MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

HCS 115-INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

 MODULE OUTLINE

Module Title: Introduction to Information Technology

Module Code:HCS 115
THEORY
Topic/
Lesson
1 Introduction to Information Technology, Definition of Computer,
Advantages & Limitations
2 Anatomy of Computers – Components of Computers and its
functions

Overview of Input devices of Computer

3 Overview of Output devices of Computer, Memory, Processors,

Hardware,
Software & Speed
4 Types of Software – Operating System, Translators & Programming
languages Application Programmes, Utility Programmes & General
Purpose Programmes, Classification of Computers

5 Operating System – Functions of OS – Types of OS

Booting process
6
Computer networks and the internet,DEFINITION OF TERMS
REASONS FOR NETWORKING COMPUTERS,LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND WIDE AREA
NETWORKS,NETWORK TOPOLOGIES,RING NETWORK,STAR NETWORK,BUS NETWORK
THE INTERNET,INFORMATION BROWSING,ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL),NEWSGROUPS

7 Security and Ethical challenges in Information Technology

Administrative controls,Input ControlsStorage controls,Physical

protection,Disaster recovery plans,Social and Economical implications of
Information Technology

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 PRACTICALS
. Top
ic
1 Study of Computer Components – Booting of Computer and its
Shut
Down
2 WINDOWS Explorer – Creating Folders, COPY and PASTE functions
3 MSWORD – Creating a Document, Editing and Saving
4 MSWORD: Use of options from the Tool Bars – Format, Insert and
Tools
(Spell Check), Alignment of paragraphs and Text
5 MSWORD: Creating a Table, Merging of Cells, Columns and
Row
Width
6 MSEXCEL: Creating a Spreadsheet, Alignment of Rows, Columns
and
Cells using Format Tool Bar
7 MSEXCEL: Entering formula expression through the formula tool
bar
and use of inbuilt functions
8 MSEXCEL: Data Analysis using inbuilt Tool Packs – Correlation
and
Regression
9 MSEXCEL: Data Analysis using inbuilt Tool Packs – tests
of
significance
1 MSEXCEL: Creating and Saving Graphs
0

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Introduction
Information technology- refers to hardware, software, databases, telecommunication technologies and
other information processing technologies that manipulate data resources into useful information products
like reports, financial statements. Consider the example of a person who goes into a banking hall to inquire
his balance. That technology they would use to create, store, manipulate and communicate information is
what is referred to as INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY. Closely related to information technology is an
Information system, which refers to the set totality of requirements for handling information within an
organization. It can also be considered as an organized combination of people, hardware, software,
communication networks and data resource that collects, transforms and disseminates information in an
organization. An information system can be manual (i.e. paper work) or informal (word of mouth),
however the aspect of the module is specifically computer-based information systems that use information
technology.

Definition of terms
A Computer: is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical, Logical
and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that
function together as a system.
It performs the following three operations in sequence.
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

Advantages of computers :

1. High speed : Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than
human beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
2. Accuracy : Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
3. Storage : Computers can store large amount of information. Any item of data or any
instruction stored in the memory can be retrieved by the computer at lightning speeds.
4. Automation : Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically (
which increases the productivity).
5. Diligence : Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy
without getting tired.
6. Versatility : Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
7. Cost effectiveness : Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort,
thereby reducing costs.
Limitations of computers :
1. Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions
are not clear & complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
2. Computers cannot think.
3. Computers cannot learn by experience.
Generations of computers :
Generation Component used
First Generation Vacuum tubes
(1946-1954 )
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 Second Generation Transistors
(1955-1965)
Third Generation Integrated Circuits (IC)
(1968-1975 )
Fourth Generation Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
( 1976-1980) (VLSI)
Fifth Generation Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)
(1980 – till today ) Micro Processor (SILICON CHIP)

Data : It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.

Ex : Names of students and their marks in different modules listed in random order.
Information : It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.
Ex : When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, their total and average
marks calculated & presented in a tabular form.
Program : Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.

Hardware – the name given to all physical components of a computer system. These are mechanical,
optical, electronic or magnetic devices or components of a computer or generally the physical makeup of
a computer

Software are the various non-tangible computer programs, procedures and their associated
documentation concerned with the operation of an information system. Example Microsoft Word is
software for typing

Task

Why has your institution invested a lot in information technology?

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 ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS
The computer system consists of three units:
1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output device

Block diagram of a Computer :

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Memory unit

INPUT DEVICE ALU

OUT PUT DEVICE

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 Control Unit

The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

Unit Function
[Link] device : Reads information from input media and enters to the
computer in a coded form
[Link]
(a) Memory unit : Stores program and data
(b) Arithmetic Logic unit : Performs arithmetic and logical functions
(c) Control Unit : Interprets program instructions and controls the input and
output devices

3. Output device : decodes information and presents it to the user

Central Processing Unit: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program inst ructions. Hence it is known as the
―brain‖ of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit b, Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU)
and control unit.

(a). Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program
instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output
device. It consists of thousands of cells called ―storage locations‖. These cells activate with ―off-on‖
or binary digits(0,1) mechanism. Thus a character either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string
of (0,1) Binary digits ( BITS). These bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations.

(b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit(ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female are performed. Once data are
fed into the main memory from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to ALU where
processing takes place. No process occurs in primary storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU are
temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may move from primary memory to ALU
and back again to storage many times before the process is finalized.

(c).Control Unit : It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored
correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are selected
from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a system .

Input Devices
Devices used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input devices.
Some important input devices are

Key board, Mouse, Scanner, MICR, Web camera, Microphone etc.

1. Keyboard: The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard
Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The
 most commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.

There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as :
 Alphanumeric keys , including letters & numbers.
 Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double
quotes (‗,‖)
 Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END etc.

2.. Mouse: It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have 2
buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel between the
left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of information. As we
move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction. Optical mouse is another
advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead of the mouse ball. Mouse cannot
be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the options on the screen.

3. Scanner: : It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into
digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered separately
resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types: i) optical scanners ii) MICR

i) Optical scanners:
a. Optical character Recognition(OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of a light. This is
used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.
b. Optical mark recognition(OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or
absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude tests.
c. Optical barcode recognition(OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar
codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is used in super markets, book
shops etc.
ii. MICR: This is widely used in banks to process the cheques. This allows the computer to recognize
characters printed using magnetic ink.

4. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR): : It is a character recognition technology used

primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of the cheques. MICR characters ( cheque
No., [Link]) are printed in special ink usually containing iron oxide. When a document that
contains the ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine which magnetizes the ink and there will
be a reader sorter unit which translates the magnetic information into characters. MICR provides a
secure, high speed of scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600 cheques/min.

Output devices

Any device that is capable of representing information on a computer is called an Output device.
Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the desired form.

Some important Output devices are : Monitor, Printer

1 .Terminal/Monitor: It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour – and
it displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit(VDU). Several types of monitors are in
use. Some of them are Colour Graphic Adapter(CGA), Enhanced Graphics Adaptor(EGA) , Video
Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).
The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters. Most
systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or horizontally on the
screen.

2 . Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy obtained
from a printer is often referred as ―printout‖. The different printers and their speeds are as follows:
S. Ty Mode of Printing Spe
No. pe ed
1 Dot – Matrix Prints the character in dotted pattern 200/300 to 700
printer through printer ribbon using either CPS
24 pin or 9 pin
2 Ink Jet printer Work by spraying ionized ink Slow, 90 CPS
3 Laser printer Also called page printer. Uses laser 6 to 12 PPM
beam to produce an image.
4 Line printer Prints lines at a time instead of single 300 to 600 LPM
characters.
5 Plotter Produces drawings or graphs through
pens which are filled with
different colours.
( CPS: Characters Per Second; PPM: Pages Per Minutes; LPM : Lines Per Minute)

Laser printer

******
TYPES OF MEMORY :

Memory or storage capacity is one of the important

components of a computer A computer memory is of
two types
1. Primary Memory ( Internal storage) 2. Secondary Memory ( External storage)

Primary Memory : Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part of a
computer. It is the main area in a computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled
instantly and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading
or storing data. Primary memory is further classified into two types:

Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read- Only Memory (ROM )

RAM:
RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written onto it. RAM
holds instructions for the computer, its programs and the [Link] storage of data and instructions in
RAM is temporary, till the time the computer is running. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power
to the computer is switched off. i.e it is volatile memory.
 ROM:
It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or changed onto
ROM. ROM is the ‗built-in‘ memory of a computer. It stores some basic input – output instructions put
by the manufacturer to operate the computer. The storage of data and instructions in ROM is permanent.
It does not depend on the power supply. i.e it is non-volatile memory.

Secondary memory: The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not
sufficient for large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the ―auxiliary‖ or
―secondary memory‖ is used. It is also referred as ―backup storage‖ as it is used to store large
volume of data on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever
required for processing. Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main
(primary memory) storage. Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard Disk,
CD-ROM, DVD and Flash drive.

Units of memory: The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0,1) mechanism.
Thus the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0,1). To store a character, a computer requires 8
bits or 1 byte. This is called the ― word length‖ of the storage unit. Hence the storage capacity of the
computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is expressed in terms of bytes. The
different units of measurement are

8 Bits = 1 Byte

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2 (or) 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte
(KB)

10
2 (or)1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte
(MB)
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2 (or)1024 MB = 1 Gega Byte
1. Floppy Disk: It is also referred as ―Diskette: and is made of flexible Vinyl material. It has a small
hole on one side called ―Right protect notch‖, Which protects accidental writing/deleting the
information from the disk. There is a hole in the centre through which the spindle of drive unit rotates
the disk. The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches and these could be either low-
density or high-density floppies. Storage capacity of floppies are measured in kilobytes (KB) and
megabytes (MB). The details about the storage capacities of the floppies are presented below:
Floppy Disk Storage Capacity Size (Diameter)
Low Density 360 KB 5.25 inches
High Density 1.2 5.25 inches
High Density MBMB
1.44 3.5 inches
Extended 2.8 3.5 inches
MB

2. Hard Disk: The hard disk can hold more information than
the floppy disk and the retrieval of information from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or
tapes. A hard disk is fixed inside the CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard
disk is made up of a collection of discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the data is
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 recorded. These platters are coated with magnetic material. It is less sensitive to external environmental
disorders and hence the storage in hard disk is safe. A small hard disk might be as much as 25 times
larger than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks varies from 20 MB to several Gega bytes like
80GB, 160GB.

Software
Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a desired way. The
basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the same as that exists between TV and
TV studio. Without TV studio (software) from where the programs are telecast, the TV (Hardware) is
a dead machine.

There are two main categories of software.

These are:
System software and Application programs

System Software

System Software is usually supplied by the manufacturer of a given computer component. When one buys
a printer, it comes with CD software that enables it to work with other system components of a computer.
System software contributes to control and performance of a computer system. System software acts
behind the scenes to manage resources and operations of a computer system. System software interfaces
between computer hardware and the application software.

1. Operating System (OS) : The software that manages the resources of a computer system and
schedules its operation is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface between
the hardware and the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs.
An operating system is software which controls the general operation of a computer.
Functions of Operating System:

1. Processor management : It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being

performed by the computer system.

2. Memory management : It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage areas to the
system programmes as well as user programmes and data.

3. Input / Output management : It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different Input and
Output devices while one or more programmes are executed.

4. File management : It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text
editors or some other file manipulation routines.

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 5. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system : It determines and maintains the order in
which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.

6. Interpretation of commands and instructions.

7. Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator.

Generally, the OS acts as an interface between the user and the Hardware of the computer. i.e. It is
a bridge between the user and the Hardware.
The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.
CUI -- Character user Interface
GUI -- Graphical user Interface
CUI : It is operated with keyboard only. Ex: MS-DOS, UNIX
GUI : The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard. Ex: Windows 95, Windows XP etc
 Disk Operating System (DOS): It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates at the age
of
19. It is suited for personal computers. Dos is a single user and single task operating system

 WINDOWS : It works with DOS and it supports single user and multitask system.
It
requires a powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB .

 UNIX AND XENIX: It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system

Task
Explain the difference between Ms-Dos and Windows operating system.

2. Application Programs: These are user written programs to do a specific job which can be changed to
meet the individual needs. Examples of Application software packages include:
i) Word-processing packages that are responsible for creating, editing and printing of documents.
The extend their capabilities to include checking spelling and grammar, drawing tables, mail
merge, print many copies of one document, typing in various font styles, colours, underlining,
inserting pictures, plus looking for words with a similar meaning to the one typed (thesaurus)
ii) Spreadsheet packages which are specifically for analysis, planning and modelling. They are
designed for working with numbers in terms of arithmetic (addition, multiplication, subtraction,
division), sorting from the highest to the lowest or vice-versa, drawing tables, using
mathematical functions such as sine, cosine, average, randomize, to perform complex
calculations such as regression. Managers use spreadsheets in carrying what-if computations to
determine the impact a certain move or decision might have on the profitability or future of the
business.
iii) Database Management Packages (e.g. Microsoft Access) are designed for handling and
manipulation of large volumes of data. Consider the example of a university that keeps each
and every detail about every student and should the data be required (i.e. in terms of fees due,
results or residential status, level, department etc) it is instantly retrieved.
Task:
List 10 examples of application systems that you know

Factors to consider before buying a software

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There are many considerations to be made before one settle for a certain type of software. Generally, the
software has to be appropriate to the task, it should justify the cost as well as being affordable.

Other factors are that the software must be compatible with your hardware. Some software cannot run on
IBM machines, while running modern windows-based programs without a mouse is underutilizing it. If
you are buying application software, it must work well with the system software, for example you cannot
install Microsoft Word 2000 on a machine with Windows 3.1. The software must have continued support
from the supplier for it to suit changing user requirements for example if a software was to be used to
calculate tax on goods sold, it should be changeable from sales tax to value added tax. Also software like
Microsoft products have many versions indicating responsive approach to user requirements and
modernization. A simple example is that of employees salaries in Zimbabwe, an up to date software would
allow for salaries payslips to accommodate even millions as a salary figure. If it was made without such a
vision then maybe salaries would only be up to say $10 000.

On the other hand, software must be easy to learn and use, it must offer help. Specifically, its
advantageous to buy a software with Graphical User Interface (GUI), which is a program screen interface
based on icons, menus, windows for ease of use. It must be robust, accurate and free from errors.
Software also differ in the storage space they need. So when buying software, one has to consider the
storage capacity of his machine, the size of the RAM and the speed of the processor, so that the
machine’s speed is not compromised.

Task

What are other factors that should be in your mind when you are buying computer software?

Databases
What is a Database?

It is an organised collection of data with minimum duplication to service many applications at the same
time by storing and managing data so that they appear to be in one location. When a transaction occurs,
e.g. a withdrawal in a bank, some data would be stored. All the data that completely describe a transaction
is called a record. E.g.

Withdrawal record

Account# Date Amount Cash/cheque remaining balance

A record is made up of fields. A field is a single descriptive item of a record or a transaction. All the
related records are stored in a file. The various related files and the interfaces that query or manipulate
their stored data form the database. Rather than storing data in separate files for each application, data is
stored physically to appear to users as being stored in only one location.

The database management system acts as the interface between the application programmes and the data.

Database management system is a special software used to create and maintain a database and enable
individual business applications to extract the data they need without having to create separate files or data
definitions in their computer programmes.

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Advantages of Databases

 Data redundancy is reduced considerably thereby solving problems of excessive memory

requirements and inconsistencies.

 Response time is faster since they can directly interact with the Database Management System

 Databases offer a wide variety of security and privacy feature for organizational confidential data.

Tasks

Give the example of databases

Give the disadvantages of using a database.

Explain the differences between database and database system.

Classification of Computers

Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for which they
are developed. These can be classified into three types:

1. Analog Computes 2. Digital Computers 3. Hybrid Computers

1. Analog computers: They operate by ―measuring‖ instead of ―counting‖. The name (derived
from greek word analog) denotes that the computer functions by establishing similarities between
the two quantities. They are powerful tools for solving differential equations.

2. Digital Computers: These computers operate by ―counting‖. All quantities are expressed as
discrete digits or numbers. These are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data.

3. Hybrid Computers: Computers which combine the features of analog and digital computers are
known as Hybrid computers.
A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. These computers were essentially developed
for computations. Later, the developments in the computers led to the use of digital computers in
variety of applications. Depending on the use of applications, the digital computers are classified
into 1) Special Purpose Computers and 2) General Purpose Computers

1. Special Purpose Computers: These are developed with a specific purpose. Some of the areas
where these computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning, traffic
signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.,

2. General Purpose Computers: These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such
as simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers
are available in different sizes and capabilities and are further classified (based on memory,
speed, storage) as follows.

a) Super Computers b) Mainframe Computers c) Mini Computers d) Micro Computers

a) Super Computers: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds
which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale
numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather
forecasting etc.,. The first super computer was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY
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 computers. In India the indigenous super computer was developed under the name
Param.
b) Mainframe Computers: They also have large storage and high computing speed
(but relatively lower than the super computers). They are used in applications like
weather forecasting, space applications etc., they support a large number of terminals for
use by a variety of users simultaneously, but are expensive
c) Mini Computers: It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available
indigenously and used for large volume applications. It can serve multi-users
simultaneously

d) Micro Computers: A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system.
Micro computers are also referred as ―personal computers‖(PC). These are self
contained units and usually developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to
very large systems. They are cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of
applications from small to medium range.
Computer Networks
What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared
network medium. A computer network is a collection of two or more connected computers. When these
computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape
backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. When networks at multiple locations are connected using services
available from phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct
video conferences in real time with other remote users. When a network becomes open sourced it can be
managed properly with online collaboration software. As companies rely on applications like electronic
mail and database management for core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly
more important.
Every network includes:

 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.

 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between
networked computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell
NetWare, Unix and Linux.
Types of Networks:
LANs (Local Area Networks)
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared
network medium. LANs are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a
college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of
computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has
resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.
WANs (Wide Area Networks)
Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by
connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines
(both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier services. Wide area
networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be
as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked using special routing protocols and filters to
minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.
Internet
The Internet is worldwide system of linked networks that facilitates data communication services such as
remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups.
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With the meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a communications highway for
millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted to military and academic institutions, but now it is a
full-fledged conduit for any and all forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now provide
personal, educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet.
Intranet
With the advancements made in browser-based software for the Internet, many private organizations are
implementing intranets. An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only
within that organization. For large organizations, an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate
information for employees.
MANs (Metropolitan area Networks)
The refers to a network of computers with in a City.
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote access
server on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet
instead of making long–distance phone calls to connect securely with your private network. There are two
ways to create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to
Internet.

Types of Computer Network Topologies: Bus, Star, Ring Topology

What is a Network topology
A topology – is the characteristic of a communication network that is concern both with the physical
configuration of the cabling that is used to inter connect communicating system and the logical way in
which system view the structure of the network. Topology is the therefore physical or logical arrangement
of computers
 A network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a LAN,

There are three topologies to think about when you get into networks. These are the star, rind, and
the bus.

Factors to consider when selecting a topology

1. Cost – whatever transmission medium is chosen for a Local Area Network has to be physically
installed in the building, this maybe a lengthy process including the installation cables and
raceways. For a Network to be cost effective one would strive to minimize installation cost. This
may be achieved by using the proper hardware linking the cables, good modems, cost effective
computers to reduced cost
2. Flexibility – one of the main benefit of a local Area Network is it ability to have the data
processing and peripheral nodes distributed around a given area. This means that the computing
power and equipment can be located close to the ultimate users. Because the arrangements of
furniture, internal walls etc in the offices is often subject to change. The topology should allow for
easy reconstruction of the network which involves moving existing nodes and adding new nodes
3. Reliability – The topology chosen for the network can help by allowing the location of the fault to
be detected and to provide some means of isolating the faults

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star topology

Types of Network Topologies

Network star topology also known as Radial topology

Star topology
In a s tar topology each node has a dedicated set of wires connecting it to a central network hub. Since all
traffic passes through the hub, the hub becomes a central point for isolating network problems and
gathering network statistics.

This topology consist of a central nodes to which all other nodes are connected, star topology is used in
most existing information network involving data processing and voice communication. In many cases
when a building is wired with a star topology, faced cables radiate out from the centre to intermediate
connection point to wiring cables. This allows sufficient connection point to be provided for one sub –
area, while providing flexibility in their allocation within that area

Advantages of star topology

 Diagnostic and isolation of problem is easy

 Easy to add a new computer system to the network
 Failure of one workstation does not affect the entire network
 Uses a single access protocols
 Provide ease of service
 Is very fast

Disadvantages of star topology

 There is central node dependency

 Becomes expensive when purchasing the nodes
 Always requires very long cable length when connecting many nodes
bus topology diagram

17
Bus Topology also known as Linear Topology

Bus, the bus topology, each node (computer, server, peripheral etc.) attaches directly to a common cable.
This topology most often serves as the backbone for a network. In some instances, such as in classrooms
or labs, a bus will connect small workgroups
It is the simplest method of networking computers. It consists of a single cable known as a trunk,
backbone or segment that connects all the computers in the network. Each system is directly attached to a
common communication channel. Signal that is transmitted over the channel makes up the messages. As
each message passes along the channel each system receives it, after receiving the message each system
examine the destination address contained in the message, if the destination address tells a particular
system that the message is addressed to it, that system accepts and process the message, if the message
address tells the computer that the message is intended for another system, that computer will ignore the
message
On a bus topology signals are send to all the computers in the network to keep the signal from bouncing
back and forth along the cable a terminator (British Naval Connector) is placed at the end of the cable. In a
bus topology only one computer can send data at a time, therefore the more computers in a bus the slower
data transmission in the network

Advantages of Bus topology

 Cheap because of its simplicity

 Requires a short cable length
 Easy to expand the network
 Simple to setup compared to Star and Ring topology
 There is no chances of data collision since one computer transmit at a time
 Locating cable fault in a bus topology is relatively easy
 Bus topology is ideal for one to many data transmission
 Signal on the cable are bidirectional hence reaches all the nodes

Disadvantages of Bus topology

· Fault diagnosis is difficult in a bus topology – detection of fault may have to be performed from
any point in the network

· Fault isolation is difficult – if fault in the node is detected the node can simply be removed but if
the fault is in network medium itself and entire segment of the Bus must be disconnected to isolate the
fault

· Repeater configuration – When a Bus type network has its backbone intended for using a
repeater, configuration maybe necessary thus may involve tailoring cable length, adjusting terminator etc

· Computer nodes must be intelligence – each node on the network is directly connected to the
central Bus. This means that each node must have method of deciding and detecting its own data
Ring topology diagram

18
Ring Topology

Ring, a ring topology features a logically closed loop. Data packets travel in a single direction around the
ring from one network device to the next. Each network device acts as a repeater, meaning it regenerates
the signal

In Ring topology each node is connected to form a single, closed data path. Data from one node is passed
along to the next node from which it will be examined, and if that node is not the intended destination,
then it is transmitted to the next node until the destination is reached. Token ( a special bit pattern) is
circulated in the network to enable a node to capture the data. Ring topology might be structured so that
there are a number of information frames or slot in construct circulation. Node wishing to transmit first
detects the arrival of an empty slot then inserts the data it wishes to send, and mark the frame as full. The
receiving node takes the data and then marks the frame as empty. In implementation one particular node
has the responsibility for generating the token or slot when the network is first constituted

Advantages of ring Topology

 The ability to achieve transmission rates of the order of 10 million bits per second
 Provision of local communication via a single channel
 No central server which reduces the cost of establishing the ring topology

Disadvantages

· Failure of one node result into entire network failure

· Detection of fault is very difficult in ring topology
· Isolation of fault is not easy in this topology

Collisions:
Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets of data to avoid conflicts and protect data
integrity. Nodes determine when the network is available for sending packets. It is possible that two nodes
at different locations attempt to send data at the same time. When both PCs are transferring a packet to the
network at the same time, a collision will result.

Minimizing collisions is a crucial element in the design and operation of networks. Increased collisions are
often the result of too many users on the network, which results in a lot of contention for network
bandwidth. This can slow the performance of the network from the user's point of view. Segmenting the
network, where a network is divided into different pieces joined together logically with a bridge or switch,
is one way of reducing an overcrowded network.

19
Categories of Network:
Network can be divided in to two
main categories:
 Peer-to-peer.
 Server – based.
In peer-to-peer networking there are no
dedicated servers or hierarchy among
the computers. All of the computers are
equal and therefore known as peers.
Normally each computer serves as
Client/Server and there is no one
assigned to be an administrator
responsible for the entire network.

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices

for needs of small organizations where
the users are located in the same general
area, security is not an issue and the
organization and the network will have
limited growth within the foreseeable
future.

The term Client/server refers to the

concept of sharing the work involved in
processing data between the client
computer and the most powerful server
computer.
The client/server network is the most
efficient way to provide:
 Databases and management of
applications such as
Spreadsheets, Accounting,
Communications and Document
management.
 Network management.
 Centralized file storage.
The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing. At the
heart of the model is the concept of splitting application functions between a client and a server processor.
The division of labor between the different processors enables the application designer to place an
application function on the processor that is most appropriate for that function. This lets the software
designer optimize the use of processors--providing the greatest possible return on investment for the
hardware.

Client/server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual location of application
function. The user often does not know where a specific operation is executing. The entire function may
execute in either the PC or server, or the function may be split between them. This masking of application
function locations enables system implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a
minimum disruption of application operations, while protecting the investment in existing hardware and
software.

20
The OSI Model:
Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model has
become an International standard and serves as a guide
for networking. This model is the best known and most
widely used guide to describe networking environments.
Vendors design network products based on the
specifications of the OSI model. It provides a
description of how network hardware and software work
together in a layered fashion to make communications
possible. It also helps with trouble shooting by providing
a frame of reference that describes how components are
supposed to function.

There are seven to get familiar with and these are the
physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport
layer, session layer, presentation layer, and the
application layer.
 Physical Layer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires, cables, and there media
along with the length. Also this layer takes note of the electrical signals that transmit data
throughout system.
 Data Link Layer, this layer is where we actually assign meaning to the electrical signals in the
network. The layer also determines the size and format of data sent to printers, and other devices.
Also I don't want to forget that these are also called nodes in the network. Another thing to
consider in this layer is will also allow and define the error detection and correction schemes that
insure data was sent and received.
 Network Layer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two dissimilar networks.
 Transport Layer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packages for data to be distributed
and addressed to other nodes (workstations).
 Session Layer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one node (workstation)
to another node (workstation). A session has to be made before we can transport information to
another computer.
 Presentation Layer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to the node.
 Application Layer, this layer allows you to use an application that will communicate with say the
operation system of a server. A good example would be using your web browser to interact with
the operating system on a server such as Windows NT, which in turn gets the data you requested.

Net work Cables and Stuff:

In the network you will commonly find three types of cables used these are the, coaxial cable, fiber optic
and twisted pair.
Thick Coaxial Cable
This type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called thicknets, and has two conductors.
This coax can be used in 500-meter lengths. The cable itself is made up of a solid center wire with a
braided metal shield and plastic sheathing protecting the rest of the wire.
Thin Coaxial Cable
As with the thick coaxial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in thinnets. This type cable is
also used called or referred to as RG-58. The cable is really just a cheaper version of the thick cable.
Fiber Optic Cable
As we all know fiber optics are pretty darn cool and not cheap. This cable is smaller and can carry a vast
amount of information fast and over long distances.
Twisted Pair Cables
These come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded.

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Is more common in high-speed networks. The
biggest difference you will see in the UTP and
STP is that the STP use's metallic shield wrapping
to protect the wire from interference.

-Something else to note about these cables is that

they are defined in numbers also. The bigger the
number the better the protection from interference.
Most networks should go with no less than a CAT
3 and CAT 5 is most recommended.

-Now you know about cables we need to know

about connectors. This is pretty important and you
will most likely need the RJ-45 connector. This is
the cousin of the phone jack connector and looks
real similar with the exception that the RJ-45 is
bigger. Most commonly your connector are in two
flavors and this is BNC (Bayonet Naur Connector)
used in thicknets and the RJ-45 used in smaller
networks using UTP/STP.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

This is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest form that you can go with. The
UTP has four pairs of wires and all inside plastic sheathing. The biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair
is to protect the wires from interference from themselves. Each wire is only protected with a thin plastic
sheath.

22
Security and Ethical challenges in Information Technology

Information Technology resources (hardware, software, and data) form a vital strategic resource of any
establishment which must be jealously guarded to ensure its safety, reliability, accuracy and integrity.
Ethics refer to the expected code of conduct within an organization both on the use of computer resources
and human resources. Hence, ethics direct an employee‘s mind towards profit through sanctioned means,
ensure that managers do not engage in fraud and abuse of funds nor convert the company’s clients for
personal motive. At the same time, data in the organization must be used for its intended purpose which
itself should be legitimate.

Security in Information Systems

Managers should see to it that the Information System ensures

 proper data entry,

 accurate processing,
 reliable data recovery in case of disaster,
 that computers are not used for fraudulent purposes,
 and in general, that the system lives up to expectation.

Information Systems have been victims of abuse in terms of

 Fraud – which managers should counter ensuring that each person who uses the computer has a
password which makes him liable to any transaction after he logs on to the computer, the computer
keeps a log of events that happened, and that the computer system is safe and secure from hackers
who might want to access computer resources remotely and fraudulently
 Abuse by inaction- when the responsible person does not execute his duties may be to fix
management.
 Piracy- if one installs or makes copies of software against copyright laws or merely when the
wrong person accesses confidential data. Acts against copyright laws have tended to be an
unnecessary cost to businesses.

Many other risks have befallen computers, which include computer rooms catching fire or being flooded,
computer catching getting viruses, data being incorrectly entered, data storage devices failing, and many
more.

To this end, managers should put in place some controls that prevent the afore-mentioned risks or
eliminate them at all.

Administrative controls
They cover company code of practice/conduct and can be implemented through written policies and
procedures; division of functions and supervision

23
A Code of Practice is a set of standards that a business would
expect its employees to conform to.

It is not legally binding but the business would ask an employee

to agree to it before being employed and would be grounds for
dismissal if they were not obeyed.
It is always in the best interest of a business to treat its customers
fairly and with due consideration - or they will go elsewhere.
It ensures consistency of practice. All employees would conduct
their business in a similar way.

Through division of functions can be whereby where the Information system designers are not part of the
endusers that operate a computer system.

Input Controls
They aim to ensure proper data entry by the intended personnel, through the use of passwords so that only
the holder can benefit from the computer resources, formatted input screens and audible error signals so
that data is entered correctly. Computers should have software that verifies correctness of the data typed
(validation).

Storage controls
There should be a control mechanism so that no everyone can access stored data. Thus documents can be
access through passwords.

Stored data may need to be stored in a separate backup copy so that, in case of that storage device failing
data can be recovered from the backup copy. Stored data can also be encrypted so that, should the wrong
person accesses it, he won’t make sense out of it. Firewall are computers that protect networked
computers from intrusion, hence they also ensure safe storage of data.

Physical protection
Security guards, buglar bars on windows video surveillance cameras, alarms, and building computer
centers above flood levels are some of the many moves to ensure physical safety of computers.

Disaster recovery plans

Companies should have in place a responsibility roster that explain each and every individual’s duty in
case of a disaster e.g. fire outbreak, so as to minimize the effects of the disaster. They should also have a
tentative document that explain how customers would be served and who should disseminate the
information.

24
Ethical Challenges of Information Technology
Confines organizational members to strike a balance professional conduct and personal gain, within the
execution of their duties. In the end the benefits of Information Technology must outweigh its negative
impacts while reducing risks.

It’s totally unethical for a designated officer to divulge confidential information and distort the integrity
and accuracy of data.

When using computers at a business establishment, all members must be informed of the purpose of the
computers so that they do not speculate on their roles. Employees should be informed of the effect
Information Technology might have on their social life including making work easier as well as
unemployment.

Viruses
Are programs designed to cause harm or to disturb the normal operations of a computer. To guard against
viruses a computer should be loaded with updated antiviral software, avoid using external disks and not
being on the network including the Internet.

25
Societal Implications of Information Technology
The rise of Information technology puts pressure on society members to learn and cope with the
complexity of information-based employment. At the onset Information Technology many problems as it
takes considerable effort to be comfortable with the software, network and diagnosing related problems.

The managers are very much concerned with the reliability of the computers as the software may be of
international standard but failing to address the nitty-gritties of one’s business. Managers need more
information on Information Technology use for them to confidently conduct cost-benefit analysis for the
appropriate hardware, software and network technology.

If Information technology is used to monitor employees, that must be done with their concert so that they
do not feel harassed and insecure at the workplace. This may tend to distort any motivation that a manager
would offer to the employees

Other implications of computers are many employees tend to loose their jobs due to the insurgence of
information technology based production.

Other implications are positive in that, Information technology increases customer satisfaction through a
customer having confidence in the system and being served faster.

Practicals

Parts of a window screen:

Desktop: The desktop is the on-screen work area on which Windows, Icons, menus & dialog boxes
appear. The Desktop can have several components. Parts of the desktop include Icons & the
taskbar.
Components of the Desktop:
 Icons
 Taskbar

Icons: Icon is a small image that represents a file, folder or program.

The text below each icon is the name of the Icon. When we rest the mouse pointer on an icon,
a rectangular box appears. This is referred to as Tooltip. It gives a brief description of the Icon.
By default, there will be 4-5 icons on the desktop.
They are:
 My Computer
 My documents
 Internet Explorer
 Recycle bin
 Network Neighborhood

26
My Computer: This is the icon which represents all the files & folders which can be used in the system.
It is used to access the drives, folders & files on the computer. i.e Floppy drive(A), Local C, D, E,
Printer, Control panel etc.
My Documents: This is the default storage location for the files created in the windows.
Internet Explorer: This is an application used to browse the internet.
Recycle bin: This is a folder that stores all the files & folders deleted from windows temporarily, which
can be restored again if needed.
Network Neighborhood: This is an application which display all the computers connected in network
with our computer.
Taskbar: The rectangular bar that runs horizontally across the bottom of the screen is called Taskbar.
The Taskbar has the START menu on the left & the Notification area on the right. We can start an
application using the start menu.
Notification area holds system icons that allow for functions such as changing the time & Volume of
the Computer.
All the open applications are available on the Taskbar.

Anatomy of a Window:
The window on a desktop is the rectangular area displaying content independently of other areas of the
screen.
The different parts of a window are the Title bar, Menu bar, the Toolbar, and the min, max & close
buttons. These tools are used to manage the window & the components within it.

Title bar – This is the title of the window, like your name at the top of a piece of paper. The Title
bar is also the handle for the window. If you click and hold the mouse button down on the title bar,
you can move it around the screen.

 Minimize – To have a window take the minimum amount of desktop space possible, click the
minimize button. This drops the window into the Task bar like a piece of paper going into a
drawer. The Task bar will show the task whether or not the window is minimized.
 Maximize – To have a window take the maximum desktop space, click the maximize button.
This stretches the window out like an architect‘s floor plan being rolled out over the desk.
 Restore – A maximized window will cover over all the other windows and icons on the desktop.
The Restore button places the window back so that more than one window can display at a time.
 Close (X) – When done with a window, you can have it taken completely off the desktop by
closing it. Use the X button to do this.

Menu bar: The Menu bar displays a list of commands that can be used to perform various tasks. ( this
will be below the Title bar). Menu items are commands within the menu bar that allow choosing of
functions & tasks.

27
Tool bar: contains a set of buttons for frequently used commands.
Scroll Bars: On the bottom and right edges of a window we find scroll bars. They are used to pan
across the information in the window, when we have information which won‘t fit into the window. The
Status Bar :The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the window and provides such information as
the cursor position, current page number, the number of words in the document etc.
Booting in Windows:
 When the computer is switched on, the BIOS is activated.
 The BIOS present in ROM searches for the operating system and drives.
 If there is no OS, it shows non-system or disk error.
 If OS is present, then it transfers the OS from ROM to RAM.
 Then the desktop is displayed on the monitor.

28
 WINDOWS EXPLORER

Windows Explorer is an application that provides detailed information about your files, folders, and
drives. You can use it to see how your files are organized and to copy, move, and rename files, as well
as perform other tasks pertaining to files, folders, and drives.

Explorer uses the directory windows to graphically display the directory structure of your disk and files.
Windows Explorer displays the contents of the entire system in a hierarchical manner.

To open Windows Explorer, click Start  All programs  Accessories  Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer is divided into 2 panes. The left pane displays the list of drives & folders on the
computer. The right pane displays the contents of the selected drive or folder. By using these two panes,
you can browse through the contents of your computer in a single window. Folder is a list of files
(similar to Directory in MS-DOS)

Working with Folders:

Creating a Folder:
1. From the tree pane : select the directory under which you want to create a sub directory.
2. Choose FileNewFolder. On the right pane of the screen, a new folder is created.
3. Type in the name of the directory and press ENTER. You can notice the change in the tree
structure immediately.

Creating files:
After creating a folder, we can move files into it or create new files within the folder.
Selecting files & folders:
i) To select all the files in a folder:
Click the folder in the left pane  All the files will be displayed in the right pane.
To select all --CTRL + A
ii) To select consecutive files:
Use shift key + arrow keys
iii) To select non-consecutive files:
 In the right pane of Windows Explorer, click the first item to be selected.
 Hold down CTRL
 Click all other items that need to be selected.
29
Copying Files & Folders:
Once we select the files to be copied, the next step is to copy the files.
To copy the files & folders:
i) In Windows Explorer, select the file or folder to be copied.
ii) On the edit menu click copy
( the files are copied to the clip board. The clip board is a location where the information you
copy or cut is temporarily stored)
iii) Click the destination folder in the left pane.
iv) In [Link], click paste in the Edit menu.

Alternatively, to copy a file or folder, select it and then press ctrl +C. To paste, press ctrl+ V

To move the files or folders:

i) select the folder to be moved.
ii) On the edit menu, click cut
iii) Click the destination folder in the left pane
iv) On the edit menu, click paste.
Alternatively, to cut a file or folder, select and press ctrl +X & then to paste, press ctrl +V.
Renaming files or folders:
i) Select the item to be renamed
ii) Choose File  Rename
iii) Current name gets selected, Type in the new name
iv) Press Enter.
Deleting files or folders:
If you do not want certain files or folders, you can delete them. All the files & folders which are
deleted are moved to the recycle bin.
To delete:
i) Select
ii) On the file menu, click delete or press delete.
A warning appears prompting you to confirm the file deletion.
iii) If you want to delete, click yes otherwise No.
Note: To delete a file permanently without moving it to the Recycle bin, select the file & then press
Shift+ Del.

******

30
 WORD PROCESSING
Definition: Word-processing is essentially typing, editing, and manipulation of a document in a desired
form.

Units of the Document:

Since word-processing is concerned with preparation of a document (in a desired form), it is

essential to know the units of the document:

1. Character: It refers to the alphabets, numerical digits, punctuations and other special symbols which
are commonly used in the text.

2. Word: A word is group of characters that are separated from other group of characters by some
delimiters like, comma, full stop and space.

3. Sentence: A sentence is a group of words preceded and followed by appropriate delimiting characters.

4. Paragraph: It is a group of one or more sentences, paragraphs are separated by leaving blank lines
between them.

5. Pages: It is the amount of text that can be printed on one page of a paper.

6. Chapters: It is a collection of pages

7. Documents and files: It is a group of chapters. Usually, a complete document may be very short such
as a memo(or letter) or very long such as a book consisting of several chapters. These documents are
referred as ―Files‖.

Features of Word-processing:
1. Word-wrap
2. cursor control
3. editing
4. formatting
5. spell-check
6. thesaurus
7. macros
8. printing
9. file management
10. mail merge printing

1. Word-wrap: In word-processing packages, the text can be continuously typed and the computer
automatically starts a fresh line when a line is filled up. As soon as the length of a sentence
exceeds the right margin, the corresponding word is automatically adjusted in the following line.
This is called ―word-wrap‖. A paragraph is created only when carriage control is externally
given for a sentence.

2. Cursor Control: The four directional keys of the keyboard ( ) helps in locating the text
for editing in much the similar manner as that of a pointer or pencil.
3. Editing: Words or lines can be entered (inserted) or deleted in any part of the text with proper
alignment . Similarly, there is a facility to ‗recover‘ the text which is deleted by mistake or
accidentally. Another important facility is that any ‗word‘ can be replaced by a new word
through out the file, wherever the old word appears. In addition to these, a block of text(which is
frequently used) can be prepared and moved or copied wherever desired in the file.

31
 4. Formatting : The text formatting refers to the way the text is desired to appear on a page. This
includes following functions
 setting left and right margins
 paragraph settings
 line spacing
 selecting font specifications such as underline, bold, italics, superscripts and
subscripts
 setting foot-notes
 number of lines per page
 printing page numbers and headings for ‗Header‘ and ‗Footer‘
 table of contents
 indexing the text
5. Spell-check: Word-processing packages provide checking of spellings facility
6. Thesaurus: It provides synonyms (or words with similar meanings)
7. Macros: A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The ability to
define macros allows us to save a lot of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.
8. Printing: It gives a ‗hard‘ copy of the text. The printing can be controlled after printing a fixed
number of pages or can be resumed from any specified page number.
9. File management: This facility allows to create, delete, move & search for files.
10. Mail merge printing: This facility helps in printing same ―original‖ letter with different
addresses, so that each letter is ―original‖ and not a carbon copy.
Word-processing Packages: Several word-processing packages are available. Some of these are listed
below:

1. MSWORD (SOFT WORD) 2. WORDSTAR 3. CHIRATOR 4. NORTON EDITOR

32
 MS-WORD

MS- Word is a word processor. The extension name of MS- word is .doc. It is an application used to
create, edit, print and save a document. It allows the user to insert pictures, tables, charts, drawings &
features that will make the text richer & more interactive.
( The term document refers to a file created using word processor)

Starting MS-Word:
Start  All Programs  MS-office MS-word
MS-word icon is w.

The default Word document includes the following layout tools:

 Title bar: displays the document name and the application.

 Menu bar: Contains the list of menus available inside word, each menu contains a specific set
of commands.
 Standard toolbar: provides shortcuts in the form of buttons for frequently performed tasks.
 Formatting toolbar: Contains a list of formatting options available inside the format menu.
 Horizontal & Vertical rulers: used for measurement purposes like any normal ruler; the
default unit of measure is in inches.
 White page area: is the space area where you type, edit and format your document.
 Insertion point : is the blinking vertical line that indicates the position on the screen where text
or graphics will be placed.
 Task pane : is a small window within the word window that provides shortcuts to commonly
used tasks.
 Scroll bars : are used to move up and down or left and right in a document.
 Status bar: displays the details such as the page number the user is working on, section no.,
page no. out of the total pages found in the document, line number, column number etc.

33
Standard Toolbar:
This toolbar contains buttons to allow you to perform the basic operations such as opening and closing a
document, moving and printing data.

Function of commonly used buttons

 New: Creates a new blank document based on the default template

 Open: Opens or finds an existing file
 Save: Saves the active file with its current file name, location and file format
 Print: Prints the active file - for more print options go to the File menu and select Print
 Print preview : Shows how the document will look when you print it.
 Spelling & Grammer: Spelling, grammar and writing style checker
 Cut : Removes the selection from the document and places it on the clipboard
 Copy : Copies the selected item(s) to the clipboard
 Paste : Places the content of the clipboard at the insertion point
 Format painter : Copies the format from a selected object or text and applies to other objects
 Undo : Reverses the last command, use pull-down menu to undo several steps
 Redo : Reverses the action of the Undo button, use the pull-down menu to redo several steps
 Insert table: Insert a table into the document, or make a table of selected text
 Insert Excel worksheet: Inserts an Excel spreadsheet into the Word document
 Columns : Changes the number of columns in a document
 Drawing: Displays or hides the Drawing toolbar
 Zoom (100%): Enlarge or reduce the display of the active document

Formatting Toolbar:
The formatting Tool bar is the easiest way to change many attributes of a text.

 Style menu: Allows you to make your text Bold, Italic, underlined… depending on the style you
choose.
 Font : Allows you to change the font by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of the
font name box. You can view a list of fonts available, you can scroll down to view more fonts
and select the font name you wish to use by clicking on its name.
 Font size : Allows you to change the font size by clicking inside the Font size box and entering a
value or by clicking on the drop-down arrow on the right of the box to view a list of sizes
available. Select then a size by clicking on it.
Note : A Font size of 11 or 12 is best for paragraphs of text.
 Bold, Italic, Underline : Each button respectively allows you to make your text appear as bold,
italic or underlined.
 Alignment : Each button respectively allows you to make your text aligned to the left, center or
right side of the page. You can also justify the text across the page using the justify button.
 Line spacing : Allows you to set the amount of space that word puts when go to a new line.
 Text orientation : Allows you to change the typing direction of your text, from left to right or
right to left manner.

34
  Numbering, Bullets : Allows you to make your text appear as a bullets list or as a numbering
list.
 Increase / Decrease indent : Allows you to increase or decrease the indentation of your
paragraph in relation to the side of the page.
 Outside Border : Allows you to add a border around a text selection.
 Highlight color : Allows you to change the color behind a text selection.
 Font colour : Allows you to change the colour of the text.

Features of FILE MENU ( ALT F):

1. New - Opens new Word file (Blank Document file)

2. Open - Opens the existing files
3. Save - Saves the file with one name
4. Save as -Saves the file with more than one name( with different formats)
5. Save as Web page – This is used to save a document in a Web style. (with HTML extension)
6. Versions - This is used to do the parts of work in small parts. i.e a bulk ( big/ more) work can be
done in small parts.
7. Web Page Preview – This shows the web page in printable form.
8. Page set up - To set the margin, paper size, Orientation
9. Print - To get the printout.( Specified pages and no. of copies).
10. Properties - This gives the details about the document ( the type of file, the size of file, the date of
creation, date of modification and file location)
11. Send - This is used to send the file document to internet mail to some other person.
12. Exit - To close the Ms-word.
To insert a new page, press Ctrl + Enter

35
Features of EDIT MENU (ALT E):

Undo - Will take the previous command (ctrl +Z)

Redo - Will take the opposite action of undo ( Ctrl + Y)
Cut - Can cut a selected text ( Ctrl + X)
Copy - Can copy a selected text ( Ctrl + C)
Paste - Can paste the selected text ( Ctrl + V)
Del - Removes the selected text
Find - Used to find the part of text word \ character in the file (Ctrl + F)
Find Next – (F3) Finding \ finding next : Used to repeat the finding process.
Replace - Used to replace any part of Text / word / Character with another word/ character.(Ctrl + H)
Paste special – This will paste the copied (or) cut text in a form of an object. It will paste in box which
Cannot be altered.
Go To - Curser goes to the specified page, specified line, specified paragraph.(Ctrl + G)

Features of FORMAT MENU ( ALT + O)

1. Font - used to change the font face, style, size etc.

2. Paragraph - Used to set the space between paragraphs and also between the lines
3. Bullets - Used to highlight points in number wise / bullet wise.
4. Borders & Shades - Used to apply different borders to the table / to the page.
5. Columns – Used to write the text in column wise.
To have a break in columns, a column break is used ( insert menu  break  Columns)
Ctrl + Shift + Enter
6. Drop Cap - Used to drop the letter to different lines.

36
 7. Text direction - Used to change the direction of drop cap (Note : To use text direction, drop
cap must be used first)
8. Change case - Used to change the case of the text.
9. Toggle – This converts lower case letters to upper case & vice –versa in a word.
10. Back Ground - This is used to change the back ground colour of the document but the color
can be seen only in the web layout.
11. Theme - This is used to change the document, backgrounds with some existing design
background. This shows the background only in the web layout.
12. Style - This is used to change the writing fashion of the document which are already existing.
13. Frames - Frames are used to write different documents in one single document.

Some important features of Tools menu:

Spelling &Grammar : Used to check the spelling and correct the words with related word. ( F7)
Thesaurus : Used to know the synonym (meaning) of the word. (Shift +F7)
Mail merge : used to type the letters with the same matter but different addresses.

MS WORD – working with files:

Creating a New document:

 Click the New Blank document button on the standard tool bar. (or)
 From the Menu bar, choose File  New, the New document task pane will open, and select
Blank document.
Opening Existing documents:
 Click the open button found on the Standard tool bar. (or)
 From the task pane, select getting started and the select more (or)
 From the Menu bar, select File  Open
Saving a document:
 Click the Save button on the Tool bar. (or)
 From the Menu bar, select File  Save (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + S
Save dialog box appears. Type the name and click Save.
Printing a document :
 Select File  Print (or)
 Click on the Print button on the Standard Tool bar (or)
 Click Ctrl + P
Print dialog box appears. Select All pages (or) Current page (or) type the page numbers and
also select number of copies according to the requirement and click O.K
Closing a document:
 Select File  close
 Click on the small X found on the right top next to the Menu bar and the Title bar.

MS WORD - Editing Text :

Typing and Inserting Text:

To enter text in your document, position the insertion point i.e a vertical blinking line, where you want
the text to appear and type it in.
Word will automatically wrap text as it reaches the end of a line. Press enter to start a
new paragraph. When you reach the end of a page, word will automatically break text onto the next
page. If you want, you can start a new page at any point by inserting a page break. To do so, press ctrl +
Enter.

37
 Word offers two modes for adding text to your documents: Insert mode and overwrite
mode. In Insert mode, characters typed are inserted into the text to the left of the insertion point, pushing
any characters to the right of the insertion point further to the right. In overtype mode, the text you type
will replace the existing text.
Note: The Insert key is a toggle key. This means that the same key can be used to switch back and forth
between two different modes.
Selecting Text:
In order to change the format of the text you just typed, it must be first highlighted, i.e selected with the
mouse cursor.
To highlight the whole text or part of it, locate the mouse at the start of the text you wish to highlight
and click the left button, then drag the mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse button
pressed.
Shortcuts used for selecting a portion of the text:
 Whole word : Double click within the word.
 Whole paragraph: Triple click within the paragraph.
 Sentence : ctrl + click in a sentence
 Entire document : Edit  select all ( ctrl + A)

Deleting text:
 Use the BACKSPACE or the DELETE key to delete text.
 BACKSPACE key will delete text to the left of the cursor and DELETE key will erase text to
the right.
 To delete a large section of text, highlight the text using any of the methods outlined above and
press the DELETE key.

Moving, copying and pasting text:

Cut text:
Highlight the text you need to move and follow one of the methods listed below:
 From the Menu bar, select Edit  cut (or)
 From the standard tool bar, click on the cut button. (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + X
Copy text:
 From the Menu bar, select Edit  copy (or)
 From the standard toolbar, click the Copy button (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + C
Paste Text:
To paste previously cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move the text to and
follow one of the methods listed below:
 From the menu bar, select Edit  Paste (or)
 From the standard Tool bar, click the Paste button (or)
 Follow the key sequence Ctrl + V

*******

34
 MS -EXCEL

Spreadsheet is a software that helps to substitute the paper worksheets in the offices. Spreadsheet
displays data in the form of rows and columns. An intersection of row and column is known as a cell.
MS-Excel is a window based spreadsheet developed by Microsoft corporation. It includes all features of
a spreadsheet package like recalculation, graphs & functions. It also provides many Mathematical,
Financial & Statistical functions. Thus it is used in many scientific and engineering environments for
analyzing data. Excel can even hold graphic objects like pictures & images.
Some important features of MS-Excel:
1. Window based application: Excel like all other applications has Toolbars, Shortcut Menus,
Auto correct, Online help and Wizards.
2. Workbooks: Workbooks are the files in which worksheets related to a project are held.
3. OLE support: Object linking and Embedding is a feature through which Excel can contain any
object like a document, a picture etc.
4. Maintaining high volume of data: Excel can contain large volume of data. A worksheet can
contain 65536 rows and 256 columns. A single cell can contain a maximum of 255 characters.
One workbook can contain a maximum of 256 worksheets.
5. Availability of functions: Several Mathematical, financial & statistical functions are available
in an Excel package.
6. Availability of Charts & Graphs: MS-Excel allows users to view data entered as tables in a
graphical form as charts, which helps the user to easily understand, analyze data & compare data.
7. Data Analysis Tools: MS-Excel provides a set of data analysis tools called Analysis Tool pack.
8. Sorting capability: Excel has the capability of sorting any data in Ascending or Descending
order.
9. Auto fill feature: Excel has the feature which allows to fill cells with repetitive data such as
chronological dates or numbers and repeated text.

Getting started with Excel:

An Excel document is called a workbook. By default, Excel workbook contains 3 worksheets
designated as sheet 1, sheet 2, sheet 3.
The extension name of excel workbook is .xls
We can start excel in many ways:
1. Start  Programs  Microsoft office  Microsoft Excel  hit enter.
2. Start  Run  Type Excel  hit enter
3. Double click on the Microsoft application Icon.

35
Components of the Excel window:
An Excel window has several unique elements identified in the figure below:

 Rows, columns & cell: In a worksheet rows are numbered from top to bottom. The columns are
labeled with letters from left to right. Rows are numbered from 1 to 65,536 and columns labeled
from A to IV (256 columns).
 Title bar: The title bar contains the name of the program Microsoft Excel and the default name
of the workbook Book1 that would change as soon as you save your file and give another name.
 Menu bar : The Menu bar contains menus that include all the commands you need to use to
work your way through Excel such as File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Data, Window and
Help.
 Tool Bar: Tool Bars are usually shortcuts for menu items. Standard and formatting toolbars are
displayed by default.
 Active cell: The cell in which you are currently working.
 Formula bar: displays the contents of the active cell.
 Name box: displays the cell address of the active cell. Column letter followed by the row
number. Ex: B6
 Worksheet area: The middle portion of screen which occupies a major area is called worksheet
area. In this area, information or data (i.e.) either textual or numerical can be entered and the
results can be displayed. A worksheet is a large work area of 65,536 rows and 256 columns.
 Status bar: located at the very bottom of the screen displays brief information about activating
features within the worksheet area.
 Sheet tabs: appear above the status bar displaying the names of the worksheets.

Standard Toolbar

The Standard toolbar, located beneath the menu bar, has buttons for commonly performed tasks like
adding a column of numbers, printing, sorting, and other operations. Excel let's you customize the
toolbar or even display multiple toolbars at the same time. The Standard Excel XP toolbar appears in the
figure below.

36
Formatting toolbar

The Formatting toolbar, located beneath the Standard toolbar bar, has buttons for various formatting
operations like changing text size or style, formatting numbers and placing borders around cells.

Formula bar & Name box

The formula bar is located beneath the toolbar at the top of the Excel worksheet. Use the formula bar to
enter and edit worksheet data. The contents of the active cell always appear in the formula bar. When
you click the mouse in the formula bar, an X and a check mark appear. You can click the check icon to
confirm and completes editing, or the X to abandon editing.

Name box
The Name box displays the reference of the selected cells in the form of column label followed by row
number.
Creating a New Workbook:
The steps to create a new workbook are,
1. On the File menu, click New.
The new workbook task pane appears at the right side of the screen. Click blank workbook.
A new workbook with 3 worksheets appears. By default, the workbook is named as Book 1, and
sheet 1 is the active worksheet & A1 is the active cell.
Entering data:
You can enter text, numbers and dates in an Excel worksheet.
To enter data of any type,
1. Select the cell by clicking on it.
2. Type in the information.
3. Press the Enter key.
When you begin typing, your data also appears in the formula bar.
Editing text:
The easiest way to edit the contents of a cell is to select the cell and then retype the entry. The new
entry replaces the old contents.
Alternatively, to edit the data in a cell, press F2.
Ex: Suppose you find that in the cell A6, you have entered the marks as 78 instead of 87, then click
on A6 and type 87 enter

37
 You can also edit part of the data in a cell:
1. Double click the cell you want to edit. The insertion point appears within the cell.
2. Delete the part of the data that you do not wish to keep.
3. Retype the data & press enter.
Formatting a worksheet:
Changing the style or appearance of data in a worksheet is called formatting. You can format the data
in a worksheet by:
 Changing the position of data in a cell
 Changing the font, size, style & colour.
Aligning data:
By default, any text you enter in Excel is aligned to the left and any value or number is aligned to the
Right. To change the default alignment, you can use the alignment buttons on the formatting tool bar.

Formatting Numbers:
Formatting data in a worksheet includes changing the number of decimal places, displaying dates, times
& fractions and adding currency symbols.
To format the number in a cell, the steps are: Format/Cell/N/umber/Decimal places/2

Formatting Text: Text can be formatted using the buttons on the formatting toolbar. Font of a cell,
font size can be changed. The font style can also be changed to bold, Italic etc.
Inserting Rows & Columns:
In Excel, rows & columns can be inserted or deleted without affecting the surrounding rows, columns &
cells.
To insert a row,
1. Rest the mouse pointer over the row above which you want to insert the new row.
2. On the Insert menu, click rows.
A row is inserted and the existing row moves down after the new row.
Similarly, to insert a column,
1. Rest the mouse pointer over the column before which you want to insert the new Column.
2. On the Insert menu, click columns.
Changing Row height & Column width:
By default, every row is 12.75 points high and every column is 8.43 characters wide. As you fill it with
data, however you have to change the size of rows & columns so that it is fitted to the length of the data.
To Resize a column:
1. Rest the mouse pointer on the column boundary on the right side.
2. The shape of the mouse pointer changes to
3. Drag the boundary until the required width is obtained.

38
(OR)
1. The column which is to be adjusted is made active by clicking on column letter.
2. The column option is selected from the Format menu.
3. Click on the width option. A dialogue box is displayed.
4. Type in the required size of the column in the text box column width.
Similarly, Row height can also be adjusted by selecting the rows.
Sorting: Highlight the cells that should be sorted and click the sort Ascending (A-Z) button or Sort
Descending (Z-A) button found on the Standard toolbar.
Printing: To print the worksheet, select File  Print from the Menu bar (or) click on the Print button
from the Standard Toolbar (or) follow the key sequence Ctrl + p
Inserting Page breaks: To set the page breaks within the worksheet, select the row you want to appear
just below the page break by clicking the row‘s label. Then choose Insert  page break from the
Menu bar.
When you attempt to print a worksheet Excel automatically inserts page breaks view.
File menu  page break preview
The page breaks are shown in dasher lines. If the automatic allocation of page breaks does not satisfy
with your requirements, you can add the page breaks in the required space.
Step 1: select a cell above which the page break is needed. After that, select the full row until the data in
the sheet exists.
Step 2: select insert  page break
Saving a workbook:
To save a workbook,
 File  Save (or)
 Ctrl +S (or)
 click on the save button on the Tool bar.
Save dialogue box appears. Type the name and click Save.

Formulas:
In Excel. One of the powerful features is formulas. A formula is an equation that is used to perform
calculations on data in a worksheet. We can use formula to perform Mathematical, Statistical &
date/time operations on a single value or a set of values by using operators.
The cells in which formulas are stored, display the result of the calculation and not the formula.
In Excel, a formula starts with an equal (=) sign and should be followed by the operation to be
performed. We can use any number of operators in a single formula. MS- Excel evaluates the
formula according to the order of precedence of the operators.

Operator Operati Order of

on precedence
( Brack 1
) et
^ Exponentiation 2
*, Multiplication , Division 3
/
+ / Addition, Subtraction 4
-
& Concatenation 5
=/ Compariso 6
> /< ns

39
 Examples of the formula expressions:
1. Suppose the values in the cells B2, C2, D2 are 34, 28, 56 respectively. To add these values and
to have the result in the cell F2,
Step i) Click on the cell in which total marks is to be displayed, i.e F2
ii) Type ― = ( B2 + C2 + D2 )‖
iii) Press Enter
The value ―118‖ will be displayed in F2.
2. Suppose the value of the cell B6 is 78345. Divide the value by 5 and have it in the cell E6:
Step i) Click the cell E6.
ii) Type ― = (B6/5) ―
iii) Press Enter
The value ―15669‖ will be displayed in the cell E6.
3. Multiply the value 549 of the cell C3 with the value 43 of the cell F3 and have the result in
the cell I3.
Step i) Click the cell I3
ii) Type ― = ( C3 * F3)
iii) press Enter
The result ―23607‖ will be displayed in the cell I3.
Functions :
A function is a built-in, readymade and frequently used formula that accepts data, perform calculations
& returns results.
To enter a function in a cell,
i) Click the cell in which you want the result of the function to be displayed.
ii) Type ―=‖ sign.
iii) Type the function name.
iv) Type the cell range & other arguments within brackets.
v) Press Enter.
Note : To specify a range of cells, a colon (:) is used between the first & last cell addresses.
Example: =Average(B1: B10)
Calculates the average of the values in the cells B1 to B10
Mathematical functions with syntax and purpose:
i) Sum( number1, number2,…) – gives the sum of the values in a specified
range ii) Abs( number) - gives the absolute value of the number
iii) Fact( number) - gives the factorial of the number
iv) Sqrt(number) - gives the square root of the number
v) Log(number) - gives the logarithm of the number
Statistical functions with syntax and purpose:
i) Average( range of - calculates the average of the values in a specified range
cells)
ii) - calculates the standard deviation of the given data
Stdev(range of cells)
iii) Mean( range of cells) - calculates the mean of the given data
iv) Max( range of cells) - gives the maximum value within the range specified
v) count( ) - counts how many numbers are there in the list of
arguments

40
Function Wizard :
The Function Wizard is a tool in Excel through which a user can enter formulas in the correct format
without any errors. It contains all the functions according to the type such as Mathematical, Statistical,
Date/time, Financial etc.

Steps to use the function Wizard:

1. The cell in which the function is to be inserted, is selected.
2. Select the function option from the Insert menu. The Function Wizard screen is displayed. It lists
all the functions available.
3. The function needed is selected. Click O.K
4. A dialogue box is displayed in which arguments are accepted.
5. Enter the arguments. The selected cell on the worksheet will automatically contain the formula.
6. Click O.K. The result is shown in the selected cell.
Creating Charts :
Charts in Excel are used to represent data pictorially. We can use different types of charts to represent
data.
Types of charts which are available in Excel:
1. Column charts
2. Bar charts
3. Line
4. pie
5. XY (scatter)
6. Area
7. Doughnut
8. Radar
9. Surface
10. Bubble
11. Stock
12. Cylinder, Cone & Pyramid
Creating a Chart :
Step i) Enter the data in a table.
ii) Open the Insert Menu and select Chart
iii) In the Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4, select the type of chart you want to make and click
Next iv) In the step 2 of 4, enter chart source data and click Next
vi) In the step 3 of 4, enter the chart options like label of the chart and click Next
vii) In the step 4 of 4, give the chart location where you want the chart to be located and press
Finish.
41
 Column Chart: Column charts are one of the most common types of graphs used to display data.
A column chart represents data in the form of a series of vertical bars. Each bar represents a value.
For example, to draw a column chart for the production of different crops in a region:
[Link]. A B
crop Production(tons)

1 Paddy 53
2 Wheat 24
3 Maize 18
4 Groundn 82
ut
To construct a bar chart for the above data:
Step i) Enter the data in a table.
ii) Open the Insert Menu and select Chart
iii) In the Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4, select Column chart and click
Next iv) In the step 2 of 4, enter chart source data
v) In the step 3 of 4, enter the chart options like label of the chart
vi) In the step 4 of 4, give the chart location where you want the chart to be located and press
Finish.

production of crops
production(tonns)

90 0
80 paddy wheat maize
70 groundnut
60 type of
crop
50
40
30
20
10
42
43
 Pie Chart:

A Pie chart is used to represent the distribution of a categorical data. In this chart, a circle is divided
into sectors, whose area are proportional to the frequencies or percentages of cases under various
categories.
Data on each variable is entered in the Excel worksheet in a row or column with suitable headings.
Then we select the data of the first series and choose pie chart and proceed as per the options given in
the dialogue box. A separate chart pie chart should be drawn for each data set.

For example, to draw a pie chart for the production of different crops in a region:

[Link]. A B
crop Production(tons)

1 Paddy 53
2 Wheat 24
3 Maize 18
4 Groundn 82
ut

pr oduction of cr ops

30
% paddy
46 w heat
%
maiz e

10 ground
% 14
% nut
 Statistical Analysis Tools
Microsoft Excel provides a set of data analysis tools— called the Analysis Tool Pak— that you can use
to save steps when you develop complex statistical or engineering analyses. You provide the data and
parameters for each analysis; the tool uses the appropriate statistical or engineering macro functions and
then displays the results in an output table. Some tools generate charts in addition to output tables.
Related to worksheet functions, Excel provides many other statistical, financial, and engineering
worksheet functions. Some of the statistical functions are built-in and others become available when you
install the Analysis Tool Pak.
Accessing the data analysis tools: The Analysis Tool Pak includes the tools described below. To
access these tools, click Data Analysis on the Tools menu. If the Data Analysis command is not
available, you need to load the Analysis Tool Pak add-in program.

Analysis Tools:
ANOVA: Single factor
ANOVA: Two-Factor with replication
ANOVA: Two-Factor without replication
Correlation
Covariance
Descriptive statistics
F-test two-sample for variances
Histogram
Regression
t-test: two sample assuming equal variances
t-test: two sample assuming unequal variances
Z-test: two sample for means
Steps to use Analysis Tools:
Step i) From the Menu bar choose Tools and click on Data Analysis
ii) When the Data Analysis dialogue box appears, click on the one you want.
iii) The corresponding dialogue box appears. Enter the Input range and Output range (addresses
of the cells)
iv) give the address of the cell where you want the result to be shown.
iv) click OK
v) The result will be given in the corresponding output format.
Ex 1: The following are the results of 5 preschool going children at different levels of protein content in
diet. Compute the correlation coefficient using Excel
Protein content (%) Gain in weight(gm)
5 3
0
7 4
0
1 8
0 0
1 1
2 0
1 1
3 2

Step i) From the Menu bar, choose Tools and click on Data Analysis.
ii) Select Correlation in the Data Analysis Dialogue box and click OK.
iii) When the Correlation dialogue box appears, enter the Input range and also give the output range
where you want the result to be shown, clock OK.

v) the result will be shown in the following format:

Summary output:
Protein gain in
content weight
Protein
content
1 gain in
weight 0.989783 1

Ex 2: Following is the data of head and body weights of 5 insects. Find the regression equation of
y on x.

Head Body
weight weight
2( 6(
20 60
2 74
25 82
37 80
1 4
Step i) From the Menu bar, choose Tools and click on Data Analysis.
ii) Select Regression in the Data Analysis Dialogue box and click OK.
iii) When the Regression dialogue box appears, enter the Input Y range and input X range.
iv) give the output range where you want the result to be shown, clock OK.
v) The result will be shown in the following format.
SUMMARY OUTPUT

Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.9803
R Square 0.9610
Adjusted R
Square 0.9480
Standard 25
Error 2.3249
Observations 53 5

ANOV
A Significanc
e
df SS MS F F
Regression 1 399.7838 73. 0.003
Residual 3 16.21622
Total 4
5.405405 416

Standard Uppe Lowe Upper

r r
Coefficients Error t S ta t P-value Lower 95% 95% 95.0%
95.0%
Intercept 13.89189 6.836289 2.032081 0.135073 -7.86423 35.64801 -7.86423
35.64801
(X) 2.324324 0.27027 8.6 0.003305 1.464204 3.184445 1.464204
3.184445

Ex 3:
The daily production of two pesticide factories is recorded as follows.
Factory 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A 12 16 9 13 15 17 20 23
B 8 13 21 16 11 12
Test whether there is any significant difference between two factories at probability level 0.05.

Solution:
Step i) From the Menu bar, choose Tools and click on Data Analysis.
ii)Select t-test; two samples assuming equal variances in the Data Analysis Dialogue box and
click OK.
iii) Enter the variable 1 range, variable 2 range and set Hypothesized mean difference as zero.
iv) Click the check box against Labels in the First row.
iv) Give the output range where you want the result to be shown, click O.K
v) the result will be shown in the following format.

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances

A B
Mean 15.6 13
Variance 19.982 20
Observations 8 6
Pooled Variance 20.114
Hypothesized Mean 0
df 12
t Stat 0.8773
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.1987
t Critical one-tail 1.7822
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.3975
t Critical two-tail 35 2.178813