Chapter one
Complex Numbers
Chapter 1. Complex Numbers
We first introduce the set of complex numbers as the set of pairs of real numbers
equipped with operations of addition and multiplication.
1.1.1 Definition
The set ℂof complex numbers is the set ℝ2 of pairs of real numbers equipped with
the operations:
(𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑) (1.1)
And
(a, b) · (c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + bc) (1.2)
for each (a, b),(c, d) ∈ ℝ2.
One can easily verify that the operations of addition and multiplication
in (1.1) is commutative, that is,
(𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑐, 𝑑 ) = (𝑐, 𝑑 ) + (𝑎, 𝑏)
And
(𝑎, 𝑏) · (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑐, 𝑑) · (𝑎, 𝑏)
for every (a, b),(c, d) ∈ ℝ2.
1.1.2 Example
For example, we have
(5, 4) + (3, 2) = (8, 6)
And
(2, 1) · (−1, 6) = ( 2 · (−1) − 1 · 6, 2 · 6 + 1 · (−1) ) = (−8, 11).
For simplicity of notation, we always write
(a, 0) = a
thus identifying the pair (a, 0) ∈ ℝ2with the real number a (see Figure 1.1).
We define the imaginary unit by
(0, 1) = i (see Figure 1.1).
1.1.3 Proposition
We have 𝑖 2= −1 and a + ib = (a, b) for every a, b ∈ ℝ.
Proof
Indeed
𝑖 2 = (0, 1) · (0, 1) = (−1, 0)
= −1
And
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = (𝑎, 0) + (0, 1) · (𝑏, 0)
= (𝑎, 0) + (0, 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑏)
Figure 1.1 Real number a and imaginary unit 𝑖
which yields the desired statement.
We thus have
ℂ = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ }.
Now we introduce some basic notions
Figure 1.2 Real part and imaginary part
1.1.4 Definition
Given 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∈ ℝ, the real number a is called the real part of 𝑧 and the real
number b is called the imaginary part of 𝑧 (see Figure 1.2). We also write
a = Re z and b = Im z
1.1.5 Example
If z =2+ i3, then Re z = 2 and Im z = 3.
Two complex numbers 𝑧1, 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ are equal if and only if
Re z1 = Re z2 and Im z1 = Im z2.
1.1.6 Definition
Given 𝑧 ∈ ℂ in the form
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, (1.3)
with 𝑟 ≥ 0 and θ ∈ R, the number r is called the modulus of 𝑧 and the number 𝜃
is called an argument of 𝑧 (see Figure 1.3). We also write
𝑟 = |𝑧|𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧
Figure 1.3 Modulus , argument and polar form
We emphasize that the number 𝜃 in (1.3) is not unique. Indeed, if identity (1.3)
holds, then
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ∈ ℤ .
One can easily establish the following result.
1.1.7 Proposition
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∈ ℂ, then
|𝑧| = √ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 (1.4)
And
𝑏
tan−1 ( ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 0
𝑎
𝜋
𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 > 0
2
(1.5)
arg z = 𝑏
tan−1 ( ) + 𝜋 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0
𝑎
𝜋
− 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 < 0
2
where tan−1 is the inverse of the tangent with values in the interval (−π/2,π/2)
It follows from (1.4) that
|𝑅𝑒 𝑧| ≤ |𝑧| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐼𝑚 𝑧| ≤ |𝑧| (1.6)
1.1.8 Example
𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖2√3, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
|𝑧| = √22 + 2 2 · 3 = √16 = 4
and using the first branch in (1.5), we obtain
2√3 𝜋
arg 𝑧 = tan−1 = tan−1 √3 =
2 3
The following result is a simple consequence of Definition 1.6.
1.1.9 Proposition
Two complex numbers 𝑧, 𝑤 ∈ ℂ are equal if and only if |z| = |w| and
𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑤 = 2𝑘𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.
1.2 Polar Form
It is often useful to write a complex number in the form (1.3) or also in the
following alternative form.
1.2.1 Definition
Given 𝑧 ∈ ℂ in the form 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, with 𝑟 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 ∈ ℝ, we
write
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 = |𝑧|𝑒 𝑖 arg 𝑧
We say that 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is the Cartesian form of z and that 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 is the
polar form of z.
1.2.2 Example
If 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, then |𝑧| = √2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 1 = 𝜋/4
Hence, the polar form of z is √2𝑒𝑖 𝜋/4
Now we describe the product and the quotient of complex numbers in terms
of the polar form.
1.3 Conjugate
Now we introduce the notion of the conjugate of
a complex number.
1.3.1 Definition
Given 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ∈ ℂ, the complex number
𝑧 = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 is called the conjugate of z
(see Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.4 z is the conjugate of z
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧. 𝑀𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜃) + 𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
1.3.2 Proposition
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = |𝑧|2
Proof
Given a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 , we have
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟𝑒−𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑖0 = |𝑧|2 .
This yields the desired identity
1.4 Complex Functions
In this section we consider complex-valued functions of a complex variable.
Given a set 𝛺 ⊂ ℂ, a function 𝑓 ∶ 𝛺 → ℂ can be written in the form
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
with 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ for each 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∈ 𝛺. In fact, since the set of complex
numbers ℂ is identified with 𝑅 2, we obtain functions 𝑢, 𝑣 ∶ 𝛺 → 𝑅.
1.4.1 Definition
The function u is called the real part of f and the function v is called the
imaginary part of f.
1.4.2 Example
For 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 , we have
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑖(3𝑥2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ) ,
and hence
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑦.
1.4.3 Example
For 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 , we have
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑖( 3𝑥2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ) ,
and hence
𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 .
Now we introduce various complex functions.
1.4.4 Definition
We define the exponential of the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 by
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦).
1.4.5 Example
For each = 𝑥 + 𝑖0 ∈ ℝ , we have
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 0) = 𝑒𝑥 (1 + 𝑖0) = 𝑒 𝑥 .
Hence, the exponential of a real number x coincides with the exponential of x
when this is seen as a complex number.
1.4.6 Proposition
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑧, 𝑤 ∈ ℂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 ∈ ℤ, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒:
1. 𝑒 𝑧+𝑤 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑒2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1/𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒−𝑧
2. 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧
3. (𝑒 𝑧 )𝑘 = 𝑒𝑘𝑧
4. 𝑒 𝑧+𝑖2𝑘𝜋 = 𝑒 𝑧
1.5 Limits and Continuity
Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝛺 → ℂ be a complex-valued function in a set 𝛺 ⊂ ℂ. We first introduce
the notion of limit.
1.5.1 Definition
We say that the limit of 𝑓 at a point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝛺 exists, and that it is given by
𝑤 ∈ ℂ if for each 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that
|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑤 | < 𝜀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿.
In this case we write
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤.
𝑧→ 𝑧0
Now we introduce the notion of continuity
1.5.2 Definition
We say that 𝑓 is continuous at a point 𝑧0 ∈ 𝛺 if
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) .
𝑧→ 𝑧0
Otherwise, the function 𝑓 is said to be discontinuous at 𝑧 0 We also say that
𝑓 is continuous in 𝛺 if it is continuous at all points of 𝛺.
1.5.3 Example
For the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|, we have
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0)
|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| = ||𝑧| − |𝑧0 || ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 |
This implies that |𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )| < 𝛿 when ever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿, and hence, the
function f is continuous in ℂ.
1.5.4 Example
For the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 , we have
|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓 (𝑧0 )| = |(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )(𝑧 + 𝑧0 )|
= |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | . |𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 2𝑧0| ≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | (|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | + 2 |𝑧0|)
< 𝛿(𝛿 + 2|𝑧0|)
whenever |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿. Since 𝛿(𝛿 + 2|𝑧0 |) → 0 when 𝛿 → 0, the function f is
continuous in ℂ.
1.6 DERIVATIVES
Let 𝑓 be a function whose domain of definition contains a neighborhood
|𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜀 of a point 𝑧0 . The derivative of f at 𝑧0 is the limit
1.6.1 Definition
We say that f is differentiable at a point𝑧0 ∈ 𝛺 if the limit
𝑓 (𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim (equ 1)
𝑧→ 𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
and the function f is said to be differentiable at 𝑧0 when 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0) exists
By expressing the variable z in definition (1) in terms of the new complex variable
∆𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ( 𝑧 ≠ 𝑧0 )
one can write that definition as
𝑓(𝑧0 + ∆𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0) = lim (egu 2 )
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
Because f is defined throughout a
neighborhood of z0, the number 𝑓 (𝑧0 + ∆𝑧)
Is always defined for |𝑧| sufficiently small
(Figure 1.5 ).
Figure 1.5
When taking form (2) of the definition of derivative, we often drop the subscript
on 𝑧0 and introduce the number
∆𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧)
which denotes the change in the value 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) of 𝑓 corresponding to a change
∆𝑧 in the point at which f is evaluated. Then, if we write 𝑑𝑤/𝑑𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓′(𝑧),
equation (2) becomes
𝑑𝑤 ∆𝑤
= lim (𝑒𝑞𝑢 3)
𝑑𝑧 ∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
1.6.2 Example
Suppose that 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 . At any point z
∆𝑤 (𝑧 + 𝑧)2 − 𝑧 2
lim = lim = lim (2𝑧 + ∆𝑧 ) = 2𝑧
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧 ∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧 ∆𝑧→0
Since 2𝑧 + ∆𝑧 is a polynomial in ∆𝑧. Hence 𝑑𝑤/𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑧, or 𝑓′(𝑧) = 2z.
1.6.3 Example