Switch Fuse Unit (SFU)

It is a combination of switch and fuse. SFU can make, carry, and break the circuit along with
providing over current protection to the installation; while fuse can only provide over current
protection. It is used for low and medium voltages.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

It is an automatically operated electrical switch used to protect low voltage electrical circuits
from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. MCBs are typically
rated up to a current up to 125 A, do not have adjustable trip characteristics, and can be thermal
or thermal-magnetic in operation.

The MCB has many advantages compared to a fuse:

1. It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during the abnormal conditions of the
network (both overload and fault conditions). The MCB is much more reliable in the
detection of such conditions, is it is more sensitive to change in current.
2. As the switch operating knob comes at its off position during tripping, the faulty zone of
the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of a fuse, the fuse wire should be
checked by opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for confirming the blow of fuse
wire. Thus is it much detect if an MCB has been operated compared to a fuse.
3. Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse, as fuses have to be
rewirable or replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of an MCB, quick
restoration is possible by (literally) flipping a switch.
4. The handling of an MCB is more electrically safe than a fuse.
5. MCBs can be controlled remotely, whereas fuses cannot.

There is two arrangement of operation of a miniature circuit breaker. One due to the thermal
effect of over current and other due to electromagnetic effect of over current. The thermal
operation of the miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever continuous
overcurrent flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This
deflection of the bimetallic strip releases a mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached
to the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker contacts. But during
short circuit conditions, the sudden rising of current causes electromechanical displacement of
plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever
causing the immediate release of the latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker
contacts.

If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the bimetallic strip becomes overheated and
deformed. This deformation of bimetallic strip causes, displacement of latch point. The moving
contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, that a little
displacement of latch causes, release of spring and makes the moving contact to move for
opening the MCB.

The current coil or trip coil is placed in such a manner that during short circuit fault the MMF of
that coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be displaced. Hence
the MCB will open in the same manner.

Again when the operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand, that
means when we make the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a
result moving contact separated from fixed contact in the same manner.

Regardless of the operating mechanism – e.g. due to the deformation of the bimetallic strip, or
due to the increased MMF of the trip coil, or due to manual operation – the same latch point is
displaced and same deformed spring is released. This is ultimately responsible for the movement
of the moving contact. When the moving contact separated from fixed contact, there may be a
high chance of arc. This arc then goes up through the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and
is finally quenched. When we switch on an MCB, we actually reset the displaced operating latch
to its previous on position and make the MCB ready for another switch off or trip operation.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations (both
residential and commercial) with high Earth impedance to prevent electric shocks. It detects
small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a
dangerous voltage is detected. ELCBs help detect current leaks and insulation failures in the
electrical circuits that would cause electrical shocks to anyone coming into contact with the
circuit.

There are two types of earth leakage circuit breakers—a voltage ELCB and a current ELCB.

Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil is
connected to the metal body of the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other
terminal is connected to the earth directly. If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire
touches the metal body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage difference appears across the
terminal of the coil connected to the equipment body and earth. This voltage difference produces
a current to flow the relay coil.

If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the relay becomes
sufficient to actuate the relay for tripping the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power
supply to the equipment. The typicality of this device is, it can detect and protect only that
equipment or installation with which it is attached. It cannot detect any leakage of insulation in
other parts of the system.

Current ELCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB)

Here one CT (Current Transformer) core is energized from both phase wise and neutral wire.
The polarity of the phase winding and neutral winding on the core is so chosen that, in normal
condition mmf of one winding opposes that of another. As it is assumed that, in normal operating
conditions the current goes through the phase wire will be returned via neutral wire if there’s no
leakage in between. As both currents are same, the resultant mmf produced by these two currents
is also zero-ideally.

Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCB)

It uses air as the dielectric medium to break a circuit. Air has a low dielectric strength as opposed
to other mediums that is why it is used for protection in low voltage circuits. It is an automatic
electrical device. It is a type of circuit breaker that protects the circuit from overloading, short
circuit and current surges. It is an advanced version of miniature circuit breaker MCB since it
operates like one. However, it offers extra features that make it a superior circuit breaker such as
remote closing and adjustable trip settings i.e. its current settings and time settings can be
adjusted according to our needs.

MCCB is used to protect the low voltage distribution system. It is available in rating up to 2500
Amps and 1.1 kV.

Construction of MCCB

An MCCB is made from the following main parts:

1. Arc chute
2. Contacts
3. Operating mechanism
4. Terminal Connector
5. Thermal Trip Unit
6. Magnetic Trip Unit
7. Handle / Trip-free Mechanism
8. Trip Button
Working Principle of MCCB

An MCCB protects a circuit from fault current. It uses thermal and magnetic mechanisms to
break those fault currents. The thermal mechanism is used for overload protection while the
magnetic mechanism is used for short circuit protection

Overload Protection

Overload occurs when the current exceeds a limit for a prolonged duration. MCCB has a thermal
mechanism that contains a bimetallic contact to protect from overload. A bimetallic strip is made
from two different types of metal having different rates of thermal expansion. Upon temperature
change, the strip bends or contracts.

The main current passes through the bimetallic strip. If the current exceeds a certain limit, the
contacts heat up and expand. Due to different expansion rates, the strip bends and trips the
circuit.

In electrical devices, the current can overload for short durations of time, it is normal and should
not be considered as fault current. Therefore, MCCB has a time delay that allows the overload
current for a short duration of time before tripping the circuit.

Short Circuit Protection

MCCB protects against a short circuits using a solenoid that produces electromagnetic force. The
main current flows through the solenoid that attracts and repels a plunger responsible for tripping
the breaker.

If the current remains below the threshold, the solenoid produces a weak magnetic force that
cannot attract the plunger. In short-circuit conditions, very high current flows through the
solenoid that generates a very strong magnetic force. It attracts the plunger that trips the circuit.

Function of MCCB

MCCB as it is an electrical protection device has the following functions

Protection against Overloading

Overloading is the condition when the current exceeds a predetermined limit for a specific
duration of time. The overloading current can damage the equipment, wirings and can create fire
hazards. MCCB offers protection against overloading using a bimetallic strip.

Protection against Short Circuit

A short circuit is a condition when the live wire comes into contact with each other or with a
neutral wire. It can occur due to downed lines or broken or exposed wires or deteriorated
insulation of wires. The current flow due to the short circuit is very large and very destructive.
Short circuit current must be interrupted in the shortest period of time. MCCB can trip short
circuit current up 200k amps in the duration of 0.04 seconds.

A contactor is an electrically-controlled switch used for switching an electrical power circuit. [1]
A contactor is typically controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power level than the
switched circuit, such as a 24-volt coil electromagnet controlling a 230-volt motor switch.

A contactor has three components:

 The contacts are the current-carrying part of the contactor. Contact material is chosen for
high electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and stability under arcing and
oxidation. Commonly used metals include alloys of tungsten, molybdenum, copper etc.
 The electromagnet (or "coil") provides the driving force to close the contacts. The
enclosure is a frame housing the contacts and the electromagnet. Enclosures are made of
insulating materials such as Bakelite, Nylon 6, and thermosetting plastics to protect and
insulate the contacts and to provide some measure of protection against personnel
touching the contacts.
 Magnetic blowouts use blowout coils to lengthen and move the electric arc. These are
especially useful in DC power circuits. AC arcs have periods of low current, during
which the arc can be extinguished with relative ease, but DC arcs have continuous high
current, so blowing them out requires the arc to be stretched further than an AC arc of the
same current.

When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic field is produced, which attracts the
moving core of the contactor. The electromagnet coil draws more current initially, until its
inductance increases when the metal core enters the coil. The moving contact is propelled by the
moving core; the force developed by the electromagnet holds the moving and fixed contacts
together. When the contactor coil is de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the electromagnet
core to its initial position and opens the contacts.

For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part of the core is surrounded with a
shading coil, which slightly delays the magnetic flux in the core. The effect is to average out the
alternating pull of the magnetic field and so prevent the core from buzzing at twice line
frequency.

Because arcing and consequent damage occurs just as the contacts are opening or closing,
contactors are designed to open and close very rapidly; there is often an internal tipping point
mechanism to ensure rapid action.

Rapid closing can, however, lead to increase contact bounce which causes additional unwanted
open-close cycles. One solution is to have bifurcated contacts to minimize contact bounce; two
contacts designed to close simultaneously, but bounce at different times so the circuit will not be
briefly disconnected and cause an arc.
Power Factor Improvement

For a particular power supplied, a high power factor reduces the current flowing in a supply
system, which consequently lowers losses (i.e. I2R losses) and hence results in cheaper running
costs. Supply authorities use tariffs which encourage consumers to operate at a reasonably high
power factor. One method of improving the power factor of an inductive load is to connect a
bank of capacitors in parallel with the load.
Capacitors are rated in reactive voltamperes and the effect of the capacitors is to reduce the
reactive power of the system without changing the active power. Most residential and industrial
loads on a power system are inductive, i.e. they operate at a lagging power factor. A simplified
circuit diagram is shown in Figure (a).

Where a capacitor C is connected across an inductive load. Before the capacitor is connected the
circuit current is ILR and is shown lagging voltage V by angle φ1 in the phasor diagram of Figure
(b).

When the capacitor C is connected it takes a current IC which is shown in the phasor diagram
leading voltage V by 90◦. The supply current I in Figure (a) is now the phasor sum of currents
ILR and IC as shown in Figure (b). The circuit phase angle, i.e. the angle between V and I, has
been reduced from φ1 to φ2 and the power factor has been improved from cos φ 1 to cos φ2.
Figure (c) shows the power triangle for an inductive circuit with a lagging power factor of cos
φ1 .

In Figure (d), the angle φ1 has been reduced to φ2, i.e. the power factor has been improved from
cos φ1 to cos φ2 by introducing leading reactive voltamperes (shown as length ab) which is
achieved by connecting capacitance in parallel with the inductive load. The power factor has
been improved by reducing the reactive voltamperes; the active power P has remained
unaffected.

Power factor correction results in the apparent power S decreasing (from 0a to 0b in Figure (d)
and thus the current decreasing, so that the power distribution system is used more efficiently.
Another method of power factor improvement, besides the use of static capacitors, is by using
synchronous motors; such machines can be made to operate at leading power factors.

Electrical Wiring system: A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of
electrical energy from the supplier meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming
devices such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances through controlling and safety devices
is known as a wiring system.

Methods of Wiring: There are two methods of wiring known as joint box system (or Tee system)
and loop in system.
(i) Joint Box or Tee System: In joint box system the connections to the lamps are made through
joints made in joint box by means of suitable connectors or joint cutouts. In this method though
there is a saving in the quantity of wire or cable required but the same is offset by the extra cost
of joint boxes. The other disadvantage is the number of ‘T’ connection made in wiring system
results in weakness if not properly made. Nowadays the use of this system is limited to
temporary installations only as its cost is low.

(ii) Loop-in System: this system is universally used for connections of various lamps or other
appliances in parallel. In this system when a connection is required at a light or switch, the feed
conductor is looped in by bringing it direct to the terminal and then carrying it forward again to
the next point to be fed as shown in fig.-4. The switch and light feeds are carried round the
circuit in a series of loops from one point to another until the last point on the circuit is reached.

The phase or line conductors are looped either in switch board or box and neutrals are looped
either in switch board or from light or fan. Line or phase should never be looped from light or
fan.
Selection or choice of wiring system:
i (i) Safety
ii (ii) Durability
iii (iii) Appearance
iv (iv) Mechanical protection
v (v) Accessibility
vi (vi) Low initial cost
vii (vii) Low maintenance cost

Types of Electrical wiring systems:

(1) Cleat wiring system
(2) TRS wiring system
(3) Lead sheathed wiring system
(4) Wooden batten wiring system
(5) Plastic Casing-capping system
(6) Conduit wiring system
(i) Conduit surface wiring
(ii) Concealed conduit wiring
1. Cleat wiring system: In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either vulcanized
Indian Rubber (VIR) of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) type. The cables are held by porcelain cleats
about 6 mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made in two halves, one base and the other
cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap is put over it and the whole of it
is then screwed on the wooden plugs (gutties) previously cemented into the wall and ceiling. The
cleats used are of different sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of various
sizes and different number of cables respectively. The cleats are of three types; one groove, two
grooves and thre grooves to accommodate one, two and three cables respectively.

Advantages:
(i) It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.
(ii) Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.
(iii) Material is recoverable after the dismantlement.
(iv) Inspection, alterations and additions can be easily made.
(v) Skilled labour required is little.

Disadvantages:
(i) It is not good looking.
(ii) The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.
(iii) Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.

2. Casing-Capping wiring system: This is one of the simplest form of electrical wiring system.
This is little bit old/conventional wiring system. Now a days, we often use this wiring system.
PVC insulated cables are placed in plastic casing and covered with cap. The casing is of
rectangular cross section.
The colour of casing channel and cap are normally white or grey. The casing channel and cap are
normally made of plastic. The casing channels and caps are available in market in standard sizes.

Advantages:
(i) It is the cheapest wiring system as compared to concealed wiring system.
(ii) It is strong and long lasting wiring system.
(iii) Replacement and alteration of defective wire is easy.
(iv) It provides protection against mechanical damage.
(v) It is safe from oil, steam, smoke and rain.
(vi) No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing and capping.

Disadvantages:
(i) Since it requires better workmanship, the labour cost is high.
(ii) This type of wiring can be used only on surface and cannot be concealed in plaster.
(iii) Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation.

3 Conduit wiring system: In this system of wiring steel tubes or PVC pipes known as conduits
are installed on the surface of wall by means of saddles or buried under plaster and VIR or PVC
cables are drawn afterwards by means of GI wire.

Advantages:
(i) It provides protection against mechanical damage.
(ii) It provides complete protection fire due to short circuit.
(iii) The whole system is waterproof.
(iv) Replacement and alteration of defective wiring is easy.
(v) Its life is long.
(vi) It is shocked proof also if earthing is properly done.

Disadvantages:
(i)It is very costly system of wiring.
(ii) Its eraction is not easy and required time.
(iii) Experienced and highly skilled labour is required for carrying out the job.

Conductor materials used in cables: The function of conductor usually known as core in cable
is to carry electrical current. Copper and aluminium are the materials used as conductors in
power and lighting cables.
Copper: Though silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity but due to its high cost it is
rarely used. The next bets conductor is copper. It is cheaper as compared to silver. The electrical
conductivity of copper is comparatively high. The resistivity of pure copper is 1.786×10−8 Ω−𝑚.
It is mechanically strong, hard, extremely tough, durable and ductile. It is highly resistive to
corrosion, oxidation etc. it can be easily soldered and welded. The specific weight of copper is
8900 kg/𝑚3 at 20𝑜𝐶 or 9.9 𝑔𝑐𝑚3⁄. Its melting point is 1083 oC.
Aluminium: Aluminium is frequently used in place of copper for electric cables used for long
distance power distribution. The electrical conductivity of aluminium is about 60% of copper
(resistivity being 2.87×10−8 Ω−𝑚 at 20 oC) so for same resistance for a given length, the
aluminium required will be 1.61 times that of copper in volume and 1,26 times that of copper in
diameter. The only application of aluminium cables for wiring in the buildings is for the
‘continous busbar’ system of distribution.
Classification of cables: The cables employed for internal wiring of building may be divided
into different groups.
According to:
(i) Conductor used
(ii) Number of cores
(iii) Voltage grading
(iv) Types of insulation used.
(i) According to conductor:
(a) Copper conductor cable
(b) Aluminium conductor cable
(ii) According to number of cores:
(a) Single core cable
(b) Two core cable
(c) Three core cable
(iii) According to voltage Grading:
(a) 250/440 V cable
(b) 650/100 v cable
(iv) According to type of insulation:
(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) cable
(b) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cable
(c) Lead sheathed cable
(d) Weather proof cable
(e) Flexible cable
(f) Cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) cable
(g) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) cable

Insulating Materials: the conductor is covered with insulating material so that it may prevent
leakage of current from the conductor i.e. the insulating material should be extremely high
resistive to the flow of electric current through it. The insulating materials used in electric cables
should possess the following properties:
(i) High insulation resistance to avoid the leakage current.
(ii) High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
(iii) High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
(iv) Non-hygroscopic
(v) Non-inflammable
(vi) Low cost
(vii) Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.

(1) PVC cables: These cables are available in 250/440 v and 650/1100 V and are used in casing-
capping, wooden batten and conduit wiring system. In this type of cable conductor is insulated
with PVC insulation. Since PVC is harder than rubber, PVC cables does not required cotton
tapping and bedding over it for mechanical and moisture protection.

(2) Weather Proof Cable: These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply or
industrial supply. Theses cables are either PVC insulated or VIR insulated conductors. Being
suitably tapped (only in case of VIR cable) braided and then compounded with weather resisting
material. These cable are available in 240/415 V and 650/1100 V. theses cables are not affected
by heat or sun or rain.

(3) Flexible cords and cables: the flexible cords consist wires silk/cotton/plastic covered. Plastic
cover is popular as it is available in different colours. Flexible cords have tinned copper
conductors. Flexibility and strength is obtained by using conductors having number of strands.
These wires or cables are used as connecting wires for such purposes as from ceiling rose to
lamp holder, socket outlet to portable apparatus such as radios, fans, lamps heaters etc. These
must not be used in fixed wiring.

Fuse: Fuse is a current interrupting device which breaks or opens the circuit (in which it is
inserted) by fusing the element when the current in the circuit exceeds a certain value.
Fuse Element or Fuse wire: It is that part of the fuse which actually melts when an excessive
current flows in the circuit and thus isolates the faulty device from the supply circuit.
Principle of Operation: The action of a fuse is based upon the heating effect of the electric
current. In normal operating conditions, when the current flowing through the circuit is within
safe limits, the heat developed in the fuse element carrying this current is readily dissipated into
the surrounding air, therefore, fuse element remains at a temperature below its melting point.
However, when some fault such as short circuit occurs or when the load connected in a circuit
exceeds its capacity, the current exceeds the limiting value, the heat generated due to this
excessive current cannot be dissipated fast enough and the fusible element gets heated, melts and
breaks the circuit.

Current Rating: This rating is specified by manufacturer. It is defined as the rms value of the
current which the fuse wire can carry continuously without deterioration, and with temperature
rise within specified limit.

Fusing Current: It is defined as the minimum value of current at which the fuse element or fuse
wire melts.
For a round wire the approximate value of fusing current is given by 𝐼=𝑘 𝑑32⁄
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 constant, depending upon the metal of the fuse element
Fuse Element Materials: The materials used fuse element must be of low melting point, low
ohmic losss, high conductivity (or low resistivity), low cost and free from deterioration.
Experience has shown that the most generally suitable material for the fuse element is a low
melting point material such as tin, lead or zinc.
The materials commonly used for fuse elements are tin, lead, silver, copper, zinc, aluminium and
alloy of lead and tin. An alloy of led and tin (lead 37% and tin 63%) is used for small current
rating fuses( say not beyond 15A). for current exceeding 15 A this alloy is not used as the
diameter of the wire will be larger and after fusing the metal released will be excessive.

Advantages of Fuse:
(a) It is the cheapest form of protection available.
(b) It needs no maintenance.
(c) Its operation iss completely automatic.
(d) It interrupts an enormous short circuit current without noise, flame, gas or smoke.
Disadvantages:
Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse element after operation.

Earthing

Earthing is defined as “the process in which the instantaneous discharge of the electrical
energy takes place by transferring charges directly to the earth through low resistance
wire.” Low resistance earthing wire is chosen to provide the least resistance path for leakage of
fault current. To ensure safety, earthing can be done by connecting the electrical appliance to
earthing systems or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level. The electrode or
earthing mat equipped with a flat iron riser is installed under the ground level. It helps to connect
all the non-current-carrying metallic parts of the equipment.

This picture below shows the earthing system incorporated into an electrical system.
When the overload current is passed through the equipment or when the fault occurs in the
system due to the current, the fault current from the equipment flows through the earthing
system. The earth mat conductors aid in raising the voltage value equal to the resistance of the
earth mat multiplied by a ground fault and helps guard the equipment against overload current or
fault current.

In homes, there shall be three types of wires, live, neutral, and earth. Live and neutral carry
electric current from the power station and the earth is connected to the buried metal plate.
Electric appliances like refrigerators, iron boxes, and TV are connected to the earth wire while
operating. Hence, these devices are protected from the surge or faulty electrical supply. Local
earthing is done near the electrical metre of the house.

Types of Earthing

There are three types of earthing, they are:

 Pipe earthing
 Plate earthing
 Strip earthing

Pipe earthing is the best and most efficient way of earthing and is also easily affordable. Pipe
earthing uses 38mm diametre and 2 metres length pipe vertically embedded in the ground to
work as earth electrodes.

In plate earthing, an earthing plate made of copper or G.I. is buried into the ground at a depth
more than 3 metres from the ground level. This earthing plate is embedded in an alternative layer
of coke and salts.

Strip earthing is used in transmission processes. Strip electrodes of cross section not less than
25mm X 1.6mm of copper or 25 mm X 4mm of G.I. or steel are buried in horizontal trenches of
a minimum depth of 0.5m.

Advantages of Earthing

1. Earthing is the safe and the best method of offering safety. We know that the earth’s
potential is zero and is treated as Neutral. Since low equipment is connected to earth
using low resistance wire, balancing is achieved.
2. Metal can be used in electrical installations without looking for its conductivity, proper
earthing ensures that metal does not transfer current.
3. A sudden surge in voltage or overload does not harm the device and person if proper
earthing measures are done.
4. It prevents the risk of fire hazards that could otherwise be caused by the current leakage.
 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.6 EARTHING
If a person touches an appliance, which has heavy currents flowing through it, with
his bare hands there are high chances of encounter being fatal. The electrical potential of
the Earth is considered to be zero. Hence on connecting the electrical channels of any
appliance to the Earth, its potential would become zero too. This is the main concept
behind Earthing, which is a process bonding noncurrent bearing parts of an electrical
device or the neutral summit of the electrical organization to the earth through wires
possessing minor resistance to flow of current.
Requirement of Earthing
 To warrant that all pieces of equipment in use by the occupants of a building are
at Earth Potential, thus safeguarding them from electric shocks through direct
contact
 To protect electrical apparatus from getting damaged due to weighty currents along
electrical lines
 To sustain stable voltages in three phase circuits even under unstable load state
 To protect tall buildings from getting harmed under lightning
TYPES OF EARTHING
1. System Earthing
This is the type of earthing which is associated with current carrying conductors.
It is quite relevant because there might be overflows of currents during the process
of its transmission. This type of earthing is put to use in stations and substations of
electrical supply.
2. Equipment Earthing
This is the prime type of earthing for homes and other buildings. It deals with the
safeguarding of noncurrent carrying apparatus and metallic conductors. This type
of earthing serves the dual function of protecting the user of the appliance against
shocks, while at the same time safeguarding the appliance from getting harmed.
METHODS OF EARTHING
1. Plate Earthing
A 2.5m deep pit is dug into the ground and a galvanised Iron (GI) plate is placed inside
along with charcoal and sand for the purpose of maintain low resistance around the

EE8015 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

plate. An earth wire, which is of GI or tinned copper, is bolted to the plate before burying
it by means of nuts, bolts and washers. The wire is made to pass through a GI pipe through
which some water is poured in to increase conductivity. The earth wire is connected to
the Earth point of the socket and is finally covered. The earthing plate is placed deep into
a pit (usually dug up to 1.5 to 3 meters), along with back filling component eg. Bentonite.
The plate is connected via Copper conductor, or GI Conductor or concealed copper cable
to the respective electrical set-up. A funnel is attached to add water at regular intervals.
The plate electrode is buried vertically. The whole earthing system must be copper or GI,
and bolts should be used of Brass. Copper earthing is the best in plate type earthing
system because of very low resistance than GI.
Earthing Plate Size:
Copper plate:
For LT – 600 mm x 600 mm x 3.18 mm; For HT – 900 mm x 900 mm x 6 mm
GI plate:
For LT – 600 mm x 600 mm x 6.35 mm; For HT – 900 mm x 900 mm x 6 mm

Figure 5.6.1 Plate Electrode

[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 25]

EE8015 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2. Pipe Earthing
A 2.5m long pipe measuring about 35-75 mm in diameter is buried in the dig out pit
along with sand and charcoal. The pipe is provided with several perforations to maintain
dampness around and hence conductivity. The earth wire is tied and clamped near the
summit. Water may be poured into it during summers. The earth wire is safer against
damage in such a setup. Pipe earthing is the best form of earthing and is very cheap in
cost. In this method of earthing, a cast iron pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
up right in the ground. The size of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried and
the type of the soil. Usually it is of diameter upto 110 mm and 1.5 to 3 meters deep in
length for ordinary soil or of greater length in case of dry and rocky soil.

Figure 5.6.2 Pipe Earthing

[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 24]

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3. Rod Earthing
This method employs hammering of zinc and copper rods of about 1-1.5 metres length
and 12-20 mm diameter into the general mass of the earth. Successive rods are screwed
together and this chain is tried making as long as possible for lowered resistance by the
surrounding soil. The earth wire is tied and clamped near the summit. This is a very
economical and quick procedure for earthing.
4. Earthing through water pipe
We know that hand pumps are used to extract water from the water bed, which lies
well inside the ground. To the GI pipe of a hand pump, the earth wire is tied and
clamped. This pipe serves as an excellent electrode for carrying excessive currents deep
below the ground. However, the difficulty lies in the probable shocks to users of hand
pumps if the earth wire is not clamped tight enough.
METHOD OF INSTALLATION
1. Piling
Installation process start with piling. Pile diameter should be twice of earthing electrode
diameter. Similarly, earth pit holes can be made by manual as well as boring process
depending upon number of earth pits to be done so that it should be cost effective.
2. Back Filling
Variety of back filling procedure is adopted by customers depending upon soil conditions.
Commonly used practice is to form alternate layers of back fill compound and soil treated
with water for moisture. Generally, recommend 20 kg bag for LT earthing and 40 kg bag
for HT earthing depending upon soil conditions.
3. Inserting Electrodes
Earthing electrode is inserted in soil. Specification of electrodes depends upon load, type
of soil, and other related parameters.
4. Earth Pit
After successful installation of earthing electrode, earth pit chamber is made below or
above ground level as per requirement which can be covered by cast iron cover available
in different sizes.
Earth Pit Design Detail: Earthing Pit Size: 1000 X 1000 X 1800 mm Depth
M.S. / C.I. Plate Size: 500 X 500 X8 mm Thick

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DOMESTIC EARTHING
The following is the method of implementation of earthing:
1. Low earth resistance is required to give effective earthing protection to electrical
fittings.
2. Dry earth has more resistance whereas moist earth has less resistance.
3. The location of earthing point should be minimum 3 feet away from residential
unit.
4. The location of earth pit should be such where the soil has reasonable chances of
having moisture. If possible, earth plates or pipes should be located near water tap,
water drain or rain water pipe.
5. Electric earthing may be either pipe or plate earthing.
6. Normally GI pipe (2.5inch diameter) or plate (600 mm X 600 mm X 3.18 mm) is
used but if the soil is corrosive then copper pipe or plate should be used.
7. Use Double GI Strip size 25 mm X 2.5 mm to connect GI Plate to System Earthing.
8. SWG GI wire should be used for internal connection.
9. Use back filling component like bentonite for low soil resistance.
10. The position of the earth plate or pipe when fixed should be clear from all building
foundations.
11. Inside building in addition to all electrical appliances, all switch boxes, meter
boxes etc. should be earthed also.
INDUSTRIAL EARTHING
Within industrial plants with potentially explosive atmospheres earthing plays an
essential role in maintaining the electrical systems in safe condition. The earthing system,
although a single physical system, it carries out many different functions including
automatic detection and clearance of electrical faults, prevention of dangerous potential
differences which could cause injury, prevention and dissipation of static charges and
save or increase the life of equipment which comes under grounding. The objective of
earthing system is to provide a surface under and around a station, industry which shall
be at a uniform potential (nearly zero or absolute earth potential). This Earth surface
should be as nearly as possible to the system. This is in order to ensure that, all parts of
apparatus other than live parts and attending personnel shall be at earth potential at all

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times. Due to this there exists no potential difference, which could cause shock or injury
to a person, when short circuit or any other type of abnormalities takes place.
NECESSITY OF EARTHING
1. To provide the grounding of all conductive enclosures that may be touched by
personnel, thereby eliminating shock hazards.
2. To reduce static electricity that may be generated within facilities.
3. To provide protection from large electrical disturbances (such as lightning) by
creating a low resistive path to earth.
FACTORS ON WHICH EARTH RESISTANCE DEPENDS
a) Type of soil
b) Temperature of soil
c) Wetness of soil
d) Minerals in earth
e) Shape of earth electrode
f) Size of earth electrode
g) Depth of electrode in earth
h) Diameter of earth electrode
i) Number of ground electrodes
j) Distance between two electrodes
STEP POTENTIAL
It is the potential difference available between the legs while standing on the ground. It
is the difference in the voltage between low points, which are one meter apart along the
earth when ground current is flowing.
TOUCH POTENTIAL
It is the potential difference between the leg and hand touches to the equipment.
ELCB- EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER
An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations
with high earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages on the metal
enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is
detected. Once widely used, more recent installations instead use residual current circuit
breaker which instead detect leakage current directly.

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CONSTRUCTION OF ELCB
Basically, there are two types of ELCB: voltage operated and current operated ELCB.
Voltage operated ELCB operates at a detected potential of around 50 V to open a main
breaker and isolate the supply from the protected zones. But since it operates at 50 V, it
is not been used in newer domestic wiring as the 50 V is still considered as safe voltage
for alternating current. Basically, there are two types of ELCB: voltage operated and
current operated ELCB.
TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEM
TT system
This arrangement covers installations not provided with an earth terminal by the
Electricity Supply Company. Thus, it is the method employed by most (usually rural)
installations fed by an overhead supply. Neutral and earth (protective) conductors must
be kept quite separate throughout the installation, with the final earth terminal connected
to an earth electrode by means of an earthing conductor. Effective earth connection is
sometimes difficult. Because of this, socket outlet circuits must be protected by a residual
current device (RCD) with an operating current of 30 mA . Fig. 2 shows the arrangement
of a TT earthing system.

Figure 5.6.3 TT system

[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 14]
TN-S system

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In this type of earthing, after building distribution point, protective earth (PE) and Neutral
(N) conductors from transformers to consuming device not connected together at any
place

Figure 5.6.4 TN-S system

[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 12]
TN-C system
Protective earth (PE) and Neutral (N) conductor combined in all the way from the
transformer to the consuming device. This installation is unusual, because combined
neutral and earth wiring is used in both the supply and within the installation itself. Where
used, the installation will usually be the earthed concentric system, which can only be
installed under the special conditions (mostly used in France).

Figure 5.6.5 TN-C system

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[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 13]

TNC-S system
Combined PEN conductor from transformer to building distribution point, but separate
PE and N conductors in fixed indoor wiring and flexible power cords.

Figure 5.6.6 TNC-S system

[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 13]
IT system
The installation arrangements in the IT system are the same for those of the TT system.
However, the supply earthing is totally different. The IT system can have an unearthed
supply, or one which is not solidly earthed but is connected to earth through a current
limiting impedance

Figure 5.6.7 IT system

[Source: “Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthing,” Page: 12]

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PRINCIPLE OF EARTHING SYSTEM

1. The path followed by fault current as the result of a low impedance occurring
between the phase conductor and earthed metal is called the earth fault loop.
Current is driven through the loop impedance by the supply voltage.
2. The extent of the earth fault loop for a TT system is made up of the following parts:
 Phase conductor from the transformer to the installation
 Protective device(s) in the installation
 Installation phase conductors from the intake position to the fault
 Fault itself (usually assumed to have zero impedance)
 Protective conductor system
 Main earthing terminal
 Earthing conductor
 Installation earth electrode
 General mass of earth
 Supply Company's earth electrode
 Supply Company's earthing conductor
 Secondary winding of the supply transformer
o For a TN-S system (where the Electricity Supply Company provides an earth
terminal), items 8 to 10 are replaced by the PE conductor, which usually takes the
form of the armouring (and sheath if there is one) of the underground supply cable.
o For a TNC-S system (protective multiple earthing) items 8 to 11 are replaced by
the combined neutral and earth conductor.
o For a TN-C system (earthed concentric wiring), items 5 to 11 are replaced by the
combined neutral and earth wiring of both the installation and of the supply.
o It is readily apparent that the impedance of the loop will probably be a good deal
higher for the TT system, where the loop includes the resistance of two earth
electrodes as well as an earth path, than for the other methods where the complete
loop consists of metallic conductors.

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Earthing system has three main components

1- Earthing conductors
The earthing conductor is commonly called the earthing lead. It joins the installation
earthing terminal to the earth electrode or to the earth terminal provided by the Electricity
Supply Company. It is a vital link in the protective system, so care must be taken to see
that its integrity will be preserved at all times.
2- Earth electrodes
The principle of earthing is to consider the general mass of earth as a reference (zero)
potential. Thus, everything connected directly to it will be at this zero potential. The
purpose of the earth electrode is to connect to the general mass of earth. Calculation of
earthing resistance for one electrode driven at the earth
Equation used to calculate earthing resistance is:
𝜌 8𝑙
𝑅 = ( ) [ln ( ) − 1]
2𝜋𝑙 𝑑
where ρ = earth resistivity in ohm-m; l = length of the electrode (m); d= diameter of the
electrode in (m). For any number of rods in parallel, we can calculate the earthing
resistance from the following equation is
𝑅𝐼
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = [ ]×𝐹
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑠
where, F is a multiplying factor.
The resistivity (ρ) in Ωm for various types of soils are

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3- Inspection points (Earthing well)

For protection of the earthing rod and earthing conductors and also for maintenance and
inspection purposes an earth well is constructed as shown in Fig.9. Earthing conductors,
as well as protective and bonding conductors, must be protected against corrosion.
Probably the most common type of corrosion is electrolytic, which is an electro-chemical
effect between two different metals when a current pass between them whilst they are in
contact with each other and with a weak acid. The acid is likely to be any moisture which
has become contaminated with chemicals carried in the air or in the ground. A main earth
terminal or bar must be provided for each installation to collect and connect together all
protective and bonding conductors. It must be possible to disconnect the earthing
conductor from this terminal for test purposes, but only by the use of a tool. This
requirement is intended to prevent unauthorized or unknowing removal of protection.
Where the final connection to the earth electrode or earthing terminal is made there must
be a clear and permanent label Safety Electrical Connection - Do not remove. With the
increasing use of underground supplies and of protective multiple earthing (PME) it is
becoming more common for the consumer to be provided with an earth terminal rather
than having to make contact with earth using an earth electrode.
SUBSTATION EARTHING (33kV Substation)
Provision of adequate grounding in a substation and switching stations are very important
for the safety of operating personnel as well as electrical devices do not rise above
tolerable thresholds and that the earth connection is rugged to dissipate the fault to the
earth. The importance of an effective, durable and a dependable earth for ensuring safety
from electrical hazards does not require to be elaborated upon more. By earthing,
connecting the electrical equipment to the general mass of the earth, this has a very low
resistance.
Values of earth resistance in substation should be less than
1. Generating station 0.5 Ω
2. Large substation 1.0 Ω
3. Small substation 2.0 Ω
4. From earth electrode to internal assembly 2.0 Ω
5. Neutral bushing 2.0 Ω

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6. Service connection 4.0 Ω

7. LT lightning arrester 4.0 Ω
8. LT pole 5.0 Ω
9. HT lightning arrester 8.0 Ω
10. HT pole 10.0 Ω
11. Tower 25.0 Ω
ISOLATORS AND SWITCHES
A flexible earth conductor is provided between the handle and earthing conductor
attached to the mounting bracket and the handle of switches is connected to earthing mat
by means of two separate distinct connections made with MS flat. One connection is
made with the nearest longitudinal conductor, while the other is made to the nearest
transverse conductor of the mat.
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
Conductors as short and straight as practicable to ensure minimum impedance shall
directly connect the bases of the lightning arresters to the earth grid. In addition, there
shall be as direct a connection as practicable from the earth side of lightning arresters to
the frame of the equipment being protected. In the case of lighting arresters mounted near
transformers, earthing conductor shall be located clear off the tank and coolers in order
to avoid possible oil leakage caused by arcing. The resistance of earthing should be as
low as possible, so that the current in lightning arrester, which is caused by excessive
electrical pressures on the line, due to lightning stroke, should go into the uncontrolled
soil and avoid potential damage.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
For every breaker there will be five earth connections to the earth mat with: MS flat
1. Breaker body
2. Relay panel
3. CTs of the breaker
4. Two side of the breaker structure.

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TRANSFORMER
It is essential to earth transformer for better performance and safety of transformer.
Mainly transformer consists of four earthings out of which two are connected to neutral
to the star point of LV side of the transformer and two for the body i.e. transformer tank
to pass the leakage current and ground it for better safety.
Purpose of transformer neutral bushing
1. Leakage or unbalanced current is dissolved by the earthing.
2. Possible to install high sensing protection equipment.
3. Help to reduce extra high voltage on line due to lightning or switching surge.
4. Helps to control fault current by connecting resistance in neutral earth.
5. Always helps to keep neutral voltage zero.
The tank of each transformer shall be directly connected to the main grid. In addition,
there shall be as direct connection as practicable from the tank to the earth side of
projecting lightning arresters. The earthing of neutral bushing shall be by two separate
strips to the earth grid and shall likewise be run clear to rank cell and coolers.
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
The supporting structures of Current Transformer and Potential Transformer unit of
bases, all bolted cover plates to which the bushings are attached connected to the earthing
mat by means of two separate distinct connections made with MS flat. One connection is
made with the nearest longitudinal conductor, while the other is made to the nearest
transverse conductor of the mat.
OTHER EQUIPMENT
All equipment’s, structures, and metallic frames of switches and isolators shall be earthed
separately
FENCES
The Sub-station fence should be generally too far outside the substation equipment and
grounded separately from the station ground. The station and the fence ground should not
be linked. If the distance between the fence and station structures, cannot be increased at
least five feet and if the fence is too near the substation equipment structure etc., the
station fence should be connected to the fence ground.

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GROUND WIRE
All ground wires over a station must be connected to the station earth grid. In order that
the station earth potentials during fault conditions are not applied to transmission line
ground wires and towers, all ground wires coming to the station must be broken at and
insulated on the station side of the first tower or pole external to the station by means of
10” disc insulator.
CABLES AND SUPPORTS
Metal sheathed cables within the station earth grid area must be connected to that grid.
Multi-core cables must be connected to the grid at least at one point. Single core cables
normally should be connected to the grid at one point only.
PANELS AND CUBICLES
Each panel or cubicle should be provided near the base with a frame earth bar of copper
to which shall be connected the metal bases and covers of switches and contactor unit.
INSTRUCTIONS ABOUT EARTHING IN SUBSTATION
1. On pole of HT line, fittings of all metal parts i.e. cross arm, top fittings, pins of
insulator, clamps, etc. should be fixed by using GI wire of 8 SWG.
2. On pole of LT line, fittings of all metal parts and stay should be connected to
neutral and then this neutral is to be solidly earthed with multiple earthing.
3. The earth wire of lightning arrester should not connect to any pole, it directly
passes from the alkathene pipe and tightly connected to earth electrode.
Type of Earthing to Be Used – CI Pipe Type
Size of Electrode – Ø 120 mm, 3000 mm length
Size of GI Strip – 25mm x 2.5 mm
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒/𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒

EE8015 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

 Battery

A battery is a collection of one or more cells that go under chemical reactions to create the flow
of electrons within a circuit. A battery and a cell both can only supply DC voltage and current.

Battery cells are usually made up of three main components;

1. The Anode (Negative Electrode)

2. The Cathode (Positive Electrode)
3. The electrolytes

The anode is a negative electrode that produces electrons to the external circuit to which the
battery is connected. When batteries are connected, an electron build-up is initiated at the anode
which causes a potential difference between the two electrodes. The electrons naturally then try
to redistribute themselves, this is prevented by the electrolyte, so when an electrical circuit is
connected, it provides a clear path for the electrons to move from the anode to the cathode
thereby powering the circuit to which it is connected. By changing the arrangement and material
used to build the Anode, Cathode and Electrolyte we can achieve many different types of battery
chemistries enabling us to design different types of battery cells.

Types of Battery

Batteries can be classified into primary and secondary batteries. A primary one is non-
rechargeable, and the secondary one is rechargeable.

1. Primary Batteries

Primary batteries are batteries that cannot be recharged once depleted. Primary batteries are
made of electrochemical cells whose electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed.

Primary batteries exist in different forms ranging from coin cells to AA batteries. They are
commonly used in standalone applications where charging is impractical or impossible. A good
example of which is in military grade devices and battery powered equipment. It will be
impractical to use rechargeable batteries as recharging a battery will be the last thing in the mind
of the soldiers. Primary batteries always have high specific energy and the systems in which they
are used are always designed to consume low amount of power to enable the battery last as long
as possible.

Some other examples of devices using primary batteries include; Pace makers, Animal
trackers, Wrist watches, remote controls and children toys to mention a few.

The most popular type of primary batteries are alkaline batteries. They have a high specific
energy and are environmentally friendly, cost-effective and do not leak even when fully
discharged. They can be stored for several years, have a good safety record and can be carried on
an aircraft without being subject to UN Transport and other regulations. The only downside to
alkaline batteries is the low load current, which limits its use to devices with low current
requirements like remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices.

2. Secondary Batteries

Secondary batteries are batteries with electrochemical cells whose chemical reactions can be
reversed by applying a certain voltage to the battery in the reversed direction. Also referred to as
rechargeable batteries, secondary cells unlike primary cells can be recharged after the energy
on the battery has been used up.

They are typically used in high drain applications and other scenarios where it will be either too
expensive or impracticable to use single charge batteries. Small capacity secondary batteries are
used to power portable electronic devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets and appliances
while heavy-duty batteries are used in powering diverse electric vehicles and other high drain
applications like load levelling in electricity generation. They are also used as standalone power
sources alongside Inverters to supply electricity. Although the initial cost of acquiring
rechargeable batteries is always a whole lot higher than that of primary batteries but they are the
most cost-effective over the long term.

Secondary batteries can be further classified into several other types based on their chemistry.
This is very important because the chemistry determines some of the attributes of the battery
including its specific energy, cycle life, shelf life, and price to mention a few.

The following are the different types of rechargeable batteries that are commonly used.

1. Lithium-ion(Li-ion)
2. Nickel Cadmium(Ni-Cd)
3. Nickel-Metal Hydride(Ni-MH)
4. Lead-Acid

a. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

The nickel–cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable

battery which is developed using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium
as electrodes. Ni-Cd batteries excel at maintaining voltage and holding charge when not in use.
However, NI-Cd batteries easily fall a victim of the dreaded “memory” effect when a partially
charged battery is recharged, lowering the future capacity of the battery.

In comparison with other types of rechargeable cells, Ni-Cd batteries offer good life cycle and
performance at low temperatures with a fair capacity but their most significant advantage will be
their ability to deliver their full rated capacity at high discharge rates. They are available in
different sizes including the sizes used for alkaline batteries, AAA to D. Ni-Cd cells are used
individual or assembled in packs of two or more cells. The small packs are used in portable
devices, electronics and toys while the bigger ones find application in aircraft starting batteries,
Electric vehicles and standby power supply.
Some of the properties of Nickel-Cadmium batteries are listed below.

 Specific Energy: 40-60W-h/kg

 Energy Density: 50-150 W-h/L
 Specific Power: 150W/kg
 Charge/discharge efficiency: 70-90%
 Self-discharge rate: 10%/month
 Cycle durability/life: 2000cycles

b. Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries

Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) is another type of chemical configuration used for rechargeable
batteries. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode of batteries is similar to that of
the nickel–cadmium cell (NiCd), with both battery type using the same nickel oxide
hydroxide (NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes in Nickel-Metal Hydride use a hydrogen-
absorbing alloy instead of cadmium which is used in NiCd batteries

NiMH batteries find application in high drain devices because of their high capacity and energy
density. A NiMH battery can possess two to three times the capacity of a NiCd battery of the
same size, and its energy density can approach that of a lithium-ion battery. Unlike the NiCd
chemistry, batteries based on the NiMH chemistry are not susceptible to the “memory” effect
that NiCads experience.

Below are some of the properties of batteries based on the Nickel-metal hydride chemistry;

 Specific Energy: 60-120h/kg

 Energy Density: 140-300 Wh/L
 Specific Power: 250-1000 W/kg
 Charge/discharge efficiency: 66% - 92%
 Self-discharge rate: 1.3-2.9%/month at 20oC
 Cycle Durability/life: 180 -2000

c. Lithium-ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries. There are many
different types of Lithium batteries, but among all the lithium-ion batteries are the most
commonly used. You can find these lithium batteries being used in different forms popularly
among electric vehicles and other portable gadgets. If you are curious to know more about
batteries used in Electric vehicles, you can check out this article on Electric Vehicle
Batteries. They are found in different portable appliances including mobile phones, smart
devices and several other battery appliances used at home. They also find applications in
aerospace and military applications due to their lightweight nature.
Lithium-ion batteries are a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions from the
negative electrode migrate to the positive electrode during discharge and migrate back to the
negative electrode when the battery is being charged. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated
lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in non-
rechargeable lithium batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries generally possess high energy density, little or no memory effect and
low self-discharge compared to other battery types. Their chemistry alongside performance and
cost vary across different use cases, for example, Li-ion batteries used in handheld electronic
devices are usually based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) which provides high energy density
and low safety risks when damaged while Li-ion batteries based on Lithium iron phosphate
which offer a lower energy density are safer due to a reduced likelihood of unfortunate events
happening are widely used in powering electric tools and medical equipment. Lithium-ion
batteries offer the best performance to weight ratio with the lithium sulphur battery offering the
highest ratio.

Some of the attributes of lithium-ion batteries are listed below;

 Specific Energy: 100: 265W-h/kg

 Energy Density: 250: 693 W-h/L
 Specific Power: 250: 340 W/kg
 Charge/discharge percentage: 80-90%
 Cycle Durability: 400: 1200 cycles
 Nominal cell voltage: NMC 3.6/3.85V

d. Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries are a low-cost reliable power workhorse used in heavy-duty applications.
They are usually very large and because of their weight, they’re always used in non-portable
applications such as solar-panel energy storage, vehicle ignition and lights, backup power and
load 4eveling in power generation/distribution. The lead-acid is the oldest type of rechargeable
battery and still very relevant and important into today’s world. Lead-acid batteries have very
low energy to volume and energy to weight ratios but it has a relatively large power to weight
ratio and as a result, can supply huge surge currents when needed. These attributes alongside its
low cost make these batteries attractive for use in several high current applications like powering
automobile starter motors and for storage in backup power supplies. You can also check out the
article on Lead Acid Battery working if you want to know more about the different types of
Lead-acid batteries, its construction and applications.
 Characteristics of battery

Characteristics of a battery are:

 Type
 Voltage
 Discharge curve
 Capacity
 Energy density
 Specific energy density
 Power density
 Temperature dependence
 Service life
 Physical requirements
 Charge/discharge cycle
 Cycle life
 Cost
 Ability to deep discharge