles, tubules and lamella.
 Help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to daughter
cells.
 Also help in respiration, secretion processes, to increase the surface area of the
plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
 Chromatophores
 Membranous extensions into cytoplasm.
 Contain pigments.
 In cyanobacteria.
 Flagella
 Present in motile cells.
 Thin filamentous extensions from their cell wall.
 Composed of three parts – filament, hook and basal body.
 Pili and Fimbriae
 Pili are elongated tubular structure while fimbriae are small bristle like fibres.
 Help in attachment of bacteria.
 Ribosomes
  Associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.
 Made of two subunits – 50S and 30S units which when present together form
70S.

 Site of protein synthesis.

 Ribosome of a polysome translate the mRNA into protein.

 Inclusion bodies
 For storage of reserve material in prokaryotic cells.
 These are not bounded by any membrane system and lie free in the cytoplasm.
 g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules.
 Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Differentiate between gram positive and gram negative bacteria.
2. Ribosomes in prokaryotes are of 70S type. What does ‘S’ stand for and what does it
measure.
3. What are inclusion bodies? Give two examples of them.
4. What are plasmids? State their role in bacteria
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi.
 Extensive compartmentalisation of cytoplasm through the presence of membrane
bound organelles present.
 possess an organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope.
 genetic material is organised into chromosomes.
  Cell membrane
 Mainly composed of bilayer phospholipids, also possess protein and
carbohydrate.
 Lipoproteins, lipid and protein are the major components of the plasma
membrane.
 The lipids of plasma membrane are of three types namely phospholipids,
glycolipids and sterols. The sterol found in the membrane may be cholesterol
(animals), phytosterol (plants) or ergosterol (microorganisms).
 Lipids are amphipathic, i.e., they are structurally asymmetric with polar
hydrophilic head and non-polar hydrophobic tail. On the outer side of some of
the lipids, sugar chains are attached to their polar heads and hence are known
as glycolipids.
 lipids are arranged within the membrane with the polar head (hydrophilic)
towards the outer sides and the nonpolar tails (hydrophobic) towards the inner
part. This ensures that the nonpolar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected
from the aqueous environment.
 The ratio of protein and lipid varies in different cell types.
( In human RBC membrane has 52% protein and 40% lipids.)

 Structure of cell membrane is explained by Fluid Mosaic Model which was given
by Singer and Nicolson in 1972.
 According to this model the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of
proteins within the overall bilayer.
 The fluid nature of the membrane is important for functions like cell growth,
formation of intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Define semi permeability of plasma membrane.
2. Mention any two important functions of cell membrane.
3. Differentiate between integral and peripheral proteins, active and passive transport.
4. Describe the composition of cell membrane as suggested by Singer and Nicolson.

 Cell wall
 non-living, rigid structure
 forms an outer covering for the plasma membrane of fungi and plants.
 gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from mechanical damage and
infection.
 it also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to undesirable
macromolecules.
 Layers of cell wall
1. Middle lamella
 Outermost
 Made up of mainly calcium pectate.
 Holds or glues the different neighbouring cell together.

1. Primary wall
 Capable of growth.
 Present in young cell.
 Gradually diminishes as cell matures.
 Madeup of cellulose, hemicelluloses.
 Present in meristem, pith, cortex etc.
2. Secondary wall
 Innermost layer.
 Lignified (in sclerenchyma, vesels, tracheids), suberinised (casparian strips,
endodermis)
 Suberin, lignin make cell wall impermeable.
  Present in sclerenchyma, collenchyma, and vessels, tracheids.

 Cell wall and middle lamella maybe traversed by plasmodesmata which connects the
cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 a network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm
that is called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 A few cells such as ova, embryonic cells, and mature RBCs, however, lack
ER.
 Hence, ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments, i.e.,
luminal(inside ER) and extra luminal(cytoplasm).
 Golgi apparatus
 Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898).
 They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae stacked parallely.
 The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with distinct
convex cis or the forming face and concave trans or the maturing face, which
are interconnected.
 The golgi apparatus principally performs the function of packaging materials.
 golgi apparatus remains in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum as
materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with
the cis face of the golgi apparatus and move towards the maturing face.
 A number of proteins synthesised by ribosomes on the endoplasmic reticulum
are modified in the cisternae of the golgi apparatus before they are released
from its trans
 Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids
 Lysosomes
 These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of
packaging in the golgi apparatus.
 The isolated lysosomal vesicles have been found to be very rich in almost all
types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases, carbohydrases)
optimally active at the acidic pH.
 These enzymes are capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids.
 These are popularly called "suicidal bags".
 Vacuoles
 Membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm. Membrane known as
tonoplast.
 It contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the
cell.
 In plant cells the vacuoles are very large.
 In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a number of ions and other
materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole.
 In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for excretion.
 In many cells food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.
 Mitochondria
 Double membrane bound cell organelle.
 Mitochondria are site of aerobic respiration. They produce ATP, hence called
‘Power House Of Cell’.
 The matrix also possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA
molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the components required for the synthesis of
proteins. So, mitochondria also known as ‘semi-autonomous organelle’.
 Mitochondria is considered as semi-autonomous organelle because it has
separate protein synthesizing machinery independent of nuclear control.
 These were first observed in striated muscles of insects as granules by
Kolliker (1880), he called them "sarcosomes".
 The mitochondria divide by fission and produce new mitochondria.

 Plastids
 Found in all plant cells and in euglenoides.
 They bear some specific pigments, thus imparting specific colours to the
plants.

 Chloroplasts are mainly found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.

 These are various shaped like lens, oval, spherical, discoid, ribbon.
 Double membrane bound Cell organelle. Inner is less permeable than outer.
 

 There are also stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the different grana.
 Stroma also contains small, double-stranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes
(70S). so, it is also known ‘semi autonomous organelle’.

 Ribosome
 first observed under the electron microscope by George Palade.
 They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
 Not Bounded by any membrane.
 The eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
(‘S’ stands for the sedimentation coefficient).

 Cytoskeleton
 An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the
cytoplasm
 Functions are mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the
cell.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Why are mitochondria called ‘semi- autonomous organelles?
2. What are cytoskeleton? Mention any two functions that it performs.
3. Name and mention the storage products of the different types of leucoplast.
4. Where are the ribosomes present in the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell? How
are they different?

 Cilia and Flagella

 They are hair like outgrowths of cell membrane responsible for locomotion
and movement of cell.
 Cilia are small structures which work like oars, causing the movement of
either the cell or the surrounding fluid. Flagella are comparatively longer.
 Eukaryotic cilium and flagellum are covered with plasma membrane.
 Their core called the axoneme, possesses a number of microtubules running
parallel to the long axis. The axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of
radially arranged peripheral microtubules, and a pair of centrally located
microtubules. (9+2)
 Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-like structure called the
basal bodies.
 Centrosome and centriole
 Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two perpendicularly lying
centrioles surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
 Centriole has an organisation like the cartwheel. They are made up of nine
evenly spaced triplet peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
 The central part of the centriole is also proteinaceous and called the hub,
connected with peripheral tubules by radial
 The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella, and spindle fibres that
give rise to spindle apparatus during cell division in animal cells.
 Microbodies
 Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain
various enzymes.
 They are present in both plant and animal cells.

 Nucleus
 first described by Robert Brown in 1831.
 Some mature cells even lack nucleus, e.g., erythrocytes of many mammals
and sieve tube cells of vascular plants.
 the material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes was given the
name chromatin by Flemming.
 The interphase nucleus has nucleoprotein fibres called chromatin, nuclear
matrix and one or more spherical bodies called
 the nuclear envelope is consists of two parallel membranes with a space in
between called perinuclear space.
 The outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum and also bears ribosomes on it.
 At a number of places the nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute pores.
These nuclear pores provide passages for movement of RNA and protein
molecules.
 Normally, there is only one nucleus per [Link] mature cells even lack
nucleus, e.g., erythrocytes of many mammals and sieve tube cells of vascular
plants.
 The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
 The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm. It is non-
membrane bound. It is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
  During cell division, chromatin network condenses into chromosome.
 Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, some non-
histone proteins and also RNA.

 Every chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or

the centromere on the sides of which disc shaped structures
called kinetochores are present.

Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into four types :
 The metacentric chromosome has a centromere in the middle forming two equal
arms of the chromosome.
 The sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere nearer to one end of the
chromosome resulting into one shorter arm and one longer arm.
 In acrocentric chromosome, the centromere is situated close to its end forming one
extremely short and one very long arm.
 The telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.
 Sometimes a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a
constant location. This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the satellite.

REVISION-1 (CH-2)
OBJECTIVE TYPE
1. Organisms living in salty areas are called as
a. Methanogens b. Halophiles c. Heliophytes d. Thermoacidophiles
2. Naked cytoplasm, multinucleated and saprophytic is the characteristics of
a. Monera b. Protista c. Fungi d. Slime moulds
3. A dikaryon is formed when
a. Meiosis is arrested b. The two haploid cells do not fuse immediately
c. Cytoplasm does not fuse d. None of the above
4. Contagium vivum fluidum was proposed by
a. D.J. Ivanowsky b. M.W. Beijerinek c. Stanley d. Robert Hooke
5. Associations between Mycobiont and Phycobiont are found in
a. Mycorrhiza b. Root c. Lichens d. BGA
6. Difference between Virus and Viroid is
a. Absence of protein coat in viroid but present in virus b. Presence of low molecular
weight RNA in the virus but absent in viroid
c. Both a and b d. None of the above
7. With respect to fungal sexual cycle, choose the correct sequence of events
a. Karyogamy, Plasmogamy and Meiosis
b. Meiosis, Plasmogamy and Karyogamy
c. Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis
d. Meiosis, Karyogamy and Plasmogamy

SUBJECTIVE TYPE
1. What is the principle underlying the use of cyanobacteria in agricultural fields for crop
improvement?
2. How is the five–kingdom classification advantageous over the two- kingdom
classification?
3. Polluted water bodies have usually very high abundance of plants like Nostoc and
Oscillitoria. Give reasons.
4. Are chemosynthetic bacteria-autotrophic or heterotrophic?
5. What are the characters of virus that are similar to non-living objects?
6. In the five kingdom system of Whittaker, how many kingdoms are eukaryotes?
7. Diatoms are also called as ‘pearls of ocean’, why? What is diatomaceous earth?
8. Cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria have been clubbed together in Eubacteria of
kingdom Monera as per the “Five Kingdom Classification” even though the two are vastly
different from each other. Is this grouping of the two types of taxa in the same kingdom
justified? If so, why?
9. What observable features in Trypanosoma would make you classify it under kingdom
Protista?
10. Fungi are cosmopolitan. Write the role of fungi in your daily life.

REVISION-2 (CH-3)
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1. The fusion of two motile gametes which are dissimilar in size is termed as
a. Oogamy b. Isogamy c. Anisogamy d. Zoogamy
2. Holdfast, stipe and frond constitute the plant body in case of
a. Rhodophyceae b. Chlorophyceae c. Phaeophyceae d. All of the above
3. A plant shows thallus level of organization. It shows rhizoids and is haploid. It needs water
to complete its life cycle because the male gametes are motile. Identify the group to which it
belongs to
a. Pteridophytes b. Gymnosperms c. Monocots d. Bryophytes
4. A Prothallus is
a. A structure in pteridophytes formed before the thallus develops
b. A sporophytic free-living structure formed in pteridophytes
c. A gametophyte free-living structure formed in pteridophytes
d. A primitive structure formed after fertilization in pteridophytes
5. Protonema is
a. Haploid and is found in mosses
b. Diploid and is found in liverworts
c. Diploid and is found in pteridophytes
d. Haploid and is found in pteridophytes

SUBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Most algal genera show haplontic lifestyle. Name an alga which is
a. Haplo-diplontic
b. Diplontic
2. Why are bryophytes called the amphibians of the plant kingdom?
3. The heterosporous pteridophytes show certain characteristics, which are the precursor to
the seed habit in gymnosperms. Explain.
4. Comment on the lifecycle and nature of a fern prothallus.
5. How are the male and female gametophytes of pteridophytes and gymnosperms different
from each other?
6. In which plant will you look for mycorrhiza and coralloid roots? Also, explain what these
terms mean.
7. With the help of a schematic diagram describing the haplo-diplontic life cycle pattern of a
plant group.
8. What is meant by numerical taxonomy, cytotaxonomy and chemotaxonomy.
9. Bring out the difference between the sporophyte of gymnosperms and bryophyte.
10. Give a comparative account of nature of cell wall, stored food material and flagella
among the three classes of algae.
 CHAPTER-10
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
 Growth and reproduction are two major characteristics of living organisms which are
also shown by their individual cells.
 Cell division is the process by which a mature cell divides and forms two nearly equal
daughter cells which resemble the parental cell in a number of characters.
 The cell which undergoes division is called mother cell or parent cell. The newly
formed cells are known as daughter cells.
CELL CYCLE
 The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other
constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell
cycle.
 Cell cycle includes three processes cell division, DNA replication and cell growth in
coordinated way.

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

 The period required to complete one cell cycle (from beginning of one cell division
to the beginning of next) is called generation time. It is 24 hours in human cells and
90 minutes in yeast. Cell cycle is simpler in prokaryotes and more complex in
eukaryotes.
 The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases :
 Interphase
 M Phase (Mitosis phase)/Dividing phase
INTERPHASE
 It is the period between the end of one cell division to the beginning of the next cell
division.
 It is a highly metabolically active phase in which cell prepares itself for the next cell
division.
 All mature cells of the body, therefore, occur in interphase. Nerve cells of mammals
have the longest interphase and thus, do not divide after their formation at birth.
Interphase is completed into three successive stages.
(1) G1 phase/Post mitotic/Pre-DNA synthetic phase/gap-I
G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
Following events take place during this phase
 Intensive cellular synthesis.
 Synthesis of RNA, ribosomes and proteins.
 Metabolic rate is high.
 Cell size increases.
  Synthesis of enzymes, amino acids, nucleotides etc. but there is no change in DNA
amount.

(2) S-phase/Synthetic phase

S or synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or replication takes place.
Following events take place during this phase
 DNA replicates and its amount becomes double. If the initial amount of DNA is
denoted as 2C then it increases to 4C.
 Synthesis of histone proteins.
 Duplication of centrioles in the cytoplasm.
(3) G2-phase/Pre mitotic/Post synthetic phase/Gap-II
Following events take place during this phase
 Mitotic spindle protein (tubulin) synthesis begins.
 Chromosome condensation factor appears.
 Synthesis of 3 types of RNA, proteins, and ATP molecule.
 Repair of damaged DNA occurs.

 Some cells do not exhibit division like heart cells, nerve cells etc. these cells enter in
an inactive phase called G0or quiescent phase from G1 phase.
 Cells in this phase are metabolically active but they do not divide unless they are
called on to do so.
M -PHASE/DIVIDING PHASE/MITOTIC PHASE
 It is the phase of actual cell division.
 It is divided into two phases - karyokinesis (division of nucleus) and cytokinesis
(division of the cytoplasm).
 In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells while in the
plants mitotic divisions can be seen in both haploid and diploid cells.
 It is also called as equational division as the number of chromosomes in the parent
and progeny cells are the same.
 Mitosis is divided into the following four stages:
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
ASSIGNMENT
1. Between a prokaryote and a eukaryote, which cell has a shorter cell division cycle?
2. What is cell division?
3. Name the two basic phases of cell cycle and differentiate between the two.
4. Explain the three phases of interphase of a cell cycle.
Prophase
 It follows the S and G2 phases of interphase.
 The centrioles now begin to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
 In prophase Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
 Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle with the help of the microtubules.
 Cell organelles like Golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the
nuclear envelope disappear.

Metaphase
 Start of metaphase is marked by the complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope.
 The chromosomes are spread through the cytoplasm of the cell.
 condensation of chromosomes is completed and they can be observed clearly under
the microscope.
 This is the stage at which morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied.
 At this stage, metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are
held together by the centromere.
 centromere serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres to the chromosomes.
 chromosomes are moved into position at the centre of the cell.
 the metaphase is characterised by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator
with one chromatid of each chromosome connected by its kinetochore to spindle
fibres from one pole and its sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle
fibres from the opposite pole.
 The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as
the metaphase plate or equatorial plate.

Anaphase
 At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate
is split simultaneously and the two daughter chromatids begin to move towards the
two opposite poles.
 As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the centromere of each
chromosome is towards the pole and hence at the leading edge, with the arms of the
chromosome trailing behind
Telophase
 At the beginning of telophase, the chromosomes at their respective poles decondense
and form chromatin network.
 Nuclear envelope assembles around the chromatin network.
 Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER etc cell organelles reform.

Cytokinesis
 After karyokinesis the cell itself is divided into two daughter cells by a separate
process called cytokinesis.
 In an animal cell, this is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma
membrane.
 The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing the cell
cytoplasm into two.
 Plant cells undergo cytokinesis by cell plate method. In cell plate method wall
formation starts in the centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral
walls.
 The formation of the new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple precursor,
called the cell-plate that represents the middle lamella between the walls of two
adjacent cells.
 At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like mitochondria and plastids get
distributed between the two daughter cells.
 In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which
multinucleate condition arises leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g., liquid
endosperm in coconut). (should be coenocytic)
Significance of mitosis
 Mitosis results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
complement usually.
 The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.
 Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Therefore, cell divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
 mitosis is important in cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells
of the lining of the gut, and blood cells are being constantly replaced.
 Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical and the lateral cambium,
result in a continuous growth of plants throughout their life.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is a cell plate?
2. Why mitosis is called equational division?
3. Why can cytokinesis not occur in plant cell the same way as it occurs in animal cells?
4. Give the key features of metaphase and anaphase with its diagram. Write the name of
the stage which is best to study the morphology of a chromosome.

Meiosis
 The specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half
results in the production of haploid daughter cells called
 It is responsible for formation of haploid gametes, which during sexual reproduction
form diploid zygote by fusion.
 Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis
I and meiosis II but only a single cycle of DNA replication.
 Interphase of meiosis is similar to interphase of mitosis.

Meiosis I
Prophase I
 Prophase of the meiosis I division is typically longer and more complex than prophase
of mitosis.
 It has been further subdivided into the following five phases based on chromosomal
behaviour
 ASSIGNMENT
1. Define meiosis.
2. What are chiasmata? What is their significance?
3. What are kinetochores? What is their function?
Metaphase I:
 The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
 The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I:
 The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids remain associated at
their centromeres.
Telophase I
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
 cytokinesis follows telophase I.
 Although in many cases the chromosomes do undergo some dispersion, they do not
reach the extremely extended state of the interphase nucleus. The stage between the
two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and is generally short lived.
 Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.

1. What indicates the beginning of diplotene?

2. How does metaphase 1 differ from metaphase?
3. Describe in detail the events of prophase 1 of meiosis.

Meiosis II
Meiosis II resembles a normal mitosis.
Prophase II:
 Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis.
 The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II.
 The chromosomes again become compact.
Metaphase II:
 At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator and the microtubules from
opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister chromatids.
Anaphase II:
 splitting of the centromere of each chromosome.
 Chromosomes move toward opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II:
 the two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope.
 cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of four haploid daughter cells.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
 by meiosis conservation of specific chromosome number of each species is achieved
across generations in sexually reproducing organisms.
 It also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one
generation to the next. Variations are very important for the process of evolution.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What is interkinesis?
2. When and why does reduction in the number of chromosomes take place in meiosis?
3. An anther has 1200 pollen grains. How many pollen mother cells must have been
there to produce them?

1. Comment on the statement— Telophase is reverse of prophase.

2. What are the various stages of meiotic prophase-I? Enumerate the chromosomal
events during each stage?
3. Differentiate between the events of mitosis and meiosis.
4. Write brief note on the following:
a. Synaptonemal complex
b. Metaphase plate
c. Go Phase
5. How does cytokinesis in plant cells differ from that in animal cells?
6. Explain interphase with it’s stages.

CHAPTER-9
BIOMOLECULES

 All living organisms are made up of similar elements

 In living organisms Carbon and Hydrogen are in abundance with respect to other
elements.

How to Analyse Chemical Composition?

 To analyze the chemical composition, We can take any living tissue and grind it in
trichloroacetic acid (Cl3 CCOOH) using a mortar and a pestle. We obtain a thick
slurry. If we were to strain this through a cheesecloth or cotton we would obtain two
fractions
1. filtrate or the acid-soluble pool,
2. retentate or the acid-insoluble fraction.
 Scientists have found thousands of organic compounds in the acid-soluble pool.
 All the carbon compounds that we get from living tissues can be
called ‘biomolecules’.
Living organisms have also got inorganic elements and compounds in them.
 Wet weight – weight of living tissue/structure.
 Dry Weight – weight of structure after drying it. (Wet weight – water).
 Ash – if the tissue is fully burnt, all the carbon compounds are oxidised to gaseous
form (CO2, water vapour) and are removed. What is remaining is called ‘ash’. This
ash contains inorganic elements (like calcium, magnesium etc). (Dry weight – carbon
compound)
Amino acids
 Amino acids are organic compounds containing an amino group and an acidic group
as substituents on the same carbon i.e., the α-carbon. Hence, they are called α-amino
acids. They are substituted methanes.
 There are four substituent groups occupying the four valency positions. These are
hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group and a variable group designated as R group.
 Based on the nature of R group there are many amino acids. However, those which
occur in proteins are only of twentyone types.
 R group = hydrogen e.g., glycine
 R group = methyl group e.g., alanine
 R group = hydroxy methyl e.g., serine.
  The chemical and physical properties of amino acids are essentially of the amino,
carboxyl and the R functional groups.
 Acidic amino acid – glutamic acid etc.
 Basic amino acid – lysine
 Neutral amino acid – valine.
 aromatic amino acids – tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan.
 A particular property of amino acids is the ionizable nature of-NH2 and -COOH
groups. Hence in solutions of different pHs, the structure of amino acids changes.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are biomolecules?
2. Give the structural formula of glycine and serine.
3. Differentiate between essential and non-essential amino acids.
4. Amino acids exist as zwitter ion. Justify.

Lipids
 Lipids are generally water insoluble. They could be simple fatty acids.
 A fatty acid has a carboxyl group attached to an R group. The R group could be a
methyl (-CH3), or ethyl (-C2H5) or higher number of-CH2 groups (1 carbon to 19
carbons).
 Palmitic acid has 16 carbons including carboxyl carbon.
 Arachidonic acid has 20 carbon atoms including the carboxyl carbon.
 Fatty acids could be saturated (without double bond) or unsaturated (with one or more
C=C double bonds).
 Another simple lipid is glycerol which is trihydroxy propane.
 Many lipids have both glycerol and fatty acids. Here the fatty acids are
found esterified with glycerol. They can be then monoglycerides, diglycerides and
triglycerides.
 These are also called fats and oils based on melting point. Oils have lower melting
point (e.g., gingely oil) and hence remain as oil in winters.
 Some lipids have phosphorous and a phosphorylated organic compound in them.
These are phospholipids. They are found in cell membrane. Lecithin is one example.
 Some tissues especially the neural tissues have lipids with more complex structures.
Sugar/Carbohydrates
 It consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio CnH2nOn. It is also called
saccharide with sugars being the basic components of saccharides.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Write the formula of palmitic acid.
2. Explain the composition of triglyceride.
3. What forms the basis of classifying lipids into oils and fats?
4. Draw the structure and formula of glucose.

Nucleotides
 Many carbon compounds have heterocyclic rings like nitrogen bases -adenine,
guanine, cytosine, uracil, and thymine.
 When found attached to a sugar, they are called nucleosides.(nucleoside = sugar +
nitrogen base). Adenosine, guanosine, thymidine, uridine and cytidine are
nucleosides.
 If a phosphate group is also found esterified to the sugar they are called nucleotides.
(Nucleotides = nucleosides + phosphate). Adenylic acid, thymidylic acid, guanylic
acid, uridylic acid and cytidylic acid are nucleotides.
 Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA consist of nucleotides only. DNA and RNA
function as genetic material.
BIOMACROMOLECULES
 There is one feature common to all those compounds found in the acid soluble pool.
They have molecular weights ranging from 18 to around 800 daltons (Da)
approximately. (Micromolecules) (M w= <1000 daltons)
 The acid insoluble fraction, has only four types of organic compounds i.e., proteins,
nucleic acids, polysaccharides and lipids. These classes of compounds with the
exception of lipids, have molecular weights in the range of ten thousand daltons and
above. (Macromolecules) (Mw= >1000 daltons)
 The molecules in the insoluble fraction with the exception of lipids are polymeric
substances.
 Lipids are small molecular weight compounds and are present not only as such but
also arranged into structures like cell membrane and other membranes. When we
grind a tissue, we are disrupting the cell structure. Cell membrane and other
membranes are broken into pieces, and form vesicles which are not water soluble.
Therefore, these membrane fragments in the form of vesicles get separated along with
the acid insoluble pool and hence in the macromolecular fraction. Lipids are not
strictly macromolecules.
 The acid soluble pool represents roughly the cytoplasmic composition. The
macromolecules from cytoplasm and organelles become the acid insoluble fraction.
Together they represent the entire chemical composition of living tissues or
organisms.
PROTEINS
 Proteins are polypeptides. They are linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds.
 Each protein is a polymer of amino acids. As there are 21 types of amino acids (e.g.,
alanine, cysteine, proline, tryptophan, lysine, etc.), a protein is a heteropolymer and
not a homopolymer.
 A homopolymer has only one type of monomer repeating ‘n’ number of times.
 Amino acids can be essential or non-essential. Essential amino acids are supplied in
diet while our body prepares non essential amino acids.
  Proteins carry out many functions in living organisms, some transport nutrients across
cell membrane, some fight infectious organisms, some are hormones, some are
enzymes,etc.
 Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world.
 Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RUBISCO) is the most abundant
protein in the whole of the biosphere.
Table : Some Proteins and their Functions

Protein Functions

Collagen Intercellular ground substance

Trypsin Enzyme

Insulin Hormone

Antibody Fights infectious agents

Receptor Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone, etc.)

GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the pyrimidine base that is present in RNA and not in DNA.
2. Write the name of the most abundant enzyme in the world.
3. Give the structural formula of adenine, adenosine and adenylic acid.
4. Why are proteins called heteropolymers and not homopolymers?

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
 Proteins are heteropolymers containing strings of amino acids.
 Biologists describe the protein structure at four levels.
Primary structure –
 It is linear structure of protein.
 the left end represented by the first amino acid and the right end represented by the
last amino acid.
 The first amino acid is also called as N-terminal amino acid. The last amino acid is
called the C-terminal amino acid.
Secondary structure –
 The linear protein thread is folded in the form of a helix (similar to a revolving
staircase).
 In proteins, only right handed helices and beta pleated structure are observed.
Tertiary structure –
 The long protein chain is also folded upon itself like a hollow woollen ball, giving
rise to the tertiary structure.
 This gives us a 3-dimensional view of a protein. Tertiary structure is absolutely
necessary for the many biological activities of proteins.
Quaternary structure –
 Some proteins are an assembly of more than one polypeptide or subunits.
 The manner in which these individual folded polypeptides or subunits are arranged
with respect to each other (e.g. linear string of spheres, spheres arranged one upon
each other in the form of a cube or plate etc.) is the architecture of a protein otherwise
called the quaternary structure of a protein.
 e.g., Adult human haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits. Two of these are identical to
each other. Hence, two subunits of α type and two subunits of β type together
constitute the human haemoglobin (Hb).
NATURE OF BOND LINKING MONOMERS IN A POLYMER
 In a polypeptide or a protein, amino acids are linked by a peptide bond which is
formed when the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid reacts with the amino (-
NH2) group of the next amino acid with the elimination of a water moiety (the process
is called dehydration).

POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars. They are threads (literally a cotton thread)
containing different monosaccharides as building blocks.

 Cellulose is a polymeric polysaccharide consisting of only one type of

monosaccharide i.e., glucose. Cellulose is a homopolymer.
 Starch is a variant of this but present as a store house of energy in plant tissues.
Animals have another variant called glycogen.
 Inulin is a polymer of fructose.
 In a polysaccharide chain (say glycogen), the right end is called the reducing end and
the left end is called the non-reducing end. It has branches.
 Starch forms helical secondary structures. In fact, starch can hold I2 molecules in the
helical portion. The starch-I2 is blue in colour. Cellulose does not contain complex
helices and hence cannot hold I2.
 Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Paper made from plant pulp is cellulose. Cotton
fibre is cellulose.
 There are more complex polysaccharides in nature. They act as building blocks,
amino-sugars and chemically modified sugars (e.g., glucosamine, N-acetyl
galactosamine, etc.).
 Exoskeletons of arthropods, for example, have a complex polysaccharide
called chitin. These complex polysaccharides are heteropolymers.
  In a polysaccharide the individual monosaccharides are linked by a glycosidic
bond. This bond is also formed by dehydration. This bond is formed between two
carbon atoms of two adjacent monosaccharides.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Insulin and trypsin are proteins. How do they function differently?
2. Name two amino sugars.
3. How are proteins formed? Describe the primary, secondary and tertiary structure of
proteins.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Present in acid insoluble fraction of all living tissues.
 These are polynucleotides. For nucleic acids, the building block is a nucleotide. A
nucleotide has three chemically distinct components. One is a heterocyclic compound
(N2 bases, the second is a monosaccharide and the third a phosphoric acid or
phosphate.)
 Adenine, Guanine, Uracil, Cytosine, and Thymine are N2 containing bases. Adenine
and Guanine are substituted purines while the rest are substituted pyrimidines.
 The sugar found in polynucleotides is either ribose (a monosaccharide pentose) or 2′
deoxyribose.
 A nucleic acid containing deoxyribose is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) while
that which contains ribose is called ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 In a nucleic acid a phosphate moiety links the 3′-carbon of one sugar of one
nucleotide to the 5′-carbon of the sugar of the succeeding nucleotide. The bond
between the phosphate and hydroxyl group of sugar is an ester As there is one such
ester bond on either side, it is called phosphodiester bond.
 Nucleic acids exhibit a wide variety of secondary structures.
 One of the secondary structures exhibited by DNA is the famous Watson-Crick
model.

Watson-Crick Model
 According to this model DNA exists as a double helix. The two strands of
polynucleotides are antiparallel i.e., run in the opposite direction.
 The backbone is formed by the sugar-phosphate-sugar chain.
 The nitrogen bases are projected more or less perpendicular to this backbone but face
inside.
 A and G of one strand compulsorily base pairs with T and C, respectively, on the
other strand. There are two hydrogen bonds between A and T. There are three
hydrogen bonds between G and C.
 Each strand appears like a helical staircase.
 Each step of ascent is represented by a pair of bases. At each step of ascent, the strand
turns 36°.
 One full turn of the helical strand would involve ten steps or ten base pairs.
 On drawing a line diagram, the pitch would be 34Å. The rise per base pair would be
3.4Å. This form of DNA with the above mentioned salient features is called B-DNA.
 There are more than a dozen forms of DNA named after English alphabets with
unique structural features.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the sugars present in nucleic acids.
2. What is a phosphodiester bond?
3. Give reason as to why starch is stained blue with iodine but cellulose is not though
both are polymers of glucose.

DYNAMIC STATE OF BODY CONSTITUENTS – CONCEPT OF METABOLISM

 The living organisms contain thousands of organic compounds.
 All these biomolecules have a turn over. This means that they are constantly being
changed into some other biomolecules and also made from some other biomolecules
through chemical reactions. Together all these chemical reactions are called metabolic
reactions.
 These metabolic reactions result in the transformation of biomolecules like removal of
CO2 from amino acids making an amino acid into an amine, removal of amino group
in a nucleotide base; hydrolysis of a glycosidic bond in a disaccharide, etc.
 Majority of these metabolic reactions are always linked to some other reactions or the
metabolites are converted into each other in a series of linked reactions called
metabolic pathways.
 Flow of metabolites through metabolic pathway has a definite rate and direction. This
metabolite flow is called the dynamic state of body constituents.
 Metabolic pathways can lead to a more complex structure from a simpler structure
(for example, acetic acid becomes cholesterol) =anabolic pathways,or lead to a
simpler structure from a complex structure (for example, glucose becomes lactic acid
in our skeletal muscle)=catabolic pathways.
 Anabolic pathways, as expected, consume energy. While, catabolic pathways lead to
the release of energy, which is stored in the form of chemical bonds
in ATP(adenosine triphosphate).

THE LIVING STATE

 Many chemical compounds or metabolites, or biomolecules, are present at
concentrations characteristic of each of them.
 all living organisms exist in a steady-state characterised by concentrations of each of
these biomolecules. These biomolecules are in a metabolic flux.
 The steady state is a non-equilibrium state. Because systems at equilibrium cannot
perform work.
 the living state is a non-equilibrium steady-state to be able to perform
work; living process is a constant effort to prevent falling into equilibrium.
 This is achieved by energy input. Metabolism provides a mechanism for the
production of energy.
  Hence the living state and metabolism are synonymous. Without metabolism there
cannot be a living state.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are gums made of? Is fevicol different from it?
2. What is meant by turn over of biomolecules?
3. Name two important drugs that are produced as secondary metabolites in plants.

ENZYMES
 Almost all enzymes are proteins. There are some nucleic acids that behave like
enzymes. These are called ribozymes.
 An enzyme like any protein has a primary structure, secondary and the tertiary
structure.
 In tertiary structure, the backbone of the protein chain folds upon itself, the chain
criss-crosses itself and hence, many crevices or pockets are made. One such pocket is
the ‘active site’.
 An active site of an enzyme is a crevice or pocket into which the substrate fits. Thus
enzymes, through their active site, catalyse reactions at a high rate.
 Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways. Inorganic catalysts
work efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged
at high temperatures (above 40°C).

Chemical Reactions
 Chemical compounds undergo two types of changes.
A physical change simply refers to a change in shape without breaking of bonds. This is a
physical process. Another physical process is a change in state of matter: when ice melts into
water, or when water becomes a vapour.
when bonds are broken and new bonds are formed during transformation, this will be called a
chemical reaction. For example:

hydrolysis of starch into glucose is an organic chemical reaction.

 Rate of a physical or chemical process refers to the amount of product formed per
unit time. It can be expressed as:

Rate can also be called velocity if the direction is specified.

 Rates of physical and chemical processes are influenced by temperature among other
factors.
 A general rule is that rate doubles or decreases by half for every 10°C change in
either direction. Catalysed reactions proceed at rates vastly higher than that of
uncatalyzed ones. e.g.,

In the absence of any enzyme this reaction is very slow, with about 200 molecules of
H2CO3 being formed in an hour. However, by using the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, the
reaction speeds about 600,000 molecules being formed every second.
  A multistep chemical reaction, when each of the steps is catalysed by the same
enzyme complex or different enzymes, is called a metabolic pathway. For example,

This reaction is actually a metabolic pathway in which glucose becomes pyruvic acid through
ten different enzyme catalysed metabolic reactions.

Nature of Enzyme Action

 Each enzyme (E) has a substrate (S) binding site in its molecule so that a highly
reactive enzyme-substrate complex (ES) is produced. This complex is short-lived and
dissociates into its product(s) P and the unchanged enzyme with an intermediate
formation of the enzyme-product complex (EP).
The formation of the ES complex is essential for catalysis.

The catalytic cycle of an enzyme action can be described in the following steps:
1. First, the substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme, fitting into the active site.
2. The binding of the substrate induces the enzyme to alter its shape, fitting more tightly
around the substrate.
3. The active site of the enzyme, now in close proximity of the substrate breaks the
chemical bonds of the substrate and the new enzyme- product complex is formed.
4. The enzyme releases the products of the reaction and the free enzyme is ready to bind
to another molecule of the substrate and run through the catalytic cycle once again.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Describe the important properties of enzymes.
2. What is the function of carbonic anhydrase? How many times does carbonic
anhydrase accelerate the rate of reaction?
3. Describe the steps of catalytic cycle of an enzyme action.

How do Enzymes bring about such High Rates of Chemical Conversions?

 Enzymes, i.e. proteins with three dimensional structures including an ‘active site’,
convert a substrate (S) into a product (P). Symbolically, this can be depicted as:

 Substrate ‘S’ has to bind the enzyme at its ‘active site’ within a given cleft or pocket.
The substrate has to diffuse towards the ‘active site’.
 There is thus, an obligatory formation of an ‘ES’ complex. E stands for enzyme. This
complex formation is a transient phenomenon.
 During the state where substrate is bound to the enzyme active site, a new structure of
the substrate called transition state structure is formed.
 Very soon, after the expected bond breaking/making is completed, the product is
released from the active site. In other words, the structure of substrate gets
transformed into the structure of product(s).
 There could be many more ‘altered structural states’ between the stable substrate and
the product. all other intermediate structural states are unstable. Stability is something
related to energy status of the molecule or the structure.
  If ‘P’ is at a lower level than ’S’, the reaction is an exothermic reaction. One need not
supply energy (by heating) in order to form the product.
 However, whether it is an exothermic or spontaneous reaction or an endothermic or
energy requiring reaction, the ‘S’ has to go through a much higher energy state or
transition state.
 The difference in average energy content of ’S’ from that of this transition state is
called ‘activation energy’.
 Enzymes eventually bring down this energy barrier making the transition of’S’
to ‘P’ more easy.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Factors affecting Enzyme activity are temperature, pH, change in substrate concentration or
binding of specific chemicals that regulate its activity.
1. Temperature and pH
 Enzymes generally function in a narrow range of temperature and pH.
 Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a particular temperature and pH called the
optimum temperature and optimum pH.
 Low temperature preserves the enzyme in a temporarily inactive state whereas high
temperature destroys enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured by heat.

2. Concentration of Substrate
 With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of the enzymatic reaction
rises at first.
 The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum velocity (Vmax) which is not exceeded by
any further rise in concentration of the substrate.
  This is because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate molecules and after
saturation of these molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules to bind with the
additional substrate molecules.
3. Competitive Inhibition –
 The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to the presence of specific chemicals that
bind to the enzyme.
 When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the process is
called inhibition and the chemical is called an inhibitor.
 When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and
inhibits the activity of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor.
 Due to its close structural similarity with the substrate, the inhibitor competes with the
substrate for the substrate-binding site of the enzyme. Consequently, the substrate
cannot bind and as a result, the enzyme action declines,
e.g., inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate which closely resembles the substrate
succinate in structure.
Such competitive inhibitors are often used in the control of bacterial pathogens.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is meant by transition state structure of the substrate?
2. What is meant by Km value in enzyme reaction? What does it indicate?
3. Explain competitive inhibition with suitable example.

Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes

Enzymes are divided into 6 classes each with 4-13 subclasses and named accordingly by a
four-digit number.
1. Oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases: Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction between
two substrates S and S’ e.g.,
2. Transferases: Enzymes catalysing a transfer of a group, G (other than hydrogen)
between a pair of substrate S and S’ e.g.,
3. Hydrolases: Enzymes catalysing hydrolysis of ester, ether, peptide, glycosidic, C-C,
C-halide or P-N bonds.
4. Lyases: Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms
other than hydrolysis leaving double bonds.
5. Isomerases: Includes all enzymes catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometric or
positional isomers.
6. Ligases: Enzymes catalysing the linking together of 2 compounds, e.g., enzymes
which catalyse joining of C-O, C-S, C-N, P-O etc. bonds.
Co-factors
 Enzymes are composed of one or several polypeptide chains. However, there are a
number of cases in which non-protein constituents called co-factors are bound to the
enzyme to make the enzyme catalytically active.
 In these instances, the protein portion of the enzymes is called the apoenzyme.
 Three kinds of cofactors may be identified: prosthetic groups, co-enzymes and metal
ions.
 Prosthetic groups are organic compounds and are distinguished from other cofactors
in that they are tightly bound to the apoenzyme.
For example, in peroxidase and catalase, which catalyze the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
to water and oxygen, haem is the prosthetic group and it is a part of the active site of the
enzyme.
 Co-enzymes are also organic compounds but their association with the apoenzyme is
only transient, usually occurring during the course of catalysis. Furthermore, co-
enzymes serve as co-factors in a number of different enzyme catalyzed reactions. The
essential chemical components of many coenzymes are vitamins, e.g., coenzyme
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NADP contain the vitamin niacin.
 Metal ions – A number of enzymes require metal ions for their activity which form
coordination bonds with side chains at the active site and at the same time form one or
more coordination bonds with the substrate, e.g., zinc is a cofactor for the proteolytic
enzyme carboxypeptidase.
Catalytic activity is lost when the co-factor is removed from the enzyme which testifies that
they play a crucial role in the catalytic activity of the enzyme.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is the function of catalase?
2. Distinguish between apoenzyme and coenzyme.
3. Describe the different classes of the enzymes.
 CHAPTER-13
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

 Green plants carry out ‘photosynthesis’, a physico-chemical process by which they

use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds.
 Ultimately, all living forms on earth depend on sunlight for energy.
 The use of energy from sunlight by plants doing photosynthesis is the basis of life on
earth.
 Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons:
(a) it is the primary source of all food on earth.
(b) It is also responsible for the release of oxygen into the atmosphere by green plants.
 Chlorophyll (green pigment of the leaf), light and CO 2 are required for photosynthesis
to occur.
 Photosynthesis is a biochemical process (anabolic and endergonic) in which organic
compounds (carbohydrates) are synthesised from the inorganic raw materials (H2O
and CO2) in presence of light and pigments. O2 is evolved as a by product.

 Two leaves experiment for importance of chlorophyll for starch formation – a

variegated leaf or a leaf that was partially covered with black paper, and one that was
exposed to light. On testing these leaves for starch it was clear that photosynthesis
occurred only in the green parts of the leaves in the presence of light.
 Half-leaf experiment for importance of CO2 for starch formation – a part of a leaf is
enclosed in a test tube containing some KOH soaked cotton (which absorbs CO 2),
while the other half is exposed to air. The setup is then placed in light for some time.
On testing for starch later in the two halves of the leaf the exposed part of the leaf
tested positive for starch while the portion that was in the tube, tested negative.

Early Experiments
1. Joseph Priestley (1770)
– revealed the essential role of air in the growth of green plants
– discovered oxygen in 1774.
– Bell jar experiment
– hypothesised that Plants restore to the air whatever breathing animals and burning candles
remove.
2. Jan Ingenhousz (1730-1799)
– showed that sunlight is essential to the photosynthesis.
3. Julius von Sachs (1854)
– provided evidence for production of glucose when plants grow.
– Glucose is usually stored as starch.
– showed that the green substance in plants is located in special bodies (later called
chloroplasts) within plant cells.
4. T.W Engelmann (1843 – 1909)
– Used a prism to split light into its spectral components and then illuminated a green alga,
Cladophora, placed in a suspension of aerobic bacteria. The bacteria were used to detect the
sites of O2 evolution.
– observed that the bacteria accumulated mainly in the region of blue and red light of the split
spectrum.
– described first action spectrum of photosynthesis, which resembles roughly the absorption
spectra of chlorophyll a and b.
The empirical equation representing the total process of photosynthesis for oxygen evolving
organisms was then understood as:
CO2 + H2O —Light –> [CH2O] + O2
where [CH2O] represented a carbohydrate (e.g., glucose, a six-carbon sugar).
5. Cornelius van Neil (1897-1985) – a microbiologist
– studies of purple and green bacteria,
– demonstrated that photosynthesis is essentially a light-dependent reaction in which
hydrogen from a suitable oxidisable compound reduces carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
2H2A + CO2 —Light –> 2A + CH2O + H2O
– In green plants H2O is the hydrogen donor and is oxidised to O2.
– When H2S is the hydrogen donor for purple and green sulphur bacteria, the ‘oxidation’
product is sulphur or sulphate and not O2.
– Hence, he inferred that the O2 evolved by the green plant comes from H2O, not from carbon
dioxide.
– This was later proved by using radio isotopic techniques.
The correct equation, that would represent the overall process of photosynthesis is therefore:
6CO2 +12H2O —Light –> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

ASSIGNMENT
1. What does the half leaf experiment on photosynthesis indicate?
2. Name the organism Engelmann used in his experiment.
3. Why has the mouse survived after the mint plant was placed inside the bell jar?

SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis occurs in green leaf in the chloroplasts.
 In higher plants photosynthesis occurs particularly in specialized cells called
mesophyll cells of leaves. These cells contain chloroplasts, which are the actual
sites for photosynthesis. It fixes CO2 into carbohydrates.
 Chloroplasts are double membrane bound organelles. The space limited by the inner
membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
 A number of organised flattened membranous sacs (called the thylakoids) are present
in the stroma. Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like piles of coins called grana.
 The thylakoids in the chloroplast contain most of the machinery for the
photochemical reaction of photosynthesis. They contain pigments for capturing solar
energy.
 The membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy and also for the
synthesis of ATP and NADPH. In stroma, enzymatic reactions incorporate CO 2 into
the plant leading to the synthesis of sugar, which in turn forms starch.
 The former set of reactions, since they are directly light driven are called light
reactions. The latter are not directly light driven but are dependent on the products of
light reactions (ATP and NADPH). Hence, to distinguish the latter they are called, by
convention, as dark reactions. However, this should not be construed to mean that
they occur in darkness or that they are not light- dependent.
PIGMENTS INVOLVED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 A chromatographic separation of the leaf pigments shows that the colour that we see
in leaves is not due to a single pigment but due to four pigments:
Chlorophyll a (bright or blue green in the chromatogram),
chlorophyll b (yellow green),
xanthophylls (yellow) and
carotenoids (yellow to yellow-orange).
 Pigments are substances that have an ability to absorb light, at specific wavelengths.
 wavelengths at which there is maximum absorption by chlorophyll a, is in the blue
and the red regions, also shows higher rate of photosynthesis. Hence, we can conclude
that chlorophyll a is the chief pigment associated with photosynthesis.
 These graphs, together, show that most of the photosynthesis takes place in the blue
and red regions of the spectrum; some photosynthesis does take place at the other
wavelengths of the visible spectrum.
 Though chlorophyll is the major pigment responsible for trapping light, other
thylakoid pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids, which are called
accessory pigments, also absorb light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a. Indeed,
they not only enable a wider range of wavelength of incoming light to be utilised for
photosynthesis but also protect chlorophyll a from photo-oxidation.
 ASSIGNMENT
1. State the location of the photosynthetic pigments in a chloroplast.
2. Differentiate between absorption and action spectrum.
3. Describe the light harvesting complex of photosynthesis.

LIGHT REACTION
 Light reactions or the ‘Photochemical’ phase include light absorption, water splitting,
oxygen release, and the formation of high-energy chemical intermediates, ATP and
NADPH.
 several complexes are involved in the process.
 The pigments are organised into two discrete photochemical light harvesting
complexes (LHC) within the Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II). These
are named in the sequence of their discovery, and not in the sequence in which they
function during the light reaction.
 The LHC are made up of hundreds of pigment molecules bound to proteins.
 Each photosystem has all the pigments (except one molecule of chlorophyll a)
forming a light harvesting system also called antennae.
 These pigments help to make photosynthesis more efficient by absorbing different
wavelengths of light. The single chlorophyll a molecule forms the reaction centre.
 The reaction centre is different in both the photosystems.
 In PS I the reaction centre chlorophyll a has an absorption peak at 700 nm, hence is
called P700, while in PS II it has absorption maxima at 680 nm, and is called P680

NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
 In photosystem II the reaction centre chlorophyll a absorbs 680 nm wavelength of red
light causing electrons to become excited and jump into an orbit farther from the
atomic nucleus. These electrons are picked up by an electron acceptor which passes
them to an electrons transport system consisting of cytochromes.
 This movement of electrons is downhill, in terms of an oxidation-reduction or redox
potential scale.
 The electrons are not used up as they pass through the electron transport chain, but are
passed on to the pigments of photosystem PS I.
 Simultaneously, electrons in the reaction centre of PS I are also excited when they
receive red light of wavelength 700 nm and are transferred to another accepter
molecule that has a greater redox potential.
 These electrons then are moved downhill again, this time to a molecule of energy-rich
NADP+.
 The addition of these electrons reduces NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
 This whole scheme of transfer of electrons, starting from the PS II, uphill to the
accepter, down the electron transport chain to PS I, excitation of electrons,transfer to
another accepter, and finally downhill to NADP+causing it to be reduced to NADPH
+ H+ is called the Z scheme, due to its characterstic shape. This shape is formed when
all the carriers are placed in a sequence on a redox potential scale.
Splitting of Water
 The electrons that were moved from photosystem II must be replaced.
 This is achieved by electrons available due to splitting of water.
 The splitting of water is associated with the PS II; water is split into H+, [O] and
electrons.
 This creates oxygen, one of the net products of photosynthesis.
 The electrons needed to replace those removed from photosystem I are provided by
photosystem II.
 2H2O ——-> 4H+ + O2 + 4e–
 water splitting complex is associated with the PS II, which itself is physically located
on the inner side of the membrane of the thylakoid.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What is the role of antennae pigments of LHC?
2. How is the electrons that are lost from PSII replenished?
3. Mention the four important events associated with light reaction of photosynthesis.

CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
 When only PS I is functional, the electron is circulated within the photosystem and
the phosphorylation occurs due to cyclic flow of electrons.
 A possible location where this could be happening is in the stroma lamellae.
 While the membrane or lamellae of the grana have both PS I and PS II the stroma
lamellae membranes lack PS II as well as NADP reductase enzyme.
 The excited electron does not pass on to NADP+ but is cycled back to the PS I
complex through the electron transport chain. The cyclic flow hence, results only in
the synthesis of ATP, but not of NADPH + H+.
 Cyclic photophosphorylation also occurs when only light of wavelengths beyond 680
nm are available for excitation.
Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
 The chemiosmotic hypothesis has been put forward by Peter Mitchell in 1961 to
explain the mechanism of synthesis of ATP.
 Like in respiration, in photosynthesis too, ATP synthesis is linked to development of a
proton gradient across a membrane.
 This process requires a membrane, a proton pump, a proton gradient and ATPase.
 Since the splitting of H2O molecule takes place on the inner side of the thylakoid
membrane, the H+ ions produced are accumulated within the lumen of the thylakoids.
 As e- move through the photosystems, protons are transported across the membrane
because the primary electron acceptor transfers its electron to an H + carrier, this
molecule removes a proton from the stroma while transporting an e -.
 Within the chloroplast, protons in the stroma decrease in number, whereas in the
lumen there is accumulation of protons which creates a proton gradient across the
thylakoid membrane as well as a decrease in PH in the lumen.
 The gradient id broken due to the movement of proton across the membrane to stroma
through the transmembrane channel of F0 by facilitated diffusion.
 This breakdown of the gradient provides enough energy which makes the F1 particle
of ATPase to combine ADP and Pi to synthesise ATP molecule.
 The NADP reductase enzyme is located on the stroma side of the membrane. Along
with electrons that come from the accepter of electrons of PS I, protons are necessary
for the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH+ H+. These protons are also removed from
the stroma.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the requirements of chemiosmotic hypothesis?
2. Differentiate between PSI and PS II.
3. What are the two parts of ATP synthetase? State their location and function.

DARK REACTION
 The products of light reaction are ATP, NADPH and O 2.
 Of these O2 diffuses out of the chloroplast while ATP and NADPH are used to drive
the processes leading to the synthesis of food, more accurately, sugars.
 This is the biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis.
 This process does not directly depend on the presence of light but is dependent on the
products of the light reaction, i.e., ATP and NADPH, besides CO 2 and H2.
 Melvin Calvin used radioactive 14C in algal photosynthesis studies which led to the
discovery that the first CO2 fixation product was a 3-carbon organic acid or 3-
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).
 He also contributed to working out the complete biosynthetic pathway; hence it was
called Calvin cycle after him.
 The Primary Acceptor of CO2 is a 5-carbon ketose sugar – ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP).
THE CALVIN CYCLE
 Calvin and his co-workers then worked out the whole pathway and showed that the
pathway operated in a cyclic manner; the RuBP was regenerated.
 The Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants; it does not matter whether
they have C3 or C4 (or any other) pathways.
 The Calvin cycle can be described under three stages: carboxylation, reduction and
regeneration.
 Carboxylation –
 Carboxylation is the fixation of CO2 into a stable organic intermediate.
 Carboxylation is the most crucial step of the Calvin cycle where CO 2 is utilised for the
carboxylation of RuBP.
 This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase which results in the
formation of two molecules of 3-PGA.
 Since this enzyme also has an oxygenation activity it would be more correct to call it
RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase or RuBisCO.
 Reduction –
 These are a series of reactions that lead to the formation of glucose.
 The steps involve utilisation of 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation and two of
NADPH for reduction per CO2 molecule fixed.
 The fixation of six molecules of CO2 and 6 turns of the cycle are required for the
removal of one molecule of glucose from the pathway.
 Regeneration –
 Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor molecule RuBP is crucial if the cycle is to continue
uninterrupted.
 The regeneration steps require one ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.
 Hence for every CO2 molecule entering the Calvin cycle, 3 molecules of ATP and 2
of NADPH are required.
 It is probably to meet this difference in number of ATP and NADPH used in the dark
reaction that the cyclic phosphorylation takes place.
 To make one molecule of glucose 6 turns of the cycle are required.
 Total 18 ATP, 12 NADPH, 6 CO2 are used synthesis of for 1 molecule of glucose.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the first product of calvin cycle. How many carbons do they contain?
2. Expand RuBP. Mention its role in photosynthesis.
3. Describe the three phases of Calvin cycle.

THE C4 PATHWAY
 Plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4 pathway
 Though these plants have the C4 oxaloacetic acid as the first CO2 fixation product
they use the C3 pathway or the Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway.
 C4 plants are special: They have a special type of leaf anatomy, they tolerate higher
temperatures, they show a response to highlight intensities, they lack a process called
photorespiration and have greater productivity of biomass.
 The particularly large cells around the vascular bundles of the C4 pathway plants are
called bundle sheath cells, and the leaves which have such anatomy are said to have
‘Kranz’ anatomy.
 ‘Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and is a reflection of the arrangement of cells.
 The bundle sheath cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles; they are
characterised by having a large number of chloroplasts, thick walls impervious to
gaseous exchange and no intercellular spaces.
 Kranz (Wreath) Anatomy - Present in leaves of C4 plants.
 There are various features of Kranz anatomy which are as given below :
 Green bundle sheath cells (BS cells) are present around the vascular bundles.
 Dimorphic chloroplasts are present in leaf cells. Chloroplast of bundle sheath cells or
Kranz cells are larger and lack grana. Mesophyll chloroplasts are small and with
grana.

 This pathway also known as Hatch and Slack Pathway, is a cyclic process.
 The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and is
present in the mesophyll cells. The enzyme responsible for this fixation is PEP
carboxylase or PEPcase.
 The mesophyll cells lack RuBisCO enzyme.
 The C4 acid OAA is formed in the mesophyll cells.
 It then forms other 4-carbon compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid in the
mesophyll cells itself, which are transported to the bundle sheath cells.
 In the bundle sheath cells these C4 acids are broken down to release CO2 and a 3-
carbon molecule.
 The 3-carbon molecule is transported back to the mesophyll where it is converted to
PEP again, thus, completing the cycle.
 The CO2 released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C3 or the Calvin pathway, a
pathway common to all plants. The bundle sheath cells are rich in an enzyme
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (RuBisCO), but lack PEPcase.
 Thus, the basic pathway that results in the formation of the sugars, the Calvin
pathway, is common to the C3 and C4
 the Calvin pathway occurs in all the mesophyll cells of the C3 plants while in the
C4 plants it does not take place in the mesophyll cells but does so only in the bundle
sheath cells.
PHOTORESPIRATION
 RuBisCO is the most abundant enzyme in the world.
 It is characterised by the fact that its active site can bind to both CO 2 and O2– hence
the name.
 RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO2 than for O2.
 This binding is competitive. It is the relative concentration of O 2 and CO2that
determines which of the two will bind to the enzyme.
 In C3 plants some O2 does bind to RuBisCO, and hence CO2 fixation is decreased.
Here the RuBP instead of being converted to 2 molecules of PGA binds with O 2 to
form one molecule and phosphoglycolate in a pathway called photorespiration.
 In the photorespiratory pathway, there is neither synthesis of sugars, nor of ATP.
Rather it results in the release of CO2 with the utilisation of ATP.
 In the photorespiratory pathway there is no synthesis of ATP or NADPH. Therefore,
photorespiration is a wasteful process.
 In C4 plants photorespiration does not occur. This is because they have a mechanism
that increases the concentration of CO2 at the enzyme site.
 This takes place when the C4 acid from the mesophyll is broken down in the bundle
cells to release CO2 – this results in increasing the intracellular concentration of CO 2.
 In turn, this ensures that the RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase minimising the
oxygenase activity.
 Because of absence of photorespiration in C4 plants, productivity and yields are better
in these plants.
 These plants show tolerance to higher temperatures.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 The rate of photosynthesis is very important in determining the yield of plants
including crop plants.
 Photosynthesis is under the influence of several factors, both internal (plant) and
external.
 The plant factors include the number, size, age and orientation of leaves, mesophyll
cells and chloroplasts, internal CO2 concentration and the amount of chlorophyll. The
plant or internal factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition and the growth of
the plant.
 The external factors include the availability of sunlight, temperature,
CO2concentration and water.
 As a plant photosynthesises, all these factors will simultaneously affect its rate.
Hence, though several factors interact and simultaneously affect photosynthesis or
CO2 fixation, usually one factor is the major cause or is the one that limits the rate.
Hence, at any point the rate will be determined by the factor available at sub-optimal
levels.
 Blackman’s (1905) Law of Limiting Factors – If a chemical process is affected by
more than one factor, then its rate will be determined by the factor which is nearest to
its minimal value: it is the factor which directly affects the process if its quantity is
changed
 For example, despite the presence of a green leaf and optimal light and
CO2conditions, the plant may not photosynthesise if the temperature is very low. This
leaf, if given the optimal temperature, will start photosynthesising
ASSIGNMENT
1. Mention two conditions under which photorespiration may occur in green plants.
2. Why photorespiration is a wasteful process?
3. Differentiate between mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.

Light
 It includes light quality, light intensity and the duration of exposure to light.
 There is a linear relationship between incident light and CO 2 fixation rates at low light
intensities.
 At higher light intensities, gradually the rate does not show further increase as other
factors become limiting.
 Light saturation occurs at 10 per cent of the full sunlight.
 Hence, except for plants in shade or in dense forests, light is rarely a limiting factor in
nature.
 Increase in incident light beyond a point causes the breakdown of chlorophyll and a
decrease in photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide Concentration

 Carbon dioxide is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis.
 The concentration of CO2 is very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 and 0.04 per
cent).
 Increase in concentration upto 0.05 per cent can cause an increase in CO2 fixation
rates; beyond this the levels can become damaging over longer periods.
 The C3 and C4 plants respond differently to CO2 At low light conditions neither group
responds to high Co2 conditions. At high light intensities, both C3 and C4 plants show
increase in the rates of photosynthesis.
 C4 plants show saturation at about 360 µlL -1 while in C3 plants saturation is seen only
beyond 450 µlL-1. Thus, current availability of CO 2 levels is limiting to the C3
 The fact that C3 plants respond to higher CO2 concentration by showing increased
rates of photosynthesis leading to higher productivity has been used for some
greenhouse crops such as tomatoes and bell pepper. They are allowed to grow in
carbon dioxide enriched atmosphere that leads to higher yields.
Temperature
 The dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled.
 Though the light reactions are also temperature sensitive they are affected to a much
lesser extent. The C4 plants respond to higher temperatures and show higher rate of
photosynthesis while C3 plants have a much lower temperature optimum.
 The temperature optimum for photosynthesis of different plants also depends on the
habitat that they are adapted to.
 Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to
temperate climates.
Water
 Even though water is one of the reactants in the light reaction, the effect of water as a
factor is more through its effect on the plant, rather than directly on photosynthesis.
 Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing the CO2 Besides, water stress
also makes leaves wilt, reducing the surface area of the leaves and their metabolic
activity as well.

ASSIGNMENT
1. State the saturation level of CO2 in C3 and C4 plants.
2. How does water stress affect the rate of photosynthesis?
3. What are the internal factors that determine the rate of photosynthesis?
 CHAPTER-14
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
 Various cellular activities in living organisms like absorption, transport, muscle-
contraction, locomotion, nerve-impulse conduction, reproduction, growth,
development, seed germination or breathing require energy.
 All the energy required for 'life' processes in all living organisms comes from the
oxidation of organic molecules.
 Only green plants and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can prepare their own food by
the process of photosynthesis. In green plants, only cells containing chloroplasts carry
out photosynthesis. Even in green plants all other organs, tissues and cells that are
non-green, need food for oxidation.
 Animals obtain their food from plants directly (herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores).
Saprophytes like fungi are dependent on dead and decaying matter for obtaining
energy.
 Cellular respiration is an enzyme controlled process of biological oxidation of food
materials in a living cell, using molecular O2, producing CO2 and H2O and releasing
energy in gradual steps and storing it in biologically useful forms, generally ATP.
 So respiration is catabolic, exothermic and oxidative process.

 Most of the respiration processes occur in mitochondria.

 Respiratory substrates are compounds that are oxidised during the process of
respiration. Usually, carbohydrates are oxidised to release energy but proteins, fats
and even organic acids can be used as respiratory substances in some plants, under
certain conditions.
 Energy trapped in ATP is utilised in various energy requiring processes of organisms,
and the carbon compounds produced during respiration are used as precursors for
biosynthesis of other molecules in the cell.

TYPES OF RESPIRATION
On the basis of the availability of oxygen and the complete or incomplete oxidation of
respiratory substrate, it is of two types :
 Aerobic respiration : When O2 is utilized during the process of respiration it is called
aerobic respiration. In this process, there is complete oxidation of food and entire
carbon is released as CO2 and large amount of energy is released.

+ 686 Kcal energy

 Anaerobic respiration : When there is no utilisation of O2 during respiration, then
food substances are incompletely oxidized and produce alcohol or organic acids and
most of the energy is lost in the form of heat.

2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 21 Kcal

GLYCOLYSIS
 The term glycolysis has originated from the Greek words, glycos for sugar, and lysis
for splitting.
 The scheme of glycolysis was given by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and J.
Parnas, and is often referred to as the EMP pathway.
 In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.
 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is present in all living organisms.
 In this process, glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form two molecules of pyruvic
acid.
 In plants, this glucose is derived from sucrose, which is the end product of
photosynthesis, or from storage
 Sucrose is converted into glucose and fructose by the enzyme, invertase, and these
two monosaccharides readily enter the glycolytic pathway.
 Glucose and fructose are phosphorylated to give rise to glucose-6- phosphate by the
activity of the enzyme hexokinase.
 This phosphorylated form of glucose then isomerises to produce fructose-6-
phosphate. subsequent steps of metabolism of glucose and fructose are same.
 In glycolysis, a chain of ten reactions, under the control of different enzymes, takes
place to produce pyruvate from glucose.
 ATP is utilised at two steps: first in the conversion of glucose into glucose 6-
phosphate and second in the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1, 6-
diphosphate.
 The fructose 1, 6-diphosphate is split into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 3-
phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL).
 We find that there is one step where NADH + H+ is formed from NAD+; this is when
3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) is converted to 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate
(DPGA). Two redox-equivalents are removed (in the form of two hydrogen atoms)
from PGAL and transferred to a molecule of NAD+.
 PGAL is oxidised and with inorganic phosphate to get converted into DPGA. The
conversion of DPGA to 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA), is also an energy yielding
process; this energy is trapped by the formation of ATP.
 Another ATP is synthesised during the conversion of PEP to pyruvic acid.
 Total 4 ATP molecules are directly synthesised in this pathway from one glucose
molecule.
 Pyruvic acid is then the key product of glycolysis.
 The metabolic fate of pyruvate depends on the cellular need. There are three major
ways in which different cells handle pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis. These are
lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation and aerobic respiration.
 Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many prokaryotes and
unicellular eukaryotes.
 For the complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H2O, however, organisms adopt
Krebs’ cycle which is also called as aerobic respiration. This requires O 2
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are respiratory substrates? Name the most common respiratory substrate.
2. What is the function of invertase in plants?
3. Where does glycolysis occur and what does glucose breakdown into, during this
process.

FERMENTATION
 Fermentation is the incomplete oxidation of glucose under anaerobic conditions,
where pyruvic acid is converted to CO2 and ethanol.
 In micro-organisms the term anaerobic respiration is replaced by fermentation which
is known after the name of its major products, e.g. alcohol fermentation, lactic acid
fermentation.
 The enzymes, pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes
fermentation reactions. Other organisms like some bacteria produce lactic acid from
pyruvic acid.
 In animal cells also, like muscles during exercise, when oxygen is inadequate for
cellular respiration, pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase.
  The reducing agent is NADH+H+ which is reoxidized to NAD+ in alcoholic and lactic
acid fermentation.
Different types of fermentation are :
1. Alcoholic fermentation : Buchner discovered the enzyme zymase complex, which is
responsible for alcoholic fermentation. This is the oldest & the best known type of
fermentation performed by yeast & some bacteria.

2. Lactic acid fermentation : It occurs in lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus) and in

muscles during exercise (human). Pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis is reduced by
NADH2 to form lactic acid without producing carbon dioxide.

 In both lactic acid and alcohol fermentation not much energy is released; less than
seven per cent of the energy in glucose is released and not all of it is trapped as high
energy bonds of ATP. Also, the processes are hazardous – either acid or alcohol is
produced.
 Yeasts poison themselves to death when the concentration of alcohol reaches about 13
per cent.
 The maximum concentration of alcohol in beverages that are naturally fermented is
13%.
 Alcoholic beverages of alcohol content greater than this concentration are obtained by
distillation.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The final product of glycolysis, pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the
mitochondria. The crucial events in aerobic respiration are :
 The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the stepwise removal of all the hydrogen
atoms, leaving three molecules of CO2.
 The passing on of the electrons removed as part of the hydrogen atoms to molecular
O2 with simultaneous synthesis of ATP.
 The first process takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria while the second
process is located on the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
 Pyruvate, which is formed by the glycolytic catabolism of carbohydrates in the
cytosol, after it enters mitochondrial matrix undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by a
complex set of reactions catalysed by pyruvic dehydrogenase.
 The reactions catalysed by pyruvic dehydrogenase require the participation of several
coenzymes, including NAD+ and Coenzyme A.

 During this process, two molecules of NADH are produced from the metabolism of
two molecules of pyruvic acid (produced from one glucose molecule during
glycolysis).
  The acetyl CoA then enters a cyclic pathway, tricarboxylic acid cycle, more
commonly called as Krebs’ cycle after the scientist Hans Krebs who first elucidated
it.

TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE

 The TCA cycle starts with the condensation of acetyl group with oxaloacetic acid
(OAA) and water to yield citric acid. The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme citrate
synthase and a molecule of CoA is released.
 Citrate is then isomerised to isocitrate.
 It is followed by two successive steps of decarboxylation, leading to the formation of
a-ketoglutaric acid and then succinyl-CoA.
 In the remaining steps of citric acid cycle, succinyl-CoA is oxidised to OAA allowing
the cycle to continue.
 During the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinic acid a molecule of GTP is
synthesised. This is a substrate level phosphorylation.
 In a coupled reaction GTP is converted to GDP with the simultaneous synthesis of
ATP from ADP.
 Also there are three points in the cycle where NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H + and
one point where FAD+ is reduced to FADH2.
 The continued oxidation of acetic acid via the TCA cycle requires the continued
replenishment of oxaloacetic acid, the first member of the cycle.
 In addition it also requires regeneration of NAD + and FAD+ from NADH and
FADH2 The summary equation for this phase of respiration may be written as
follows:

ASSIGNMENT
1. Differentiate between aerobic respiration and fermentation.
2. What are the two main steps in aerobic respiration? Where does it take place?
3. Represent schematically the pathway of fermentation of lactic acid.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN & OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

 The metabolic pathway through which the electrons passes from one carrier to
another, is called the electron transport system and it is present in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
 The system consists of a series of precisely arranged nine electron carriers
(coenzyme) in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. These nine electron-carriers
function in a specific sequence: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), Flavin
mononucleotide (FMN), Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), Co-enzyme-Q or
ubiquinone, Cytochrome-b, Cytochrome-c1, Cytochrome-c, Cytochrome-a and
Cytochrome-a3.
 Complex I : Consists of flavoproteins of NADH dehydrogenase (FP N).
 Complex II : Consists of flavoproteins of succinic dehydrogenase.
 Between complexes II and III, is the ubiquinone (UQ).
 Complexes III : Consists of cytochrome b and cytochrome c 1.
 Complex IV : Consists of cytochrome a and cytochrome a 3 and bound copper that are
required for this complex reaction to occur.
 The electrons either follow the pathway of complexes I, III and IV or II, III and IV.
 Electrons from NADH produced in the mitochondrial matrix during citric acid cycle
are oxidized by an NADH dehydrogenase (complex I), and electrons are then
transferred to ubiquinone located within the inner membrane.
 Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents via FADH2 generated during the
oxidation of succinate by succinate dehydrogenase (complex II).
 The reduced ubiquinone, called ubiquinol, is then oxidized by transfer of electrons to
cytochrome c, cytochrome bc1 – complex (complex III).
 Cytochrome c acts as a mobile carrier between complex III and complex IV.
 Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochromes a and a 3
and two copper centres.
 When the electrons pass from one carrier to another carrier via complex I to IV in the
electron transport chain, they are coupled to ATP synthase (complex V) for the
formation of ATP from ADP and Pi.
 Oxygen functions as the terminal acceptor of electrons and is reduced to water along
with the hydrogen atoms. It drives the whole process by removing hydrogen from the
system.
 In respiration, energy of oxidation-reduction is utilized for the production of proton
gradient.
 Higher proton concentration in the outer chamber causes the protons to pass inwardly
into the matrix or inner chamber through the inner membrane.
 The energy of the proton gradient is used in attaching a phosphate radicle to ADP by
high energy bond. So the process is called oxidative phosphorylation.
 Oxidation of one molecule of NADH2 produces 3 ATP molecules while a similar
oxidation of FADH2 forms 2 ATP molecules.
  ATP synthase (complex V) helps in ATP synthesis. It consists of two major
components F1 and F0. F1 (head piece) is a peripheral membrane protein complex and
contains the site for ATP synthesis while F0 is an integral membrane protein complex
that forms a channel through which protons cross the inner membrane. For each ATP
produced, 2H+ passes through F0 from the intermembrane space to the matrix down
the electrochemical proton gradient.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Write the equation of respiration inside the mitochondria.
2. What is the role of oxygen in the ETS?
3. Explain the ETS in detail.

RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET

The calculations of net gain of ATP , for every glucose molecule oxidized, is made on certain
assumptions that are as follows :
 There is a sequential, orderly pathway functioning, with one substrate forming the
next with glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway following one after another.
 The NADH synthesized in glycolysis is transferred into the mitochondria and
undergoes oxidative phosphorylation.
 Hence, there can be net gain of 36 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one
molecule of glucose.
But this kind of assumptions are not really valid in a living system; all pathways work
simultaneously and do not take place one after another; substrates enter the pathways and are
withdrawn from it as and when necessary; ATP is utilised as and when needed; enzymatic
rates are controlled by multiple means.
 The respiratory pathway comes into the picture both during breakdown and synthesis
of fatty acids. similarly, during breakdown and synthesis of protein too, respiratory
intermediates form the link.
 Breaking down processes within the living organism is catabolism, and synthesis is
anabolism.
 Because the respiratory pathway is involved in both anabolism and catabolism, it
would hence be better to consider the respiratory pathways an amphibolic pathway
rather than as a catabolic one.
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
 The ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2 consumed in respiration
is called the respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio.

 The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory substrate used during
respiration.
 When carbohydrates are used as substrate and are completelyoxidised, the RQ will be
1, because equal amounts of CO2 and O2 are evolved and consumed, respectively, as
shown in the equation below :

 When fats are used in respiration, the RQ is less than 1. Calculations for a fatty acid,
tripalmitin, if used as a substrate is shown:

 When proteins are respiratory substrates the ratio would be about 0.9.
 In living organisms respiratory substances are often more than one; pure proteins or
fats are never used as respiratory substrates.
ASSIGNMENT
1. On oxidation, which of these releases more energy? Organize them in an ascending
order.
a) 1gm of fat
b) 1gm of protein
c) 1gm of glucose
d) 0.5gm of protein + 0.5gm of glucose
2. Aerobic respiration has more efficiency. Justify.
3. State why the respiratory pathway is referred to as an amphibolic pathway.

CHAPTER-15
PLANT GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

 Plant hormone is a chemical substance which may be translocated to another region,
for regulating one or more physiological reactions when present in low concentration.
 All phytohormones are growth regulators but all growth regulators are not
phytohormones.
 Plant growth regulators are grouped into two categories based on the nature of their
actions
o Plant growth promoters, e.g., auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins.
They promote growth activities like cell division, cell enlargement, flowering,
fruiting and seed formation, etc.
o Plant growth inhibitors, e.g., abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene.
They play an important role in plant response to wounds and stresses of biotic
and abiotic [Link] are involved in growth inhibiting activities such as
dormancy and abscission.
 The gaseous PGR, ethylene, could fit either of the groups, but it is largely an
inhibitor of growth activities.

1. AUXIN
 Charles Darwin and his son Francis Darwin (1880) – observed phototropism in
Canary grass. Darwin found that the light falling on the tip of Canary grass (Phalaris
canariensis) coleoptile from one side causes some influence to be transmitted
downwards due to which the coleoptiles curve towards the light.
 W. Went (1928) – isolated Auxin from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings.

TYPES OF AUXIN
 Natural auxins : These are naturally occurring auxins in plants and therefore are
regarded as phytohormones. Indole 3-acetic acid (IAA) is the best known and
universal auxin. It is found in all plants and fungi.
 Synthetic auxins : These are synthetic compounds which cause various
physiological responses common to IAA. Some of the important synthetic auxins are
 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) is the weedicide, 2, 4, 5-T (2, 4, 5-
trichlorophenoxy acetic acid), IBA (indole 3-butyric acid), NAA (Naphthalene acetic
acid, PAA (Phenyl acetic acid), IPA (Indole 3-propionic acid). IBA is both natural
and synthetic auxin.

FUNCTIONS
 All these auxins have been used extensively in agricultural and horticultural practices.
 They help to initiate rooting in stem cuttings, an application widely used for plant
propagation.
 Auxins promote flowering e.g. in pineapples.
 They help to prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but promote the abscission of
older mature leaves and fruits.
 In most higher plants, the growing apical bud inhibits the growth of the lateral
(axillary) buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance. Removal of shoot tips
(decapitation) usually results in the growth of lateral buds. It is widely applied in tea
plantations, hedge-making.
 Auxins also induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes.
 They are widely used as herbicides. 2, 4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds,
does not affect mature monocotyledonous plants.
 It is used to prepare weed-free lawns by gardeners.
 Auxin also controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are Plant growth regulators?
2. What are the functions of Auxins in plant growth?
3. Name any two natural & synthetic auxins.

GIBBERELLINS
 In Japan, farmers observed peculiar symptoms in rice seedlings (highly tall, thin,
yellowish, weak) and called it the bakanae disease (foolish seedling disease) of rice
seedlings.

 Yabuta and Sumiki 1938 were first to extract a crystalline substance from the
Gibberella fungus, which they named as Gibberellin.
 GA found in all group of plants (algae to angiosperms) but as a flowering hormone
acts only in angiosperms.
 There are more than 100 gibberellins reported from widely different organisms such
as fungi and higher plants. They are denoted as GA1, GA2, GA3 and so on.
 However, Gibberellic acid (GA3) was one of the first gibberellins to be discovered
and remains the most intensively studied form.
 All GAs are acidic.
 They have ability to cause an increase in length of axis. It is used to increase the
length of grapes stalks.
 Gibberellins, cause fruits like apple to elongate and improve its shape.
  They also delay senescence. Thus, the fruits can be left on the tree longer so as to
extend the market period.
 GA3 is used to speed up the malting process in brewing industry.
 Sugarcane stores carbohydrate as sugar in their stems. Spraying sugarcane crop with
gibberellins increases the length of the stem, thus increasing the yield by as much as
20 tonnes per acre.
 Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens the maturity period, thus leading to early
seed production.
 Gibberellins also promotes bolting (internode elongation just prior to flowering) in
beet, cabbages and many plants with rosette habit.

CYTOKININS
 Cytokinin was discovered by Miller when he was working in the lab. of Prof. Skoog
on tobacco pith culture. He added the contents of an old DNA-bottle (Herring fish
sperm DNA) to the culture medium & observed that the tobacco pith callus could
grow for a longer period.
 Miller isolated an active substance from autoclaved Herring sperm DNA, which
stimulated cell division. He named this substance as kinetin.
 The first natural cytokinin was identified and crystallized from immature corn grains
by Letham and named as zeatin.
 The most common cytokinin in plants are zeatin and isopentenyl adenine.
 Cytokinin is a derivative of adenine base.
 Kinetin does not occur naturally in plants.
 Search for natural substances with cytokinin-like activities led to the isolation of
zeatin from corn-kernels and coconut milk.
 Since the discovery of zeatin, several naturally occurring cytokinins, and some
synthetic compounds with cell division promoting activity, have been identified.
 Natural cytokinins are synthesised in regions where rapid cell division occurs, for
example, root apices, developing shoot buds, young fruits etc.
 It helps to produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and
adventitious shoot formation.
 Cytokinins help overcome the apical dominance.
 They promote nutrient mobilisation which helps in the delay of leaf senescence.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name a non-acidic growth substance.
2. Where in plants are the below hormones manufactured?
a) IAA
b) Gibberellins
c) Cytokinins
3. What is bolting? Which hormone is responsible for it?

ETHYLENE
 Cousins confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened oranges that
hastened the ripening of stored unripened bananas. Later, this volatile substance was
identified as ethylene, a gaseous plant growth regulator.
 Biosynthesis of ethylene takes place by methionine amino acid. Ethylene is
synthesized in large quantities by ripening fruits and senescent organs.
 Ethylene is also formed in roots in waterlogged condition.
  Ethylene is a simple gaseous PGR.
 It is synthesised in large amounts by tissues undergoing senescence and ripening
fruits.
 Influences of ethylene on plants include horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of
the axis and apical hook formation in dicot seedlings.
 Ethylene promotes senescence and abscission of plant organs especially of leaves and
flowers.
 Ethylene is highly effective in fruit ripening.
 It enhances the respiration rate during ripening of the fruits. This rise in rate of
respiration is called respiratory climactic.
 Ethylene breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination in peanut seeds,
sprouting of potato tubers.
 Ethylene promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants.
 It helps leaves/ upper parts of the shoot to remain above water.
 Ethylene also promotes root growth and root hair formation, thus helping the plants to
increase their absorption surface.
 Ethylene is used to initiate flowering and for synchronising fruit-set in pineapples.
 It also induces flowering in mango.
 Since ethylene regulates so many physiological processes, it is one of the most widely
used PGR in agriculture.
 The most widely used compound as source of ethylene is ethephon.
 Ethephon in an aqueous solution is readily absorbed and transported within the plant
and releases ethylene slowly.
 Ethephon hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples and accelerates abscission in
flowers and fruits (thinning of cotton, cherry, walnut).
 It promotes female flowers in cucumbers thereby increasing the yield.

ABSCISIC ACID
 Abscisic acid (ABA) was discovered for its role in regulating abscission and
dormancy.
 It acts as a general plant growth inhibitor and an inhibitor of plant metabolism.
 ABA inhibits seed germination.
 ABA stimulates the closure of stomata in the epidermis and increases the tolerance of
plants to various kinds of stresses. Therefore, it is also called the stress hormone.
 ABA plays an important role in seed development, maturation and dormancy.
 By inducing dormancy, ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation and other factors
unfavourable for growth.
 In most situations, ABA acts as an antagonist to GAs.
  There are a number of events in the life of a plant where more than one PGR interact
to affect that event, e.g., dormancy in seeds/ buds, abscission, senescence, apical
dominance, etc.
 The role of PGR is of only one kind of intrinsic control. Along with genomic control
and extrinsic factors, they play an important role in plant growth and development.
 Many of the extrinsic factors such as temperature and light, control plant growth and
development via PGR.
 Some of such events could be: vernalisation, flowering, dormancy, seed germination,
plant movements, etc.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Why is Abscisic acid also known as stress hormone?
2. What is meant by abscission ? Name the phytohormone involved in it.
3. A farmer grows cucumber plants in his field. He wants to increase the number of
female flowers in them. Which can plant growth regulator be applied to achieve this?
 CHAPTER-17
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

 Respiration is the involuntary catabolic process which involves exchange of

environmental oxygen and body's carbon dioxide. The oxygen is utilized for the
oxidation of glucose in the mitochondria to produce energy.
 The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells is
called breathing, commonly known as respiration.
Respiratory Organs
 Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange O 2 with
CO2 by simple diffusion over their entire body surface.
 Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes (tracheal
tubes) to transport atmospheric air within the body.
 Special vascularised structures called gills are used by most of the aquatic arthropods
and molluscs whereas vascularised bags called lungs are used by the terrestrial forms
for the exchange of gases.
 Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas reptiles, birds and mammals respire
through lungs.
 Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin also.
 Mammals have a well-developed respiratory system.

Human Respiratory System

 Respiratory system is endodermal in origin.
 Respiratory system is composed of conducting portion and a respiratory portion.
 The conducting portion provides a passage way for air and functions to condition the
incoming air by warming, moistening and cleaning it. It consists of nasopharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles.
 The respiratory portion consisting of bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
serves to get rid the body of CO2 and pick up oxygen.
 A pair of external nostrils leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage.
 The nasal chamber opens into nasopharynx which is a portion of pharynx, the
common passage for food and air.
 Nasopharynx opens through glottis of the larynx region into the trachea.
 Larynx is composed of cartilages, ligaments, muscles and a mucosal surface. It helps
in sound production and hence called the sound box.
 It prevents indigested solids and liquids from entering the respiratory system.
 Larynx is also called Adam's apple in human males.
  During swallowing, glottis can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called
epiglottis to prevent the entry of food into the larynx.
 Trachea windpipe is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity, which
divides at the level of 5th thoracic vertebra into a right and left primary bronchi.
 Trachea carries air between the larynx and bronchi and is supported by incomplete
rings of C-shaped cartilage in its wall.
 The rings of cartilage makes the wall non-collapsible.
 Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the secondary and tertiary bronchi
and bronchioles ending up in very thin terminal bronchioles.
 Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin, irregular walled and
vascularised bag-like structures called alveoli.
 Alveoli (made of simple squamous cells) provides a huge surface area for gaseous
exchange.
 Alveoli is surrounded by a network of capillaries of the pulmonary artery and veins.
 Air enters into the lung in this way -
 Inhaled air Mouth/Nose, or nasal chamber Larynx
Glottis Trachea Right and left bronchi Bronchioles
Alveoli
 Number of alveoli is 300-400 million with a surface area of 100 sq.m.
 The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs.
 Lung is the primary respiratory organ.
 Lungs are covered by a double layered pleura, with pleural fluid between them. It
reduces friction on the lung surface. The outer pleural membrane (visceral pleural
membrane) is in close contact with the thoracic lining whereas the inner pleural
membrane (parietal pleural membrane) is in contact with the lung surface.
 The right lung is divided into three lobes and the left lung into two lobes.
 The left lung is smaller than the right lung.
 The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the
thoracic cavity will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity. Such an arrangement
is essential for breathing, as we cannot directly alter the pulmonary volume.
 Diaphragm is a highly muscular and fibrous dome shaped muscle.
 The lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically an air-tight
chamber.
 The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the vertebral column, ventrally by the
sternum, laterally by the ribs and on the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm.
 The anatomical setup of lungs in thorax is such that any change in the volume of the
thoracic cavity will be reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity. Such an arrangement
is essential for breathing, as we cannot directly alter the pulmonary volume.
 Respiration involves the following steps:
o Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and
CO2 rich alveolar air is released out.
o Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
o Transport of gases by the blood.
o Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
o Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of
CO2 (cellular respiration)
ASSIGNMENT
1. Write the name and important function of the fluid-filled double membranous layer
surrounding the lungs.
2. Write the organs of respiration in the entities given below:
a) Flatworm
b) Frog
c) Birds
d) Cockroach
3. Write the steps of respiration process.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING
 Breathing involves two phases : inspiration (during which atmospheric air is drawn
in) and expiration (by which the alveolar air is released out).
 The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a pressure
gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.
 Inspiration can occur if the pressure within the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure) is less
than the atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is a negative pressure in the lungs with
respect to atmospheric pressure. Similarly, expiration takes place when the
intrapulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
 Respiration is carried out with the help of intercostal muscles and diaphragm.
Intercostal muscles, between each pair of ribs, are of two types- external and internal.
 Inspiration is an active process and involves internal intercostal muscles and
diaphragm.
 During inspiration, contraction of diaphragm increases the volume of thoracic
chamber in the antero-posterior axis. The contraction of external intercostal muscles
lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an increase in the volume of the thoracic
chamber in the dorso-ventral axis. The overall increase in the thoracic volume causes
a similar increase in pulmonary volume. An increase in pulmonary volume decreases
the intrapulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure which forces the air
from outside to move into the lungs, i.e., inspiration.
 Expiration is a passive process and caused due to muscle relaxation.
 Relaxation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles returns the diaphragm and
sternum to their normal positions and reduce the thoracic volume and thereby the
pulmonary volume. This leads to an increase in intrapulmonary pressure to slightly
above the atmospheric pressure causing the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e.,
expiration.

 Inspiration is for about 2 seconds and expiration for 3 seconds.

  Dead space encloses the air not involved in gaseous exchange as it is enclosed in the
respiratory passage such as nasal chamber. It reduces the amount of fresh air that
enters the lungs.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES
Respiratory (Pulmonary) volume is the volume of air in the lungs.
It is of the following types –
 Tidal Volume (TV) : It is the volume of air inspired or expired during a normal
respiration. It is approx. 500 ml., i.e., a healthy man can inspire or expire
approximately 6000 to 8000 ml of air per minute.
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) : The maximum volume of air, a person can
inspire by a forcible inspiration over and above the tidal volume. This averages 2500
ml to 3000 ml.
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) : It is the additional volume of air, a person can
expire by a forcible expiration. This averages 1000 ml to 1100 ml.
 Residual Volume (RV) : The volume of air left in the lungs even after a maximum
forcible expiration. This averages 1100 ml to 1200 ml.
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
Pulmonary capacities is the combination of two or more pulmonary volumes.
It could be -
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC) : It is the total volume of air a person can inspire after a
normal expiration. It includes tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume (
TV+IRV). It is about 3500 ml.
 Expiratory Capacity (EC) : Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal
inspiration. This includes tidal volume and expiratory reserve volume (TV+ERV).
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) : It is the total volume of air that will remain in
the lungs after a normal expiration. This includes ERV+RV. It is about 2300 ml.
 Vital Capacity (VC) : It is the maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a
forced expiration. This includes ERV, TV and IRV or the maximum volume of air a
person can breathe out after a forced inspiration. It is about 4600 ml.
 Total Lung Capacity : It is the total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the
end of a forced inspiration. This includes RV, ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity +
residual volume of air. It is about 5800 ml.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
 Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.
 The exchange of gases between the alveoli and blood in lungs and between the blood
and tissue is the result of differences in partial pressure of the respiratory gases i.e.,
oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen etc.
 O2 and CO2 are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion mainly based on
pressure/concentration gradient.
 Solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of the membranes involved in diffusion
can affect the rate of diffusion.
 A concentration gradient is present for oxygen from the alveoli to blood and blood to
tissues. Similarly, direction, i.e., from tissues to blood and blood to alveoli is for
CO2. As the solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that of O2, the amount of
CO2 that can diffuse through the diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial
pressure is much higher compared to that of O2.
 The diffusion membrane is made up of three major layers, the thin squamous
epithelium of alveoli, the endothelium of alveolar capillaries and the basement
substance in between them.
  All the factors in our body are favourable for diffusion of O 2 from alveoli to tissues
and that of CO2 from tissues to alveoli.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define vital capacity. What is its significance?
2. Explain why the diffusion of carbon dioxide by the diffusion membrane per unit
difference in partial pressure is much greater compared to oxygen.
3. Differentiate between inspiration and expiration.

Transport of Gases
Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2.
Transport of Oxygen
 Oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways -
o by mixing with haemoglobin (97%) as oxyhaemoglobin.
o by dissolving in plasma (3%).
 Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in the RBCs.
 Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of O 2 and can
bind with 4 molecules of O2 and hence it is called as oxyhaemoglobin.

 Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to partial pressure of O 2.

 Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion concentration and temperature are the other
factors which can interfere with this binding.
  A sigmoid curve is obtained when percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2 is
plotted against the pO2. This curve is called the oxygen dissociation curve and is
highly useful in studying the effect of factors like pCO2, H+ concentration, etc., on
binding of O2 with haemoglobin. The percentage of haemoglobin that is bound with
oxygen is called percent saturation of haemoglobin.
 In the alveoli, where there is high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H+ concentration and lower
temperature, the factors are all favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin,
whereas in the tissues, where low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ concentration and higher
temperature exists, the conditions are favourable for dissociation of oxygen from the
oxyhaemoglobin. This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung
surface and gets dissociated at the tissues.
 Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O 2 to the tissues under
normal physiological conditions.

ASSIGNMENT
1. State the different modes of O2 transport in blood.
2. What is the effect of pCO2 on oxygen transport?

Transport of carbon dioxide

 Transport of CO2 by blood is much easier than that of oxygen due to high solubility
of CO2 in water (about 20 times that of O2)
 Carbon dioxide is transported in blood in three ways–
o 7% dissolved in plasma (as carbonic acid)
o 23% bound to haemoglobin (as carbamino-haemoglobin)
o 70% as bicarbonate in the plasma following an enzyme catalyzed reaction in
red blood cell.
 RBCs contain a very high concentration of the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase and
minute quantities of the same is present in the plasma too. This enzyme facilitates the
following reaction in both directions.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3–+H+

 At the tissue site, where partial pressure of pCO 2 is high due to catabolism, CO2
diffuses into blood (RBCs and plasma) and forms HCO3– and H+.
 At the alveolar site where pCO2 is low, the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction
leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
  CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level and transported to the alveoli is released
out as CO2.
 Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO 2 to the
alveoli.
Regulation of respiration
 Breathing can be controlled by central nervous system.
 Respiratory centres are located in medulla oblongata and pons varolii. These centres
regulate the rate and depth of breathing by controlling contraction of diaphragm and
other respiratory muscles.
 Medulla oblongata contains inspiratory centre in dorsal portion and expiratory centre
in the ventral portion.
 Pons varollii contains pneumotaxic and apneustic centre.
 Pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre.
Neural signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter
the respiratory rate. Apneustic centre operates in association with the depth of the
inspiration.
 A chemosensitive area situated near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO 2 and
hydrogen ions. Increase in these substances can activate this centre, which in turn can
signal the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments in the respiratory process by
which these substances can be eliminated.
 Receptors associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also can recognise changes in
CO2 and H+ concentration and send necessary signals to the rhythm centre for
remedial actions.
 The role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is chloride shift? Explain.
2. How is respiration regulated?
3. What is the role of carbonic anhydrase in CO2 transport?

Disorders of Respiratory System

 Asthma is an allergic reaction that causes constriction of the bronchial muscles,
thereby reducing the air passage thus, the amount of air that can get to the alveoli.
 Emphysema is a situation of short breath in which alveolar walls are damaged due to
which respiratory surface is decreased. It is often caused by cigarette smoking.
 Occupational respiratory disorders : In certain industries, especially those
involving grinding or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that the defense
mechanism of the body cannot fully cope with the situation. Long exposure can give
rise to inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus,
causing serious lung damage.
 Hypoxia is a condition of oxygen shortage in the tissues. It is of two types :
o Artificial hypoxia : It results from shortage of oxygen in the air at high (over
2400 m) altitudes. It causes mountain sickness characterized by
breathlessness, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, mental fatigue and
bluish tinge on the skin and mucous membranes.
o Anaemic hypoxia : It results from the reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood due to anaemia (decreased haemoglobin content in blood) or carbon
monoxide poisoning (some haemoglobin occupied by CO). In both cases, less
haemoglobin is available for carrying oxygen.
 CHAPTER-18
BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

 Transport of nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and excretory waste products to the
concerned tissues/organs.
 Body fluid is any fluid found within animals, including blood, lymph, tissue fluid,
urine, bile etc.
 Simple organisms like sponges and coelenterates circulate water from their
surroundings through their body cavities to facilitate the cells to exchange these
substances.
 More complex organisms use special fluids within their bodies to transport such
materials like Blood and lymph (tissue fluid).
 System which transport materials like nutrients, gases, hormones etc. to the various
parts of the body and remove waste materials from the body cells is known as
circulatory system.
 Types of circulatory system are – open and closed circulatory system.

BLOOD
Blood is a mesodermal origin special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma,
and formed elements.

Plasma
 Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood.
 90-92 per cent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 per cent of it.
 Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the major proteins
 Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.
 Globulins involved in defense mechanisms of the body and the albumins help in
osmotic balance.
 Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca ++, Mg++, HCO3, Cl–, etc.
 Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma as they are always in
transit in the body.
 Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in the plasma in an
inactive form.
 Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
Formed Elements
 Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements and
they constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood.

ERYTHROCYTES OR RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC)

 Most abundant of all the cells in blood.
 Count – (In a healthy adult man) 5 – 5.5 millions of RBCs mm-3 of blood.
 Formed in – Red bone marrow in the adults.
 Nucleus – absent in most of the mammals
 Shape – biconcave
 Haemoglobin – red coloured, iron containing complex protein. hence the colour and
name of cells.
 Haemoglobin count – 12-16 gms of haemoglobin in every 100 ml of blood. These
molecules play a significant role in transport of respiratory gases.
 Average life span – 120 days.
 Destroyed in – spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

LEUCOCYTES OR WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC)

 Colourless due to the lack of haemoglobin.
 Nucleus – present
 Count (TLC – total leucocyte count) – 6000-8000 mm-3of blood.
 Leucocytes are generally short lived.
 We have two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes.
 Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while
lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the two types of the circulatory system?
2. Where are RBCs formed from in an adult human?
3. What it is the name of the straw coloured fluid left after clotting of blood? How is it
different from blood?

 Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of granulocytes, while

lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.
 Neutrophils – most abundant cells (60-65 per cent), phagocytic.
 Basophils – least abundant (0.5-1 per cent), secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin, etc.,
and are involved in inflammatory reactions.
 Monocytes – (6-8 per cent), phagocytic cells.
 Eosinophils – (2-3 per cent), resist infections and are also associated with allergic
reactions.
 Lymphocytes – (20-25 per cent) are of two major types – ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms. Both B
and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune responses of the body.

PLATELETS OR THROMBOCYTES
 Cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow).
 Count – 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets mm-3 of blood.
 Role – release a variety of substances most of which are involved in the coagulation
or clotting of blood.
  A reduction in their number can lead to clotting disorders which will lead to excessive
loss of blood from the body.

Coagulation of Blood
 It is the clotting of blood at the site of injury to prevent haemorrhage from damaged
blood vessels.
 A clot formed mainly of a network of threads called fibrins in which dead and
damaged formed elements of blood are trapped.
 Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the
enzyme thrombin. Thrombins, in turn are formed from another inactive substance
present in the plasma called prothrombin. An enzyme complex, thrombokinase, is
required for the above reaction.
 This complex is formed by a series of linked enzymic reactions (cascade process)
involving a number of factors present in the plasma in an inactive state.
 An injury or trauma stimulates platelets in the blood to release certain factors which
activate the mechanism of coagulation.
 Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.
 The time taken for normal blood clotting varies from 4-10 minutes.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What happens if the blood does not coagulate?
2. Why are thrombocytes necessary for blood coagulation?
3. Differentiate between granulocytes and agranulocytes.
BLOOD GROUPS
 Various types of grouping of blood has been done.
 Two such groupings – the ABO and Rh – are widely used all over the world.
ABO GROUPING
 ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals
that can induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B.
 Similarly, the plasma of different individuals contain two natural antibodies (proteins
produced in response to antigens).
 During blood transfusion, any blood cannot be used; the blood of a donor has to be
carefully matched with the blood of a recipient before any blood transfusion to avoid
severe problems of clumping (destruction of RBC).
 The distribution of antigens and antibodies in the four groups of blood, A, B, AB and
O are :

 Group 'O' blood can be donated to persons with any other blood group and hence 'O'
group individuals are called 'universal donors'.
 Persons with 'AB' group can accept blood from persons with AB as well as the other
groups of blood. Therefore, such persons are called 'universal recipients'.

RH GROUPING

 There are several other proteins in the blood that may bring about agglutination under
certain conditions. The most important of these is Rh factor.
 The Rhesus (Rh) system was discovered by Landsteiner and Weiner in 1940.
 Antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh) is
observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans. Such
individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent
are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
 An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the
Rh antigens. Therefore, Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.

Erythroblastosis foetalis –
 A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching) observed between the Rh-ve
blood of a pregnant mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
 Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in the
first pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by the placenta.
 However, during the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of exposure of the
maternal blood to small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus.
 In such cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh in her blood.
  in case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-ve) can
leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs.
 This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the
baby.
 This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
 This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately
after the delivery of the first child.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Why blood group ‘O’ is called universal donor?
2. What physiological circumstances lead to erythroblastosis foetalis? How can this
condition be prevented?

BLOOD VESSELS
 Blood vessels are intricate network of tubes that transport blood throughout the body.
Blood vessels are made up of three layers – tunica externa (outermost), tunica
media (middle) and tunica interna (innermost).
 The blood vessels are of following types: arteries, veins and capillaries.

ARTERIES
 Arteries are thick walled, carrying oxygenated blood (deoxygenated in pulmonary
artery) from the heart to various parts of the body.
 These blood vessels are grouped as aorta which branches to form arteries which
further divides into thinner branches called arterioles inside the organ.
 The largest artery is dorsal / abdominal aorta (systemic aorta).
VEINS
 These are thin walled, carrying deoxygenated blood (oxygenated in pulmonary vein)
from tissues to the heart.
 Venules, smallest branches, unite to form veins which in turn unite to form vena cava.
 The largest vein is inferior vena cava

ARETERIES VEINS
These are vessels containing blood These are vessels containing blood
flowing away from the heart. flowing towards heart.
In these blood flows under great Blood flows under less pressure.
pressure.
Their walls are elastic, thick and Walls are thin, non-elastic, fibrous
muscular.
They are non-collapsible Collapsible.
Their cavity is small. Cavity is large.
Valves are not present in them. Valves present.

CAPILLARIES
 These are the thin, single celled and smallest blood vessels.
 These are also called as exchange vessels as these are the site of exchange of material
between blood and tissue.

HEARTS OF VERTEBRATES
 All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered heart.
  Fishes have a 2-chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle. The heart is called
venous heart since it pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills for oxygenation. This
blood goes directly from gills to visceral organs (single circuit circulation).
 Amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart with two
atria and a single ventricle, whereas crocodiles, birds and mammals possess a 4-
chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles.
 In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
gills/lungs/skin and the right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood from other body
parts. However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed
blood (incomplete double circulation).
 In birds and mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, received by the left
and right atria respectively passes on to the ventricles of the same sides. The
ventricles pump it out without any mixing up, i.e., two separate circulatory pathways
are present in these organisms, hence, these animals have double circulation.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Differentiate between arteries and veins.
2. Why does the fish heart pump only deoxygenated blood?

HEART
 Heart, the mesodermally derived organ, is situated in the thoracic cavity, in between
the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left.
 It has the size of a clenched fist.
 It is enclosed in double walled membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the
pericardial fluid.

CHAMBERS OF HEART
 Heart has four chambers, with two anterior auricles and two posterior ventricles.
 The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, inferior
vena cava and coronary sinus. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from two
lungs through four pulmonary veins.
  A thin, muscular wall (called the interatrial septum) separates the right and left atria,
whereas a thick-walled, (the interventricular septum) separates the left and the right
ventricles.
 The walls of the ventricles are much thicker than that of the atria. Left ventricle is
thicker than the right ventricle because it has to push blood to all body parts at a much
greater pressure.
 The atrium and ventricle of the same side are also separated by a thick fibrous tissue
called the atrio-ventricular septum. However, each of these septa are provided with
an opening through which the two chambers of the same side are connected.

HEART VALVES
 The values of heart maintain unidirectional flow of blood and prevent its regurgitation
in the opposite direction.
 Each valve has a set of cusps or flaps.
 The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood in only one direction, i.e., from the
atria to the ventricles and from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery or aorta. These
valves prevent any backward flow.
 Types of valves are - tricuspid, bicuspid, semilunar valve, etc.
 The opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle is guarded by a valve
formed of three muscular flaps or cusps, the tricuspid valve, whereas a bicuspid or
mitral valve guards the opening between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
 The bicuspid valve is also called as Mitral valve .
 Strong fibrous strings connecting bicuspid and tricuspid valves are known as chordae
tendineae.
 The openings of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and the
aorta respectively are provided with the semilunar valves. These allow the passage of
blood from the ventricles to respective blood vessels, but prevent the return of blood.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the four chambers of the human heart has the thickest muscular wall?
2. Distinguish between mitral and tricuspid value?
3. Describe the structure of human heart.

CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF THE HEART

 A specialised cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is also distributed in the
heart. A patch of this tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right atrium
called the sino-atrial node (SAN). Another mass of this tissue is seen in the lower
left corner of the right atrium close to the atrio-ventricular septum called the atrio-
ventricular node (AVN).
 A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) continues from the
AVN which passes through the atrio-ventricular septa to emerge on the top of the
interventricular septum and immediately divides it into a right and left bundle.
 Purkinje branches give rise to minute fibres throughout the ventricular musculature
of the respective sides and are called purkinje fibres. Purkinje fibres along with right
and left bundles are known as bundle of HIS.
 The nodal musculature has the ability to generate action potentials without any
external stimuli, i.e., it is auto-excitable. However, the number of action potentials
that could be generated in a minute vary at different parts of the nodal system.
  The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75 min–1,
and is responsible for initiating and maintaining the rhythmic contractile activity of
the heart. Therefore, it is called the pacemaker.

CARDIAC CYCLE
1. Joint Diastole
 To begin with, all the four chambers of heart are in a relaxed state, i.e., they are in
joint diastole.
 As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, blood from the pulmonary veins and
vena cava flows into the left and the right ventricle respectively through the left and
right atria. The semilunar valves are closed at this stage.

2. Atrial Systole
 The SAN now generates an action potential which stimulates both the atria to undergo
a simultaneous contraction – the atrial systole. This increases the flow of blood into
the ventricles by about 30 per cent.

3. Ventricular Systole
 The action potential is conducted to the ventricular side by the AVN and AV bundle
from where the bundle of HIS transmits it through the entire ventricular musculature.
 This causes the ventricular muscles to contract, (ventricular systole), the atria undergo
relaxation (diastole), coinciding with the ventricular systole.
 Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of tricuspid
and bicuspid valves due to attempted backflow of blood into the atria.
 As the ventricular pressure increases further, the semilunar valves guarding the
pulmonary artery (right side) and the aorta (left side) are forced open, allowing the
blood in the ventricles to flow through these vessels into the circulatory pathways.
 The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) and the ventricular pressure falls
causing the closure of semilunar valves which prevents the backflow of blood into the
ventricles.
 As the ventricular pressure declines further, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are
pushed open by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood which was being
emptied into them by the veins. The blood now once again moves freely to the
ventricles.
 The ventricles and atria are now again in a relaxed (joint diastole) state, as earlier.
Soon the SAN generates a new action potential and the events described above are
repeated in that sequence and the process continues.
 This sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the cardiac
cycle and it consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and ventricles.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Why is SA node called pace-maker of the heart?
2. How are the two heart sounds produced during cardiac cycle?
3. What are the constituents of the conducting system of human heart?

 The heart beats 72 times per minute, i.e., that many cardiac cycles are performed per
minute.
 From this it could be deduced that the duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
 During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood
which is called the stroke volume.
  The stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate (no. of beats per min.) gives the
cardiac output.
 Therefore, the cardiac output can be defined as the volume of blood pumped out by
each ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy individual.
 The body has the ability to alter the stroke volume as well as the heart rate and
thereby the cardiac output. For example, the cardiac output of an athlete will be much
higher than that of an ordinary man.
 During each cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are produced which can be easily
heard through a stethoscope.
 The first heart sound (lub) is associated with the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid
valves whereas the second heart sound (dub) is associated with the closure of the
semilunar valves. These sounds are of clinical diagnostic significance.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)
 ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a
cardiac cycle.
 To obtain a standard ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical
leads (one to each wrist and to the left ankle) that continuously monitor the heart
activity.
 For a detailed evaluation of the heart’s function, multiple leads are attached to the
chest region.

 Normal ECG is composed of P-wave, QRS wave (complex) and T-wave.

 The P-wave (a small upward wave) represents the electrical excitation (or
depolarisation) of the atria, which leads to the contraction of both atria. It is caused by
activation of SA node.
 QRS wave begins as a small downward deflection (R) and continues as a large
upright (R) and triangular wave ending as downward wave (S) at its base. The QRS
complex represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular
contraction. The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of the
systole.
 The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state
(repolarisation). The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.
 Heart beat rate of an individual can be determined by counting the number of QRS
complexes that occur in a given time period.
 Since the ECGs obtained from different individuals have roughly the same shape for
a given lead configuration, any deviation from this shape indicates a possible
abnormality or disease. Hence, it is of a great clinical significance.
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
 The blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery, whereas the left
ventricle pumps blood into the aorta.
 The deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery is passed on to the lungs
from where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left
atrium. This pathway constitutes the pulmonary circulation.
 The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of arteries, arterioles
and capillaries to the tissues from where the deoxygenated blood is collected by a
system of venules, veins and vena cava and emptied into the right atrium. This is the
systemic circulation.
 The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O 2 and other essential substances to the
tissues and takes CO2 and other harmful substances away for elimination.
 A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and liver called
hepatic portal system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to the liver
before it is delivered to the systemic circulation.
 A special coronary system of blood vessels is present in our body exclusively for the
circulation of blood to and from the cardiac musculature.

REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY

 Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by
specialised muscles (nodal tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic.
 A special neural centre in the medulla oblongata can moderate the cardiac function
through autonomic nervous system (ANS).
 Neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of
heart beat, the strength of ventricular contraction and thereby the cardiac output.
 On the other hand, parasympathetic neural signals (another component of ANS)
decrease the rate of heart beat, speed of conduction of action potential and thereby the
cardiac output.
 Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output.

ASSIGNMENT
1. A cardiologist observed an enlarged QRS wave in the ECU of a patient. What does it
indicate?
2. Write a note on “Regulation of cardiac activity”?
3. What is stroke volume? What is its relation will cardiac output ?
DISORDERS OF HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) is the term for blood pressure that is higher
than normal (120/80). In this, measurement of 120mm Hg (millimetres of mercury
pressure) is the systolic, or pumping pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or
resting pressure. If repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual is 140/90 (140
over 90) or higher, it shows hypertension.
 Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) often referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the
vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle. It is caused by deposits of calcium, fat,
cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes the lumen of arteries narrower.
 Angina is also called 'angina pectoris'. A symptom of acute chest pain appears when
not enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle. Angina can occur in men and women
of any age but it is more common among the middle-aged and elderly. It occurs due to
conditions that affect the blood flow.
 Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively
enough to meet the needs of the body. It is sometimes called congestive heart failure
because congestion of the lungs is one of the main symptoms of this disease. Heart
failure is not the same as cardiac arrest (when the heart stops beating) or a heart
attack (when the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate blood supply).
 Ischaemia is inadequate flow of blood to a part of the heart caused by obstruction to
its blood supply.
 Dextrocardia : Human heart gets displaced to the right side of the chest.
 CHAPTER-19
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

 Removal of waste products from the body is called excretion.

 Waste products are synthesized in the cells due to metabolic activity.
 Excretion is an essential process in all forms of life. In one celled organisms, waste
are discharged through the surface of the cell. The higher plants eliminate gases
through the stomata or pores present on the leaf surface. Multicellular animals have
special excretory organs.
 Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous wastes excreted by
the animals.
 Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires a large amount of water for its
elimination, whereas uric acid, being the least toxic, can be removed with a minimum
loss of water.
 On the basis of main excretory products, animals can be divided into 3 groups –
ammonotelic, ureotelic and uricotelic.

Types of Nitrogenous Excretion

(i) Ammonotelism
 Ammonia is the most toxic form of nitrogenous waste, it requires large amount of
water for its elimination.
 The organism that excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic and this , process to
eliminate ammonia is known as ammonotelism.
 Examples of ammonotelic animals are Many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and
aquatic insects.
 Ammonia, as it is readily soluble, is generally excreted by diffusion across body
surfaces or through gill surfaces (in fish) as ammonium ions.
 Kidneys does not play any significant role in its removal.
(ii) Ureotelism
 The process of excreting urea is called ureotelism.
 Animals, which does not live in high abundance of ‘water convert ammonia produced
in the body into urea (in the liver) and release into the blood, which is filtered and
excreted out by the kidneys.
 Examples of ureotelic animals are Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine
fishes.
(iii) Uricotelism
 The process of excreting uric acid is called uricotelism. Uric acid, being the least
toxic nitrogenous waste can be removed with a minimum loss of water from the
animal body.
 Thus, it is excreted in the form of pellet or paste (i.e., semi-solid form). Normally, the
animals which live in desert exhibit uricotelism.
 Examples of uricotelic animals are Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 The tissues and organs associated with the removal of waste products (called
excretion) constitute the excretory system. Some of these structures constitute the
urinary system which is involved in the synthesis, separation and elimination of
mainly nitrogenous waste products and other mineral salts.
  Excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary
bladder and a urethra.

Kidneys
These are reddish brown, bean-shaped structures situated between the levels of last thoracic
and third lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity.
 Position of Kidneys
The kidneys are located below the diaphragm on the left and right sides. The right
kidney is lower and smaller than the left kidney because the liver takes up much space
of the right side.
 Each kidney of an adult human measures. 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3
cm in thickness with an average weight of 120-170 gm (i.e., 150 gm in males and
about 135 gm in females).
Structure of Kidney
 The outer surface of each kidney is convex and inner surface is concave, where it has
a notch called hilum, through, which the supply of blood occurs, i.e., renal artery and
renal vein, pass in and out of the kidneys along with the ureter and the nerve supply of
kidney.
 Inside the kidney, the ureter is expanded as a funnel-shaped cavity called pelvis.
 The free end of pelvis has number of cup-like cavities called calyces (sing, calyx)
major and minor.
 Medulla projects into the calyces as conical processes, called renal pyramids or
medullary pyramids.
 The tip of pyramids are called renal papillae. The cortex spreads in between
medullary pyramids as renal columns called columns of Bertini.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the excretory product of reptiles from the kidneys.
2. Which gland in the prawns performs excretory functions?
3. Define ammonotelism with suitable example.

Structure of Nephron
Each nephron consists of two parts, i.e., the Malpighian body or renal corpuscle and the renal
tubule.

i. Malpighian Body or Renal Corpuscle

Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule is called the Malpighian body or renal corpuscle
Glomerulus It is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole (a fine branch of renal
artery).
The afferent arteriole is short and wide that supplies blood to the glomerulus, while, the
efferent arteriole is narrow and long carrying blood away from the glomerulus.

Bowman’s Capsule (Glomerular capsule) It is a double walled cup-like structure that

surrounds the glomerulus.
The epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule called podocytes are arranged in an intricate
manner so as to leave some minute spaces called filtration slits or slit pores.
ii. Renal Tubule
 The tubule consists of three parts - proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), a hairpin (U)
shaped Henle's loop (which has a descending and an ascending limb) and distal
convoluted tubule (DCT).
 The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight tube called collecting duct, many of
which converge and open into the renal pelvis through the medullary pyramids in the
calyces.
 The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the nephron are situated in the cortical
region of the kidney whereas the loop of Henle dips into the medulla.
  The efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus forms a fine capillary network
around the renal tubule called the peritubular capillaries. A minute vessel of this
network runs parallel to the Henle's loop forming a 'U' shaped vasa recta. Vasa recta
is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.

Types of Nephrons
Based on the location in the kidney, nephrons are of following two types
1. Cortical Nephrons
In majority of nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and extends only very little into the
medulla i.e., lie in the renal cortex. Such nephrons are called cortical nephrons.
2. Juxtamedullary Nephrons
In some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is very long and runs deep into the medulla. These
nephrons are called juxtamedullary nephrons.
The cortical nephron forms about 80% of the total nephron count while rest 20% are the
juxtamedullary nephron.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Describe the structure of a renal corpuscle.
2. In which part of nephron filtration takes place?
3. What are podocytes?

URINE FORMATION
1. Glomerular Filtration
 The first step of urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by the
glomerulus. That’s why this step is called glomerular filtration.
 Kidneys filter about 1100-1200 mL of blood per minute, which constitute roughly
l/5th of the blood pumped out by each ventricle of the heart in a minute.
The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through three
layers, i.e.,
(i) the endothelium of glomerular blood vessels.
(ii) the epithelium of Bowmans capsule.
(iii) a basement membrane (present between the above mentioned two layers).
 The podocytes (epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule) are arranged in such a manner
so, as to leave some minute spaces called filtration slits or slit pores.
  On account of the high pressure in the glomerular capillaries, the substances are
filtered through these pores into the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule (but the RBC,
WBC and plasma proteins having high molecular weight are unable to pass out).
 That’s why this process of filtration through glomerular capillaries in the Bowman’s
capsule is known as ultra filtration and the filtrate is called glomerular filtrate or
primary urine.
 Glomerular Filtration Rate The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per
minute is called Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR). In a healthy person it was found
approximately 125 mL/min, i.e., 180 L/day.
2. Selective Reabsorption
 This is the second step in the formation of urine from filtrate. The urine released is 1.5
L as compared to the volume of the filtrate formed per day (180 L).
 It suggests that as much as 99% of the material in the filtrate is reabsorbed by the
renal tubules. Thus, the process is called reabsorption.
 Depending upon the types of molecules being reabsorbed, movements into and out of
epithelial cells in different segments of nephron occur either by passive transport or
active transport.
These are described as follows
(i) Water and urea, are reabsorbed by passive transport (i.e., water is reabsorbed by
osmosis and urea by simple diffusion).
(ii) Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport.
(iii) The reabsorption of Na+, occurs both by passive and active transport.
3. Tubular Secretion
 It is also an important step in urine formation.
 Certain chemicals in the blood that are not removed by filtration from the
glomerular capillaries are removed by this process of tubular secretion.
 It helps in the maintenance of ionic and acid-base balance of body fluids by
removing chemicals like foreign bodies, ions (K+, H+, NH–) and molecules
(medicines), etc., that are toxic at elevated levels.

Functions of the Tubules

When the glomerular filtrate/primary urine passes through renal tubule, water and different
materials of filtrate reabsorb at various places.
These are given below in the following manner
i. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
 The epithelial cells of the PCT have numerous microvilli (simple cuboidal brush-
border epithelium) which increase the surface area available for reabsorption.
 The process of reabsorption mostly (65%) takes place within PCT (i.e., nearly all of
the essential nutrients, 70-80% of electrolytes and water). PCT also helps in the
absorption of HCO– from the filtrate.
 Selective secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions takes place here to
maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids. The filtrate is considered
isotonic to blood plasma.
ii. Henle’s Loop
 Reabsorption in Henle’s loop is minimum, besides it, this plays an important role
in maintaining the high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. Two portions of
Henle’s loop, play different role in osmoregulation such as
a. Descending Limb of Loop of Henle
Water is reabsorbed here due to increasing osmolarity of interstitial fluid but,
 sodium and other electrolytes are not reabsorbed here. This concentrates the
filtrate as it moves down.
b. Ascending Limb of Loop of Henle
This segment is impermeable to water but permeable to K+,Cl– and Na+ and
partially permeable to urea. Thus, in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle
Na+, K+, Mg2+and Cl– are reabsorbed.
Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due to the
passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid.
iii. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
 Active reabsorption of sodium ions from the filtrate. Water is also reabsorbed
here.
 With associated secretion of potassium (K+), hydrogen (H+) ions, NH–, some
Cl– (chloride) ions and HCO– are also reabsorbed here. It is necessary to maintain
the pH and sodium-potassium balance in blood. This makes the filtrate isotonic to
blood plasma.
iv. Collecting Duct
 This duct extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the
medulla and is highly permeable to water.
 Thus, a considerable amount of water is reabsorbed here to produce
concentrated filtrate.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What difference is observed in the ascending and descending limb of Henle’s loop
witch reference to permeability of water?
2. Define GFR
3. Describe the mechanism of urine formation.

Counter Current Mechanism

 Kidney of higher vertebrates (such as mammals, birds including man) has the ability
of absorbing more and more water from tubular filtrate (in the Henle’s loop region) to
make the urine more concentrated.
  This can be achieved by a special mechanism known as counter current mechanism
and also known as urine concentration mechanism.
(i) Henles loop and vasa recta (capillary loop) play an important role in this
mechanism. The flow of filtrate in the limbs of Henle’s loop is in opposite directions
and thus, forms a counter current. The flow of blood with in the two limbs of vasa
recta also occur in the counter current pattern.
(ii) The osmolarity (i.e., number of Osmols of solute per litre) of renal cortical
interstitium is the same (300 m Osmol/ L) as in other tissues.
 The gradient of increasing hyperosmolarity of medullary interstitium is maintained by
a counter current mechanism and the proximity between the Henle’s loop and vasa
recta.
 This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea. The transport of these substances is
facilitated by the special arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa recta.
 NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop, which is exchanged with
the descending limb of vasa recta.
 NaCl is returned to the medullary interstitium by the ascending part of vasa recta.
Permeability to urea is found only in the deeper parts of thin ascending limb of
Henle’s loops and collecting ducts.
 Urea diffuses out of the collecting ducts and enters into the thin ascending limb. A
certain amount of urea recycled in this way is trapped in medullary interstitium by the
collecting tubule.
 The counter current mechanism helps in the maintenance of a concentration gradient
in the medullary interstitium.
 Presence of such gradient helps in an easy passage of water from the collecting tubule
resulting in the formation of concentrated urine (filtrate), i.e., nearly four times
concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.

Micturition
 Urine is produced and drained continuously by the nephron into the renal pelvis from
here, it is carried down to the ureters and then into the urinary bladder.
 The bladder serves to store the urine temporarily till a voluntary signal is given by the
Central Nervous System (CNS). As urine collects, the muscular walls of the bladder
distend to accommodate it. .
  The stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder set up reflexes (send signals to the
(CNS) by stimulating the sensory nerve ending in the bladder). It causes an urge to
pass out urine.
 The act of expulsion of urine involves the coordinated contraction (as CNS passes on
motor messages) of the smooth muscle of the bladder wall and simultaneous
relaxation of the internal and external urethral sphincters.
 The process of release of urine is called micturition and the neural mechanism causing
it is called the micturition reflex.
 The urine is a light yellow coloured watery fluid which is slightly acidic (pH-6.0) and
has a characteristic odour. The yellow colour of the urine is caused by the pigment
urochrome which is a breakdown product of haemoglobin from worn out RBC's.
 On an average, 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.
 The urine on standing gives a pungent smell. It is due to conversion of urea into
ammonia by bacteria (hence alkaline).
 Presence of glucose (glycosuria) and ketone bodies (ketonuria) in urine are
indicative of diabetes mellitus.
Role of Other Organs in Excretion
Other than the kidneys, there are some accessory excretory organs also that help in the
elimination of excretory wastes.
These are described as follows
1. Lungs
Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products formed in respiration. Lungs remove the
CO2 and some water as vapour in the expired air. About 18 L of CO 2 per hour and 400 mL of
water per day are eliminated by human lungs.
2. Liver
It changes the decomposed haemoglobin of the worn-out red blood corpuscles into bile
pigments, i.e., bilirubin and biliverdin. These pigments passes into the alimentary canal with
the bile for elimination in the faeces. The liver also excretes cholesterol, steroid hormones,
certain vitamins and drugs via bile.
3. Skin
The sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin can eliminate certain substances through their
secretions.
(i) Sweat Glands The secretion of sweat glands (sweat) is an aqueous fluid containing NaCl,
lactic acid, small amounts of urea, amino acids and glucose. Control of sweat lost is an
example of homeostasis control, for regulating the body temperature (i.e., to facilitate a
cooling effect on the body surface).
(ii) Sebaceous Glands Sebum from sebaceous glands eliminates sterols, fatty acids, waxes
and hydrocarbons. This secretion is mainly meant for protective oily covering of the skin.
4. Salivary Glands
Heavy metals and drugs are excreted in the saliva.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Besides water, name any two constituents of human sweat.
2. State the function of vasa recta.
3. Name two metabolic disorders which can be diagnosed by the analysis of urine.
4. Explain briefly how micturition is a reflex process

Regulation of Kidney Functions

 The hypothalamus, JGA and to a certain extent, the heart regulate the functioning of
the kidneys by hormonal feedback mechanisms.
1. Regulation by ADH
 Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood volume, body fluid
volume and ionic concentration.
 An excessive loss of fluid from the body can activate these receptors which stimulate
the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from the
neurohypophysis.
 ADH increases water reabsorption by the distal tubule and collecting tubule, thereby
preventing diuresis. An increase in body fluid volume can switch off the
osmoreceptors and suppress the ADH release to complete the feedback.
 ADH can also affect the kidney function by its constrictory effects on blood vessels.
This causes an increase in blood pressure. An increase in blood pressure can increase
the glomerular blood flow and thereby the GFR.
2. Regulation by JGA
 The JGA plays a complex regulatory role in renin-angiotensin mechanisms. A fall in
glomerular blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to
release renin.
 Renin converts angiotensinogen in blood to Angiotensin I and Angiotensin II (active
form).
Angiotensin II
(a) Raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels (being a powerful vasoconstrictor)
and thereby, GFR.
(b) Activates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone.
(c) Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal parts of the tubule. This
also leads to an increase in blood pressure and GFR.
3. Regulation by ANF
 An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the release of Atrial
Natriuretic Factor (ANF). ANF can cause vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and
thereby decrease the blood pressure.
 ANF mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism.

Disorders of the Excretory System

Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to several disorders of the excretory system.
Some of these are as follows
(i) Uremia- It is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in the blood. Urea is highly
harmful as it poisons the cells at high concentration and may lead to kidney failure.
(ii) Kidney Failure (renal failure)- Partial or total inability of kidneys to carry on excretory
and salt-water regulatory functions is called renal or kidney failure.
(iii) Renal Calculi -It is the formation of stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts
(calcium, magnesium, phosphates and oxalates etc.), formed within the kidney.
(iv) Glomerulonephritis- It is the inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
Artificial kidney (haemodialyser) is a machine that is used to filter the blood (to remove urea
and other nitrogenous wastes) of a person, whose kidneys are damaged.
The process is called haemodialysis.

The outline details of apparatus and the process are as follow

(i) It works on the principle of dialysis (i.e., diffusion of small solute molecules through a
semipermeable membrane (cellophane).
(ii) Blood of the patient is pumped from one of the arteries into the dialysing unit
(haemodialyser) after mixing with an anticoagulant (heparin).
(iii) Haemodialyser is a cellophane tube suspended in a dialysing fluid (salt-water solution) of
the same composition as that of plasma except the nitrogenous wastes (urea).
(iv) Pores of the cellophane tube allow the passage of molecules based on concentration
gradient. Nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid, creatinine, excess salts and excess H+ ions
easily get diffuse from the blood into the surrounding solution. Thus, the blood is cleared of
nitrogenous waste products without losing plasma proteins.
(v) The blood thus, purified, is mixed with an anti-heparin to restore its normal clotting
power and then pumped back to the body of patient through a vein.

Kidney Transplantation
 Grafting a kidney from a compatible donor to restore kidney functions in a recipient
suffering from kidney failure is called renal or kidney transplantation. It is an ultimate
method in the correction of acute renal failures.
 A living donor can be used in a kidney transplant. It may be an identical twin, a
sibling or a close relative to minimize the chances of rejection by the immune system
of the host.
 To prevent the rejection of transplanted kidney, special drugs are also used, which
suppress the recipients immune system.
ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the two intrinsic mechanisms that provide auto regulation of glomerular
filtrate? Explain any one of these.
2. How is the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting tubule
controlled for regulating the water content inside the body?
3. What happens in glomerulonephritis?
 CHAPTER-20
LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

 Locomotion is the ability to move in a particular direction in its environment, which

requires a propulsive force acting against a supporting structure.
 It is the movement of an animal as a whole from one place to another. These are
voluntary movements that results in change of place or location.
 It requires a perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and neural system.
Locomotion takes several forms such as walking, running, flying, swimming, etc.

Advantages of Locomotion
 It helps the animal in search of food, shelter, mate, to escape from enemies/predators,
to locate suitable areas for breeding or to disperse to new locations.
 Methods of locomotion in animals vary with their habitats and the demand of
situation.

 Movement is defined as any visible change of position, exhibited either by the whole
organism or any part of the body. It is one of the important characteristics of living
organisms.

Locomotion v/s Movement

 It is very difficult to separate movement from locomotion because an animal cannot
change its place (locomotion) without movement.
 Cilia helps in movement of food inside cytopharynx and in locomotion in
Paramecium.
 Tentacles in Hydra are used for capturing prey and in locomotion.
 Limbs are used for change of body postures as well as for locomotion in humans.
 This suggests that movements and locomotion are interlinked thus, stating that all
locomotion are movements but all . movements are not locomotion.

TYPES OF MUSCLES
 Muscle is a specialized tissue of mesodermal origin.
 About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
They have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
 Based on their structure, location and function, three types of muscles are skeletal,
visceral and cardiac.
 Skeletal muscles are mostly attached to the skeleton and control motor movements
and posture.
 Skeletal muscles exhibit transverse stripes and hence are designated as striated
muscles.
 Visceral or smooth muscles are non-striated and involuntary muscles. These are
found inside the wall of the hollow internal organs (e.g., alimentary canal, blood
vessels, reproductive tract).
 Cardiac muscles are also striated and are not under voluntary control. These occur
exclusively in the wall of the heart.
 In man, total no. of muscles are 656.
SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Each organised skeletal muscle is made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles
held together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer called fascia.
 Muscle is composed of large number of elongated cells called muscle fibre.
 The outermost covering of muscle is called epimysium.
 Each bundle of muscle fibre, called fasciculus, is surrounded by another connective
tissue covering called perimysium.
 Inside fasciculus, there are several muscle fibres, each surrounded by connective
tissue covering called endomysium.
 Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing the
sarcoplasm.
 Muscle fibre is a syncytium as the sarcoplasm contains many nuclei. The
endoplasmic reticulum, i.e., sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres is the store
house of calcium ions.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Why do skeletal muscle show striation ?
2. What are the three types of muscle tissue? Write two characteristic points about the
structure of each of them?

STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

 A characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of

parallelly arranged filaments in the sarcoplasm called myofilaments or myofibrils as
a contractile element.
 Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it.
 The light bands contain actin and is called I-band or isotropic band, whereas the
dark band called ‘A’ or anisotropic band and contains myosin. Both the proteins
are arranged as rod-like structures, parallel to each other and also to the longitudinal
axis of the myofibrils.
 Actin filaments are thinner as compared to the myosin filaments, hence are commonly
called thin and thick filaments respectively.
 In the centre of each ‘I’ band is an elastic fibre called ‘Z’ line which bisects it. The
thin filaments are firmly attached to the ‘Z’ line. The thick filaments in the ‘A’ band
are also held together in the middle of this band by a thin fibrous membrane called
‘M’ line.
 The ‘A’ and ‘I’ bands are arranged alternately throughout the length of the myofibrils.
 The portion of the myofibril between two successive ‘Z’ lines is considered as the
functional unit of contraction and is called a sarcomere. Hence, sarcomere are the
contractile units of myofibrils.
 In a resting state, the edges of thin filaments on either side of the thick filaments
partially overlap on free ends of the thick filaments leaving the central part of the
thick filaments. This central part of thick filament, not overlapped by thin filaments is
called the ‘H’band or H-zone.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
 The muscle fibres are composed of 20% protein, 75% water and remaining 5% is
composed of inorganic and organic matter.
 The thick myofilaments are formed by myosin protein. The thin myofilaments are
formed by three types of proteins called actin, tropomyosin and troponin. These four
proteins are collectively known as contractile proteins.

Thick Myofilament or Primary Myofilament

 It consists mainly of myosin protein. Each myosin filament is a polymerised protein,
made up of many monomeric proteins called meromyosins.
 Each meromyosin has two important parts as follows:
Globular Head
 It has a short arm, called heavy meromyosin (HMM).
 The HMM components projects outwards at regular distance and angle from each
other, from surface of a polymerised myosin filament and known as cross arm.
 The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme, which has binding sites for ATP and
active sites for actin.
Tail
 Tail is called the light meromyosin (LMM). The light chains are the parts of the
myosin heads and help control the function of head during the contraction of muscle.


Thin Myofilament or Secondary Myofilament

 It is composed of following proteins Actin

 It is a globular protein with low molecular weight. It is made up of two ‘F’
(filamentous) actin helically wound to each other. Each F actin is a polymer of
monomeric ‘G’ (globular) actins.

Tropomyosin
Two filaments of. this protein run close to the ‘F’ actions throughout its length.

Troponin
 It is a complex protein of three globular peptides distributed at regular intervals on
tropomyosin.
 In the resting stage of muscle fibre, a subunit of troponin masks the active sites for
myosin on the actin filaments.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define a sarcomere.
2. Differentiate between actin and myosin filaments.
3. Represent diagrammatically a sarcomere and label its parts.

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
 The contraction of muscle is best explained by the sliding filament theory. It states
that contraction of muscles takes place by the sliding of thin and thick filaments that
past over each other with the help of cross-bridge to reduce the length of the
sarcomere.
 This theory was proposed independently by AF Huxley and HE Huxley in England in
1954.
 The sequence of events leading to contraction is initiated by a signal in the Central
Nervous System (CNS) via a motor neuron.
 A motor neuron along with the muscle fibres connected to it, forms a motor unit and
the action potential is conveyed to a motor end plate (or neuromuscular junction) i.e.,
 the junction between a motor neuron and sarcolemma of muscle fibre) on each muscle
fibre.
 A neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) is released at the junction by the neural signal
which generates an action potential in the sarcolemma. This spreads and causes the
release of calcium ions into sarcoplasm.
 Calcium plays a key regulatory role in muscle contraction. Increase in calcium ions
level leads to their binding to troponin subunit. Thus, exposing the active sites on F-
actin molecules.
Formation of Cross-Bridge
 An ATP molecule joins the active site on myosin head of myosin myofilament.
 These heads contains an enzyme, myosin ATPase that along with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions
catalyses the breakdown of ATP.
 The energy is transferred to myosin head, which energises and straightens to join an
active site on actin myofilament, forming a cross bridge.
 The energised cross-bridges move, causing the attached actin filaments to move
towards the centre of A-band.
 The Z-line is also pulled inwards causing shortening of sarcomere, i.e„ contraction. It
is clear from the above explanation that during contraction A-bands retain the length,
while I-bands get reduced.
 The myosin head releases ADP and Pi, relaxes to its low energy state.
 The head detaches from actin myofilaments when new ATP joins it (cross-bridge
broken).
 In repeating cycle, the free head cleaves the new ATP. The cycles of cross bridge
formation and breakage is repeated causing further sliding.
Muscle Relaxation
After contraction the calcium ions are pumped back to the , sarcoplasmic cisternae, blocking
the active sites on actin myofilaments. The Z-line returns to original position, i.e., relaxation.

Based upon the sarcoplasmic contents, situation of nuclei and number of formed
elements, two types of fibres are recognised in striated muscle – white & red fibre.

Differences between Red and White Muscle Fibres

ASSIGNMENT
1. What is the function of myoglobin?
2. What causes fatigue of muscle fibres?
3. Explain the initiation of muscle contraction. What is the role of sarcoplasmic
reticulum, Myosin head and F– actin during contraction in striated muscles?
 CHAPTER-21
NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

 Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and
complement the functions of one another.

 In our body, the neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and
integrate all the activities of the organs so that they function in a synchronised
fashion.

Neuron (Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System)

 Neurons are the longest cells in the body. Human neural system has about 100 billion
neurons. Majority of the neurons occur in the brain. Fully formed neurons never
divide and remain in interphase throughout life.
 A neuron has three parts- cell body, dendrites and axon. The term neurites is used for
both dendrites and axon.
1. Cell Body (Cyton or Soma)
 Like a typical cell it consists of cytoplasm, nucleus and cell membrane. The
cytoplasm has typical cell organelles like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, rough
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes, certain granular bodies and Nissl’s
granules.
2. Dendrites (Dendrons)
 Dendrites are usually shorter, tapering and much branched processes that project out
of the cell body. They also contain Nissl’s granules and may be one to several in
number.
 They conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body and are called afferent processes
(receiving processes).
3. Axon

 Axon is a single, usually very long process of uniform thickness.

 The part of cyton from where the axon arises is called axon hillock (most sensitive
part of neuron).
 The axon does not have Nissl’s granules, cell organelles and granular bodies. The
axon ends (distal end) in a group of branches, the terminal arborization (axon
terminals).
 When terminal of the axon meet the dendrites of another neuron to form a synapse,
each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called synaptic knobs, which possess
mitochondria and secretory vesicles (containing chemicals called neurotransmitters).
 The axons transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body to a synapse or to a
neuromuscular junction.
There are two types of axon
a. Myelinated
 In myelinated nerve fibres Schwann cells form myelin sheath around the axon. The
gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier.
 Myelinated nerve fibres are found in cranial and spinal nerves.
b. Non-myelinated
 In non-myelinated nerve fibres Schwann cell does not form myelin sheath around the
axon and are without nodes of Ranvier.
 They are commonly found in autonomous and somatic neural systems.

Types of Neurons on the Basis of Structure

Based on the number of axon and dendrites, the neurons are divided into three types
(i) Multipolar neurons These neurons have several dendrites and an axon. They are found in
cerebral cortex.
(ii) Bipolar neurons These neurons have one dendrite and one axon. They are present in the
retina of eye.
(iii) Unipolar neurons These neurons have cell body with one axon only. These are found
usually in the embryonic stage.

Main Properties of Neural Tissue

The neural tissue has two outstanding properties
(a) Excitability- It is the ability of nerve cells to generate an electrical impulse in response to
a stimulus by altering the normal potential difference across their plasma membrane.
(b) Conductivity- It is the ability of nerve cells to rapidly transmit the electrical impulse as a
wave from the site of its origin along their length in a particular direction.

Functions of Neural System

The nervous system serves the following important functions
(i) Control and coordination Nervous system controls and coordinates the working of all parts
of the body so that it functions as an integrated unit.
(ii) Memory Nervous system stores the impressions of previous stimuli and retrieves (recalls)
these impressions in future. These impressions are referred to as the experiences or memory.
(iii) Homeostasis Nervous system helps in the maintenance of the body’s internal
environment, i.e., homeostasis.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Arrange the following in the accurate order of their association in electrical impulse
movement – Synaptic knob, Axon terminal, Axon, dendrites, Cell body.
2. Describe the structure of a neuron.
3. Differentiate between unipolar and multipolar neuron.

Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse

 Nerve impulse is a wave of bioelectric/electrochemical disturbance that passes along a

neuron during conduction of an excitation.
 Neurons are excitable cells because their membranes are in a polarized state. Different
types of ion channels are present on the neural membrane. These ion channels are
selectively permeable to different ions.

The generation of a nerve impulse is the temporary reversal of the resting potential in the
neuron.
It occurs in following three steps
Polarisation (Resting Potential)
In a resting nerve fibre (a nerve fibre that is not conducting an impulse), the axoplasm
(neuroplasm of axon) inside the axon contains high concentration of K+ and negatively
charged proteins and low concentration of Na+.
(i) In contrast, the fluid outside axon contains a low concentration of K+ and a high
concentration of Na+ and thus form a concentration gradient.
(ii) These ionic gradients across the resting membrane are maintained by the active transport
of ions by the sodium-potassium pump, which transports 3Na+ out wards and 2K+ inwards
(into the cell).
(iii) As a result, the outer surface of the axonal membrane possesses a positive charge, while
its inner surface becomes negatively charged and therefore, is polarised.
(iv) The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma membrane is called as the
resting potential. The state of the resting membrane is called polarised state.
Depolarisation (Action Potential)
When a stimulus of adequate strength (threshold stimulus) is applied to a polarised
membrane, the permeability of the membrane to Na+ ions is greatly increased at the point of
stimulation (site A).
(i) This leads to a rapid influx of Na+ followed by the reversal of the polarity at that site, i.e.,
the outer surface of the membrane becomes negatively charged and the inner side becomes
positively charged. The polarity of the membrane at the site A is thus, reversed and said to be
depolarised.
(ii) The electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane at the site A is called the
action potential, another name of nerve impulse.
(iii) At adjacent sites, e.g., site B, the membrane (axon) has positive charge (still polarised)
on the outer surface and a negative charge on its inner surface.
(iv) The stimulated negatively charged point on the outside of the membrane sends out an
electrical current to the positive point next to it. As a result, a current flows on the outer
surface from site B to site A, while on the inner surface current flows from site A to site B.
This process (reversal) repeats itself over and over again and a nerve impulse is conducted
through the length of the neuron.

Re-polarization
(i) The rise in the stimulus-induced permeability to Na+ is extremely short-lived. It is quickly
followed by a rise in permeability to K+.
(ii) Within a fraction of a second, Na+ influx stops and K+ outflow begins until the original
resting state of ionic concentration is achieved. Thus, resting potential is restored at the site of
excitation, which is called repolarisation of the membrane. This makes the fibre once more
responsive to further stimulation.
(iii) In fact until repolarisation occurs neuron cannot conduct another impulse. The time taken
for this restoration is called refractory period.

ASSIGNMENT
1. What happens when the membrane of a nerve cell opens a sodium-potassium pump?
2. What are the events that take place at the point of stimulation of axon?
* When an impulse travels along a myelinated neuron, depolarisation occurs only at the
nodes of Ranvier. It leaps over the myelin sheath from one node to the next. This process, is
called saltatory conduction.
* This process accounts for the greater speed of an impulse travelling along a myelinated
neuron than along a non-myelinated one. It is up to 20-50 times faster than the non-
myelinated nerve fibre.
A nerve impulses is transmitted from one neuron to another through junctions called
synapses. It is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron and a post-synaptic neuron.

There are mainly two types of synapses

Electrical Synapses
(i) The membranes of pre and post-synaptic neurons are in very close proximity (i.e., in
continuity). The continuity is provided by the gap junction (small protein tubular structures)
between the two neurons.
(ii) In electrical synapse, there is minimal synaptic delay because of the direct flow of
electrical current from one neuron into the other across these synapses.
Thus, impulse transmission across an electrical synapses is always faster than that across a
chemical synapse. In such synapses, transmission of impulse is very similar to impulse
conduction along a single axon.
(iii) Electrical synapses are rarely found in our system. It is found in cardiac muscle fibres,
smooth muscle fibres of intestine and the epithelial cells of lens.
Chemical Synapses
The membranes of pre and post-synaptic neurons are separated by a fluid-filled space called
synaptic cleft.
A brief description of the mechanism of synaptic transmission is given below
(i) When an impulse (action potential) arrives at a pre-synaptic knob, calcium ions from the
synaptic cleft enter the cytoplasm of the pre-synaptic knob.
(it) The calcium ions cause the movement of the synaptic vesicles to the surface of the knob.
The synaptic vesicles are fused with the pre-synaptic (plasma membrane and get ruptured
(exocytosis) to discharge their contents (neurotransmitter) into the synaptic cleft.
(iii) The neurotransmitter of the synaptic cleft binds with specific protein receptor molecules,
present on the post-synaptic membrane.
(iv) This binding action changes the membrane potential of the post-synaptic membrane,
opening channels in the membrane and sodium ions to enter the cell. This causes the
depolarisation and generation of action potential in the post-synaptic membrane. Thus, the
impulse is transferred to the next neuron.
(v) The new potential developed may be either excitatory or inhibitory.
Human Nervous System
Whole nervous system of human being is derived from embryonic ectoderm.
The human neural system can be categorised to
(a) Central Nervous System (CNS)
(b) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the bundle of fibres that connect two cerebral hemisphere in human being.
2. Where are synaptic vesicles found? Name their chemical contents? What is the
function of these contents?
3. What is saltatory conduction?

HUMAN BRAIN
It is situated in cranial box of skull which is made up of 8 bones. The weight of the brain of
an adult man is 1400 gm and of female is 1250 gm.

Protective Coverings of the Brain

It is covered by three membranes or meninges (cranial meninges)
(i) The outermost membrane, the dura mater is the tough fibrous membrane adhering close to
the inner side of the skull.
(ii) The middle very thin layer called arachnoid membrane (arachnoid mater).
(iii) The innermost membrane, the piamater is thin, very delicate, which is in contact with the
brain tissue.
CEREBROSPINAL-FLUID (CSF)
 Cerebrospinal fluid is present in ventricle of brain, sub-arachnoid space of brain &
spinal cord.
Functions of CSF
 It acts as a shock absorbing medium and work as a cushion for protection of brain.
 It provides buoyancy to the brain, so net weight of the brain is reduced from about 1.4
kg to about 0.18 kg.
 Excretion of waste products.
 Endocrine medium for the brain to transport hormones to different areas of the brain
The human brain is divisible into three parts
(i) Forebrain (ii) Midbrain (iii) Hindbrain

(1) FOREBRAIN
The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
(a) Cerebrum
 It is the first and most developed part of the brain. It makes 2/3 part of total brain.
 Cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres on the dorsal surface. Many ridges
and grooves are found on the dorsal surface of cerebral hemisphere. Ridges are
known as gyri while grooves are called sulci.
 Both the cerebral hemispheres are partially connected with each other by curved thick
nerve fibres is called the corpus callosum.
 The layers of cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is called the cerebral cortex
and is thrown into prominent folds. It is referred to as the grey matter due to its
greyish appearance. Inner to it is cerebral medulla of white matter. Grey matter is
made of cell bodies while white matter is formed of myelinated nerve fibres.
 The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas and large regions that are
neither clearly sensory nor motor function. These region called as the association
areas which are responsible for complex functions like intersensory associations,
memory and communication.
 Sensory areas receive impulses from the receptors and motor areas transmit impulses
to the effectors.
 Association areas are large regions that are neither clearly sensory nor motor in
junction. They interpret the input, store the input and initiate a response in light of
similar past experience. Thus, these areas are responsible for complex functions like
memory, learning, reasoning and other intersensory associations.
(b) Diencephalon
 The cerebrum, wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is a major
coordinating centre for sensory and motor signalling.
 The hypothalamus, that lies at the base of thalamus contains a number of centres,
which control body temperature, urge for eating and drinking.
 It also contains several groups of neurosecretory cells, which secrete hormones called
hypothalamic hormones.
 The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a group of associated deep structures like
amygdala, hippocampus, etc., form a complex structure (limbic lobe or limbic system)
that are involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour,expression of emotional
reactions, e.g„ excitement, pleasure, rage and fear and motivation.
(2) MIDBRAIN
 The midbrain is located between the thalamus hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons
of the hindbrain.
 A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passes through, the midbrain.
 The dorsal portion of the midbrain mainly consists of two pairs (i.e., four) of rounded
swellings (lobes) called corpora quadrigemina.

(3) HINDBRAIN
 The hindbrain consists of
(a) Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain.
(b) Cerebellum is the second largest part of the human brain (means litde cerebrum).
It has very
convoluted surface in order to provide the additional space for many more neurons.
(c) Medulla (oblongata) is connected to the spinal cord and contains centres, which
control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.
 Midbrain and hindbrain form the brain stem. It is the posterior part of the brain that
continues with the spinal cord.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the band of nerve fibres that joins the two cerebral hemisphere in mammals.
2. To which part of the brain communication and memory arc associated?
2. Where does cerebrospinal fluid occur in our body? Mention two if its function.

Spinal Cord
(i) It forms the posterior part of the CNS, running mid-dorsally in the neural canal of the
vertebral column. In an adult, the spinal cord is about 42-45 cm long. Its diameter varies at
different levels.
(ii) The spinal cord is formed of two types of nervous tissue, i.e., grey matter and white
matter.
(iii) The grey matter is surrounded by white matter, which consists of groups of myelinated
axons.
(iv) The spinal nerve tracts are divisible into two, ascending (conducting sensory impulses
towards brain) and descending (conducting motor impulses from brain).
(v) Spinal cord conducts impulses to and from the brain and controls most of the reflex
activities and provides a means of communication between spinal nerves and the brain.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

  All the nerves arising from the brain and spinal cord are included in peripheral
nervous system.
 Nerves arising from the brain are called cranial nerves, and nerves coming out of the
spinal cord are called spinal nerves.
 The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types :
o Afferent fibres : These transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the central
nervous system (CNS).
o Efferent fibres : These transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the
concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is divided into 3 divisions –
o Somatic nervous system (SoNS) or Voluntary nervous system
o Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
o Visceral nervous system (VNS)

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles. The
SoNS consists of efferent nerves responsible for stimulating muscle contraction, including all
the non-sensory neurons connected with skeletal muscles and skin.
It consists of three parts :
 Cranial nerves
 Spinal nerves
 Association Nerves

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The autonomic nervous system is that part of the peripheral nervous system which
controls activities inside the body that are normally involuntary, such as heartbeat, gut
peristalsis, sweating etc.
 There are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system the sympathetic (SNS)
nervous system and parasympathetic (PNS) nervous system.
 Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each
other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than
antagonistic. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick
responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require
immediate reaction. Consider sympathetic as "fight or flight" and parasympathetic as
"rest and digest" or "feed and breed".

VISCERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Visceral nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that comprises the whole
complex of nerves, fibers, ganglia and plexuses by which impulses travel from the central
nervous system to the viscera and from the viscera to the central nervous system.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Differentiate between CNS and PNS.
2. State the role of afferent nerves and spinal nerves.
3. Describe the structure of spinal cord.
 CHAPTER-22
CHEMICAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

 Endocrine system comprises of endocrine glands and their hormones.

 Animals have three types of glands – exocrine, endocrine and heterocrine.
 Exocrine glands have ducts for discharging their secretions. Therefore, they are
called as duct glands. E.g., liver, sweat gland, sebaceous gland, gastric glands and
some intestinal glands.
 Heterocrine glands consist of both exocrine and endocrine tissue. The exocrine
discharge its secretion by a duct and the endocrine tissue discharges its secretion into
the blood. Pancreas and gonads are heterocrine glands. These are also called mixed
glands.
 Endocrinology is the study of endocrine glands, hormones & endocrine system.
 Father of endocrinology was Thomas Addison.
 The endocrine glands are ductless glands, i.e., lack ducts. They pour their secretion
into the surrounding blood for transport to the site of action or distantly located target
organ. Their secretions are called hormones or internal secretion.
 The glands, which have ducts for discharging their secretions onto the body surfaces
or into the cavities in the body are called exocrine glands, e.g., Liver, salivary glands,
etc.
Hormones
 These are non-nutrient chemicals, which are produced in trace amounts and acts as
intercellular messengers.
Human Endocrine System
The endocrine system in humans constitute the endocrine glands and hormone producing
diffused tissues/cells located in different parts of our body. In endocrine system, the hormone
from one gland may stimulate or inhibit another endocrine gland. These can also vary in
structure.

Types of Human Endocrine Glands

The endocrine glands are of following two types in humans
i. Pure Endocrine Glands
It entirely work for the secretion of hormones. They include the hypothalamus, pituitary,
pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus glands and gonads (i.e., testes in
males and ovaries in females).
ii. Partial Endocrine Glands
These are partly endocrine and partly exocrine in function. They includes kidneys, liver,
gastro-intestinal tract, heart, placenta, etc.
Structure and Functions of Major Endocrine Glands
Hypothalamus
In humans, the complete endocrine system works more or less under the influence of
hypothalamus.
Location
Hypothalamus is located in the basal part of diencephalon (forebrain) regulates a wide
spectrum of functions in the body.
Origin
It develops from the ectoderm of embryo like other parts of brain.
Hormones
Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells, known as nuclei, which
produce hormones. The function of these hormones is to regulate the synthesis and secretion
of pituitary hormones.

Hormones produced by hypothalamus are of following two types

i. Releasing Hormones
These are the hormones that stimulates, the secretion of pituitary hormones, e.g.,
Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the gonadotroph cells of
anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotrophins.
ii. Inhibiting Hormone
These are the hormones that inhibits the release of pituitary hormones, e.g., Somatostatin,
which inhibits the secretion of growth hormone from anterior lobe of pituitary gland. All
these hormones originating in the hypothalamic neurons, passes through the axons and are
released from their nerve endings.
These hormones finally reach the pituitary gland through a portal circulatory system thereby,
regulating the functions of anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary however, functions under
the direct regulation of the hypothalamus.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
It is the smallest endocrine gland, but serve very important role in the human endocrine
system. It directly or indirectly controls almost all other endocrine glands of the body. It is
also known as master gland.
Origin
It originates from the ectoderm of the embryo.
Location and Structure
It is reddish grey in colour and is roughly oval in shape. It is about a size of a pea seed. The
pituitary gland is located in a small bony cavity of the brain called sella tursica.
Anatomy
The pituitary gland has three major lobes, i.e., anterior, intermediate and posterior lobe.
It is anatomically divided into two major portions
i. Adenohypophysis
It is the glandular anterior portion of the pituitary gland. It further consists of two parts, i.e.,
pars distalis and pars intermedia. These two parts represent the anterior and intermediate
lobes of pituitary.
a. Pars Distalis
It also called anterior pituitary. It produces different hormones.
These hormones given below with their functions
* Growth Hormone (GH), stimulates the somatotroph cells of anterior lobe of pituitary
gland to release its Growth Hormone or somatotrophin. It stimulates body growth, protein, fat
and carbohydrate metabolism. Over secretion of this hormone during childhood causes
gigantism (excessive growth of bones), whereas in adulthood causes acromegaly (abnormal
thickness of bones). Its low secretion results in stunted growth, i.e., pituitary dwarfism.
* Prolactin (PRL) PRL regulates the growth of mammary glands and formation of milk in
them.
* Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Thyroid releasing hormone stimulates cells of the
anterior lobe of pituitary to secrete its thyroid stimulating hormone, i.e., TSH or thyrotrophin.
This TSH stimulate the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) This is secreted when adrenocorticotrophin
releasing hormone (ACRH) stimulates the corticotroph cells of anterior lobe of pituitary. This
stimulates the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from the
adrenal cortex.
* Gonadotrophin Hormone It is the gonadotroph cells of anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland, which secrete, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Both
of these hormones stimulates the gonadal activity hence, called gonadotrophin.
* Luteinizing Hormone (LH) In males, it stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones
called androgens from testis. While, in females, it induces ovulation of fully mature follicles
(Graafian follicles) and also helps in maintaining the corpus luteum formed from the
remnants of the Graafian follicles after ovulation.
* Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) In males, the FSH and androgens together regulate
spermatogenesis. In females, this hormone stimulates the growth and development of ovarian
follicles.
b. Pars Intermedia or Intermediate Lobe
This portion of adenohypophysis secretes only one hormone,
* Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) The melanocyte releasing hormone stimulates
the intermediate lobe of pituitary gland to secrete its melanocyte stimulating hormone. MSH
acts on melanocytes (melanin containing cells) and regulates the pigmentation of the skin.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Which is the only hormone that is secreted by the pars intermedia of the pituitary
gland?
2. State the significance of luteinizing hormones in males and females.
3. Why hypothalamus is a super master endocrine gland?

ii. Neurohypophysis
It is a collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus, which terminates behind the
anterior pituitary gland. It is pars nervosa of the neurohypophysis that forms the posterior
lobe of pituitary gland.
The posterior pituitary stores and releases two hormones given below
a. Oxytocin
It is a short peptide of nine amino acids, also known as pitocin. It acts on the smooth muscles
of our body and stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus at the time of child birth. It also
plays role in ejection of milk from the mammary glands in females.
b. Vasopressin
It is a small peptide hormone, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin.
This hormone acts mainly at the kidney, stimulating the reabsorption of water and
electrolysis by the distal tubules. Thereby reducing the loss of water through urine (diuresis).

Pineal Gland
 Pineal gland is composed of modified nerve cells called pinealocytes.
 It secrete a hormone called melatonin that plays a very important role in the
regulation of a 24 hrs (diurnal) rhythm of our body and
 Melatonin also helps in maintaining the normal rhythms of sleep-wake cycle, body
temperature. Metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle as well as our defence
capability is also influenced by this hormone.
 The melatonin hormone promotes sleep, so it is also known as sleep hormone.
 Serotonin acts as vasoconstrictor and helps to decrease the diameter of blood vessel.

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is known to be the largest endocrine gland.
Origin
It is endodermal in origin, i.e., originates from the endoderm of the embryo. Location and
Structure
It surrounds the front of the larynx and is composed of two lobes. Each of its lobe is located
on either side of the trachea in the neck interconnected with each other through a thin flap of
connective tissue called isthmus.
It is composed of follicles (round in shape) held together by loose connective tissue called
stromal tissues. Each thyroid follicle is composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity.
Hormones
The follicular cells synthesise following two hormones
(i) Tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T 4) hormone
(ii) Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone.
Functions of Thyroid Hormones
Thyroid hormone serves several function in the body, such as
(i) These hormones regulates and maintains the basal metabolic rate (BMR), i.e., both T 3 and
T4 hormones increases the overall metabolic rate of the body.
(ii) They support the process of formation of red blood cells. Also helps in controlling the
metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
(iii) Influences the maintenance of water and electrolyte in our body.

Apart from the hormone T3 and T4, thyroid gland also secretes a protein hormone called
thyrocalcitonin (TCT). Its main function is to regulate the level of calcium in blood.

Disorders
i. Hypothyroidism
This disorder occurs due to the deficiency of iodine in our diet. It leads to the enlargement of
thyroid gland commonly known as goitre.
(а) Hypothyroidism in women at the time of pregnancy affects the development and
maturation of the growing baby and leads to stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation,
low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.
(b) Hypothyroidism in adult women may cause irregular menstrual cycle.
ii. Hyperthyroidism
It is the condition during which, rate of synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones is
increased to abnormal high levels. It may occur due to the cancer of the thyroid gland or due
to development of nodules of the thyroid gland. It adversely affects the body physiology of
an organism.

Parathyroid Gland
These are small glands in the human neck that produces parathyroid hormone.
Origin It is endodermal in origin.
Location
These glands are situated on the posterior side of the thyroid gland.
Structure
Parathyroid glands are four in number, i.e., each pair is situated in the two lobes of the
thyroid gland on either side.
These are small, flat and oval gland.
Parathyroid glands secretes a single hormone known as parathormone or parathyroid
hormone (PTH) (functions opposite to the thyrocalcitonin hormone). The secretion of PTH is
regulated by the circulating level of calcium ions in the blood.
Functions of Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid hormone serve several functions in the body, such as
(i) It increases the level of Ca2+ levels in the blood.
(ii) It stimulates the process of bone reabsorption (i.e., dissolution/demineralisation) by acting
on bones.
(iii) It also stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ by the renal tubules and absorption of Ca2+ from
the digested food.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the hormones which act antagonistically in order to regulate calcium Levels in
the blood.
2. What is the function of pineal gland?
3. Describe the physiological functions & disorders of thyroid gland.

Thymus
It is a lymphoid gland that play an important role in the development of immune system.
Origin
It arises from the endoderm of the embryo.
Structure and Location
The thymus gland is a lobular structure situated on the dorsal side of the heart and the aorta
(in the upper part of thorax near the heart). It is a soft, pinkish, bilobed mass of lymphoid
tissue and is a prominent gland that gets degenerated with age.
Hormones
The thymus gland secretes peptide hormone called thymosin, which plays a major role in the
differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provides cell-mediated immunity.
Thymosins, when released in the blood has a stimulating effect on the entire immune system.
Apart from this thymosin also promotes production of antibodies to provide humoral
immunity.
Its degeneration with age occurs due to which production of ‘ thymosin hormone also gets
decreased. Thus, resulting in weaker immune response in old people.

Adrenal Gland (Suprarenals)

Location
Our body has a pair of adrenal glands. Each located at the anterior part of each kidney.
Structure
Adrenal glands are conical yellowish bodies composed of two types of tissues.
These are as follows
1. Adrenal Cortex
It is an external firm, pale yellowish tissue derived from mesoderm of embryo.
It is further divided into three concentric layers
(a) Zona Reticularis It is the inner layer of the cortex.
(b) Zona Fasciculata It is the middle layer of the cortex.
(c) Zona Glomerulosa It is the outermost layer.
Hormones secreted by these three layers of adrenal cortex are collectively known as
corticoids.

Three groups of steroid hormones are secreted by adrenal cortex, such as

i. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)
They regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in our body. Aldosterone is the major
mineralocorticoid found in our body. It mainly acts on renal tubules stimulating the
reabsorption of Na+ and water. Also stimulate the excretion of K+ and phosphate ions from
the body.
Its main function is in maintaining electrolytes, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure and
blood pressure of the body.
Addison’s disease is caused by deficiency of mineralocorticoids.
ii. Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
These are the hormones, which regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid found in our body.
(a) Cortisol stimulates the liver for the synthesis of carbohydrates from non-carbohydrate
sources (like amino acids and glycerol). This process is known as gluconeogenesis. Hence,
glucocorticoids stimulates gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis.
(b) Inhibition of cellular uptake and utilisation of amino acids.
(c) Cortisol is involved in the maintenance of cardiovascular system and in proper
functioning of kidney.
(d) Cortisol produces anti-inflammatory reactions and also functions in suppression of
immune response.
(e) It stimulates the production of RBC.
iii. Sexocorticoids (Androgen)
Adrenal cortex also produces a small quantity of androgenic steroids, i.e., sex hormone
(androgens) both in males and females.
(a) It play a major role in the growth of axial, pubic and facial hair during puberty.
(b) Development of acne are also due to these hormones in young girl.
(c) It also plays an important role in the development of embryo (foetus).
2. Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla lies in the centre of the adrenal gland. It is an internal soft, dark reddish
brown tissue derived from the ectoderm.
The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones
(i) Adrenaline (epinephrine)
(ii) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Activation of Adrenaline & Noradrenaline
Both hormones belong to the category of compounds known as catecholamines and are
secreted in response to any kind of stress danger and during emergency situations like fall in
blood pressure or sugar level increased respiratory rate, heartbeat, etc.
The CNS at the time of stress or danger stimulates the adrenal medulla to release both these
hormones. These are also known as emergency hormones or hormones of fight or flight.
These hormones serves following purposes
(a) Increases, alertness.
(b) Dilation of pupil.
(c) Piloerection (raising of hairs of hands and legs).
(d) Increase in heart beat and rate of respiration.
(e) They also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen due to which the concentration of glucose
increases in the blood.
(f) Stimulate breakdown of lipids and proteins.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Name the hormones of fight or flight.
2. Name the hormone secreted from outermost cellular layer of adrenal cortex?
3. State the function of thymosin and aldosterone.
Pancreas
It is a composite gland that acts as both exocrine and endocrine gland.
Origin
It originates from the endoderm of the embryo.
Location
It lies below the stomach, in the loop of duodenum.
Structure
It is elongated yellowish gland that consists of large number of acini and ducts. Besides these,
pancreas consists of 1-2 millions of small group of specialised cells, called Islets of
Langerhans (after the name of their discoverer Paul Langerhans in 1869).
Each islet consists of major two types of cells as
(i) α-cells (about 25%) It secretes a peptide hormone called glucagon.
(ii) β-cells (about 60%) It secretes a another peptide hormone called insulin.
i. Glucagon
This peptide hormone plays an important role in maintaining the normal blood glucose levels.
It brings about change of liver glycogen to blood glucose.
Functions of Glucagon
(a) It acts mainly on liver cells (hepatocytes) and stimulates glycogenolysis, which results in
an increased blood sugar known as hyperglycaemia.
(b) Apart from this glucagon also stimulates the process of gluconeogenesis which also
contributes to hyperglycaemia. Glucagon is known as hyperglycaemic hormone because it
reduces the cellular glucose uptake and utilisation.
(c) It reduces glycogenesis and also enhances lipolysis.
ii. Insulin
This peptide hormone plays a major role in regulation of glucose level in the blood. It mainly
acts on hepatocytes and adipocytes (cells of adipose tissue), increasing the cellular glucose
uptake and utilisation.
As a result, the movement of glucose takes place rapidly from blood to liver cells and cells of
adipose tissues by decreasing the blood glucose level (hypoglycaemia).
Deficiency Disorder of Insulin
Diabetes mellitus is the common complex disorder caused due to prolonged hyperglycaemia.
This is associated with the loss of glucose (when complete glucose cannot be reabsorbed by
the kidneys) in the urine as pancreas fails to release adequate amount of insulin to lower the
level of glucose in the body. Diabetic patients are successfully treated with insulin therapy.
Testis
These are the primary sex organ of males. They perform dual role, i.e., function as endocrine
gland apart from acting as male sex organ.
Location
A pair of testis is located in the scrotal sac (outside abdomen) of male individuals.
Structure
A testes is composed of many seminiferous tubules which are lined by germinal epithelium
and stromal or interstitial tissue.
Hormone
Interstitial cells produces a group of hormones, i.e., androgens. It mainly secretes
testosterone.
Function
Androgen (mainly testosterone) performs a variety of functions given below
(a) It regulates the development, maturation and functions of male accessory sex organs like
epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, etc.
(b) These hormones also stimulate changes associated with puberty in males, i.e., muscular
growth, growth of facial and axillary hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice, etc.
(c) Also stimulates the process of spermatogenesis, i.e., formation of spermatozoa.
(d) Promotes the growth of body tissues such as bones and muscles and helps in the
formation of masculine body.
(e) Also have anabolic effects (synthetic effects) on the metabolism of protein and
carbohydrate.

Ovary
It is the primary sex organ in females that serves to produce ova (female gametes) and female
sex hormones.
Location
A pair of ovaries is located in the pelvic cavity (in the abdomen).
Structure
It is an almond-shaped structure. Internally it is composed of ovarian follicles and stromal
tissues.
Hormones
Ovary produces two groups of steroid hormones, i.e., estrogen and progesterone. Estrogens
are secreted by granulosa cells of Graafian follicle.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is converted to another structure called corpus luteum,
responsible for secretion of progesterone.
Functions
Both estrogens and progesterone play a vital role in various processes in female. These are as
follows
Estrogen
(a) It directly influences the development of mammary glands.
(b) Regulates female sexual behaviour and stimulate growth and activities of female
secondary sex organs.
(c) Plays a role in the development of growing ovarian follicles.
(d) Appearance of female secondary sex characters (deposit of fat on thigh and hip region,
high pitch etc.).
Progesterone
(a) It is secreted in very high amount continuously during pregnancy to supports pregnancy
(b) It also acts on mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like
structures that store milk) and milk secretion.

Some examples of hormone secreted by various tissues are as follows

Hormones of Heart
A very important peptide hormone known as Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) is secreted by
the atrial walls of our heart, when blood pressure is increased. Its secretion causes dilation of
blood vessels thereby reducing the blood pressure.
Hormones of Kidney
A peptide hormone called erythropoietin is produced by the juxtaglomerular cells of kidney.
This hormone stimulates formation of RBC, i.e., erythropoiesis.
Hormones of Gastro-intestinal Tract
GI tract develops from the endoderm of the embryo. Endocrine cells that are present in
different parts of this and tract secretes four major peptide hormones.
These are as follows
(i) Gastrin, which acts on the gastric glands and stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid
and pepsinogen.
(ii) Secretin, which acts on the exocrine portion of pancreas, stimulating secretion of water
and bicarbonate ions.
(iii) Cholecystokinin (CCK) This hormones acts on both pancreas and gall bladder
stimulating secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile juice respectively.
(iv) Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)- Its function is to stop or inhibit the secretion of gastric
juice and its motility into stomach.
Apart from all these hormones, several other non-endocrine tissues secrete hormones known
as growth factors. These factors are essential for normal growth, repair and regeneration of
tissues.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Which structure is formed from ruptured follicle in females ?What is its role?
2. What is the function of Leydig’s cells?
3. How does arterial natriuretic factor decreases blood pressure?

Types of Hormones
On the basis of the chemical nature, hormones are divided into following four groups
(i) Peptide, Polypeptide, Protein Hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones,
hypothalamic hormones, etc).
(ii) Steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone).
(iii) Iodothyronines (e.g., thyroid hormones).
(iv) Amino acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine).

Mechanism of Hormone Action

Hormones are released from their respective gland in very small amount. They carry out
widespread effects in the body of an individual. Their response is very specific and accurate.
Their effects are produced on target tissues by binding to the specific proteins known as
hormone receptors, located in the target tissues only.

Types of Hormone Receptors

Hormone receptors are of two types
(i) Membrane bound receptors Hormone receptors present on the cell membrane of the target
cells.
(ii) Intracellular receptors Hormone receptors present inside the target cell, e.g., Nuclear
receptor (present in the nucleus of a cell).

Action of Hormone Through Extracellular Receptor

Hormones that interact with the membrane bound receptors do not enter their target cell in
normal condition, but generate secondary messengers such as cyclic AMP (cAMP), IP3 , Ca2+
etc., which regulate cellular metabolism of the body. e.g., Protein or peptide hormone.
Hormones do not participate in a metabolic reaction themselves, they instead acts as
messengers only, i.e., primary messengers.

Action of Hormone Through Intracellular Receptors

Hormones that interact with intracellular receptors are mostly involved in the regulation of
gene expression .
In nucleus, they bind to specific intracellular receptor site on chromosomes and regulate gene
expression that results in physiological responses. Thus, the cumulative biochemical actions
result in physiological and developmental effects.

ASSIGNMENT
1. In general, how steroid hormones do effects changes in their target cells.
2. State the different types of mechanism of hormone action.
3. Classify the hormones based on their chemical nature.