Chapter 1

Introduction

Introduction: 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ A closer look at Internet structure
▪ LANs and WANs
▪ Network core: packet/circuit switching, internet structure

Introduction: 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ A closer look at Internet structure
▪ LANs and WANs
▪ Network core: packet/circuit switching, internet structure

Introduction: 1-3
The Internet
Billions of connected mobile network
computing devices: national or global ISP
▪ hosts = end systems
▪ running network apps at
Internet’s “edge”

Packet switches: forward

local or
packets (chunks of data) Internet
regional ISP
▪ routers, switches
home network content
Communication links provider
network datacenter
▪ wired and wireless network

▪ transmission rate: bandwidth

Networks
enterprise
▪ collection of hosts, packet network
switching devices, links: managed
by an organization Introduction: 1-4
“Fun” Internet-connected devices
Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

bikes

Pacemaker & Monitor

Amazon Echo Web-enabled toaster +

IP picture frame
weather forecaster
Internet
refrigerator
Slingbox: remote cars
control cable TV
Security Camera
AR devices
sensorized, scooters
bed
mattress Fitbit

Gaming devices
Others?
Internet phones diapers
Introduction: 1-5
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
mobile network

▪ Hosts connect to Internet via national or global ISP

access Internet Service

Providers (ISPs) local or
regional ISP

▪Interconnected ISPs home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure

Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP to

each other directly doesn’t scale:
access access
net O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-7
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-8
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. who will
want to be connected
Internet exchange point
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-9
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-10
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft) may run their
own network, to bring services, content close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

Content provider network

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-11
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google
IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

At “center”: small # of well-connected large networks

▪ “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international coverage
▪ content provider networks (e.g., Google, Facebook): private network that connects its
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs
Introduction: 1-12
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
▪ All communication activity on the mobile network
4G
national or global ISP
Internet is governed by protocols

▪ A protocol: set of rules governing IP

Streaming
Skype video
communication between devices.
local or
regional ISP

Protocols define the format, order of home network content

provider
messages sent and received among HTTP network datacenter
network

network entities, and actions taken Ethernet

on message transmission, receipt TCP

enterprise
network

WiFi
Introduction: 1-13
What’s a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? GET [Link]
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction: 1-14
 Messages and packets
▪ Network devices communicate by exchanging messages
• e.g. request and response messages.

▪ Messages divided into packets known as protocol data units (PDUs).

▪ Protocols specify PDU structure and define syntax, semantics, and timing of
messages
• Syntax: format of PDU and order of its components ([header; payload; trailer])
• Semantics: meaning of PDU components
• Timing: what network devices need to do, and when

Introduction: 1-15
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
▪ takes application message
▪ breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L bits L bits each

▪ transmits packet into access

2 1
network at transmission rate R
• link transmission rate, aka link host
capacity, aka link bandwidth R: link transmission rate

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction: 1-16
 The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
4G
▪ Multiple protocols… national or global ISP

Streaming
IP
Skype video

local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
HTTP network datacenter
network
Ethernet

TCP
enterprise
network

WiFi
Introduction: 1-17
Protocol “layers” and reference models
Networks are complex, Question: is there any
with many “pieces”: hope of organizing
▪ hosts structure of network?
▪ routers
▪ links of various media Layered reference model
▪ applications
▪ protocols
▪ hardware, software

Introduction: 1-18
Why layering?
▪ Complexity of networking tasks
▪ One protocol cannot do all tasks
▪ Modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
▪ Performing changes in one layer without affecting other layers

Introduction: 1-19
 Example: organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticketing service ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage service baggage (claim)
gates (load) gate service gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway service runway landing
airplane routing routing service
airplane routing airplane routing

▪ Explicit structure allows identification, relationship of system’s pieces.

▪ It takes two to communicate.
▪ The same set of layered functions must exist in two systems.
Introduction: 1-20
Layered Protocol Architectures
▪ In a protocol architecture,
modules are arranged in a Layer L

vertical stack.
▪ Each layer 𝑁 performs a related
subset of functions required to
communicate with another
system. Layer N

▪ Layer 𝑁 relies on the next lower

layer 𝑁 − 1 to perform more
primitive functions and to
conceal the details of those
functions. Protocol
Layer 1

▪ Layer 𝑁 provides services to the standards

next higher layer 𝑁 + 1. Introduction: 1-21

Two reference models
▪ Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) model
▪ Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

▪ TCP/IP Model = The Internet Model

Introduction: 1-22
Layered Internet protocol stack: TCP/IP
▪ application: supporting network applications,
provides interface to users
• HTTP, SMTP, CoAP, MQTT application
application
▪ transport: process-process data transfer
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), transport
transport
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP), QUIC
▪ network: routing of datagrams from source to network
destination
• IP, routing protocols data link
▪ data link: data transfer between neighboring physical
network elements
• Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), cellular
▪ physical: bits “on the wire”, signal over the air
Introduction: 1-23
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application Application exchanges messages to implement some application
application service using services of transport layer
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) from transport
one process to another, using services of network layer
network ▪ transport-layer protocol encapsulates network
application-layer message, M, with
data link transport layer-layer header Ht to create a data link
transport-layer segment
• Ht used by transport layer protocol to
physical implement its service physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-24
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application application
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) from transport
one process to another, using services of network layer
network Hn Ht M network
Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer segment
[Ht | M] from one host to another, using link layer services
data link data link
▪ network-layer protocol encapsulates
transport-layer segment [Ht | M] with
physical network layer-layer header Hn to create a physical
network-layer datagram
source • Hn used by network layer protocol to destination
implement its service
Introduction: 1-25
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application application
Ht M
transport transport

network Hn Ht M network
Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer segment
[Ht | M] from one host to another, using link layer services
data link Hl Hn Ht M data link
Link-layer protocol transfers datagram [Hn| [Ht |M] from
host to neighboring host, using network-layer services
physical physical
▪ link-layer protocol encapsulates network
datagram [Hn| [Ht |M], with link-layer header
source Hl to create a link-layer frame destination

Introduction: 1-26
 Encapsulation
Matryoshka dolls (stacking dolls)

message segment datagram frame

Credit: [Link] Introduction: 1-27

 Services, Layering and Encapsulation

application message M M application

transport segment Ht M Ht M transport

datagram Hn Ht M
network Hn Ht M network

frame Hl Hn Ht M Hl Hn Ht M data link

data link

physical physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-28
 Devices and layers
▪ Layer 5 devices: hosts – clients, servers

Client ▪ Not all devices understand all layers

Server
▪ Layer 3 devices: routers, new access points
[router/access point/switch/modem]
Router
Access point
▪ Layer 2 devices: Ethernet switches, access points
Ethernet switch ▪ Layer 1 devices: modem (understand only physical
signals), hub (acts as a basic repeater)
Modem Hub
Introduction: 1-29
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation: an
segment
datagram Hn Ht
Ht M
M
transport
network
end-end view
frame Hl Hn Ht M data link
physical
data link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M data link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M data link router
physical
Introduction: 1-30
Protocol Efficiency
▪ PDU = Header + Payload + Trailer
• Payload: important data to be delivered (𝐿𝑝 bits)
• Header & Trailer: overhead needed to deliver payload (𝐿𝑜ℎ bits)
• Header may contain source and destination addresses
• Trailer not always present in PDU

type
dest. source data (payload) CRC
preamble address address

Ethernet frame example

Introduction: 1-31
Protocol Efficiency
𝐿𝑝 ▪ Example #1: Ethernet
▪𝜂 = 𝐿𝑝 = 1500 bytes
𝐿𝑝 +𝐿𝑜ℎ
𝐿𝑜ℎ = 4 + 14 bytes
▪Tradeoff: 1500
𝜂= ≈ 𝟗𝟖. 𝟖%
• Too small overhead may not 1500 + 18
be enough for a protocol to
▪ Example #2: ATM
function
𝐿𝑝 = 48 bytes
• Too big overhead may result 𝐿𝑜ℎ = 5 bytes
in higher resource 48
consumption 𝜂= ≈ 𝟗𝟎. 𝟓%
48 + 5

Introduction: 1-32
 Addressing in the Internet model
Addresses

application
application ▪ Domain names: identify end systems
• e.g., [Link] easy to remember
transport
transport ▪ Port numbers: identify running process/app on an end
system
• e.g., port 80 for web server application
network
▪ IP addresses: identify end systems logically, mapped to
data
linklink names via Domain Name System (DNS)
• e.g., [Link]. [Link]
physical ? ▪ MAC addresses: physically burnt-in Network Interface Card
(NIC) adapter
• e.g., A4-A2-C5-A6-B6-45 physical address

Introduction: 1-33
 ISO/OSI reference model
Two layers not found in Internet
application
protocol stack!
presentation
▪ presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., encryption, session
compression, machine-specific conventions transport
▪ session: synchronization, checkpointing, network
recovery of data exchange data link
▪ Internet stack “missing” these layers!
physical
• these services, if needed, must be
implemented in application The seven layer OSI/ISO
reference model
• needed?
Introduction: 1-34
 Standards
mobile network
4G
▪ Internet standards national or global ISP
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force
• RFC: Request for Comments (~9000)
Streaming
IP
Skype video
▪ Other standard bodies local or
• also specify standard specifications regional ISP

for network components home network content

• IEEE 802 for Ethernet and WiFi provider
• 3GPP for cellular HTTP network datacenter
network
Ethernet

▪ Proprietary set of protocols TCP

enterprise
• Skype, WhatsApp network

WiFi
Introduction: 1-35
 The Internet: a “services” view
▪ Infrastructure that provides services to apps: mobile network

• Web, streaming video, multimedia national or global ISP

teleconferencing, email, games, e-commerce,

social media, inter-connected appliances, … Streaming
Skype video
▪ provides programming interface to
local or
distributed applications: regional ISP

• “hooks” allowing sending/receiving apps to

home network content
“connect” to, use Internet transport service provider
HTTP network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-36
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ A closer look at Internet structure
▪ LANs and WANs
▪ Network core: packet/circuit switching, internet structure

Introduction: 1-37
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers
local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-38
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional ISP

▪wired, wireless communication links home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-39
A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional ISP

▪wired, wireless communication links home network content

provider
network datacenter

Network core: network

▪ interconnected routers
▪ core routers belong to ISP enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-40
 A closer look at Internet structure
Q: How to connect end systems to mobile network
national or global ISP
edge router?
▪ residential access nets
▪ mobile access networks (WiFi, 4G/5G)
▪ institutional access networks (school, company)
local or
regional ISP

home network content

provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-41
 To ISP
LAN: Local Area Network
Router
LAN is a set of hosts attached to one router interface.

We call such router an edge router or a gateway.

Ethernet switch
A router interface connects to a switch, which can connect multiple
LAN hosts.

We call such a switch an access switch.

Ethernet switch Ethernet switch
Access switches traffic aggregated in core switches.

LAN = hosts + access switches + core switches

Devices on the same LAN have the same network ID defined by the Client Client Server Server
network ID of the gateway port
Introduction: 1-42
 WAN: Wide Area Network
mobile network
▪ WAN is a collection of public national or global ISP

interconnected core routers belonging to

different ISPs
▪ WAN interface: port facing routers in local or
regional ISP
public Internet
home network content
▪ WAN connections are: provider
network datacenter
network

• point-to-point
• switched enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-43
Introduction: 1-43
 Most common: Hybrid
• Mesh for packet switching devices
Network topologies • Star for end systems and hosts

Introduction: 1-44
 Network topologies: star and mesh

▪Bidirectional ▪Bidirectional
1
𝑁𝑙 = 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑙 = 𝑁𝑑 (𝑁𝑑 − 1)
2
▪Unidirectional ▪Unidirectional
𝑁𝑙 = 2𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑙 = 𝑁𝑑 (𝑁𝑑 − 1)

▪ Number of links: 𝑁𝑙
▪ Number of devices: 𝑁𝑑
Introduction: 1-45
 Network topologies: hybrid
▪ Example #1: Given the graph on the right and
assuming all links are bidirectional, find
number of links for a network with:
• 𝑁𝑟 = 3 fully meshed routers
• 𝑁𝑑 = 10 devices (switches and hosts)

▪ Solution:

1
𝑁𝑙 = 𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑟 − 1 + 𝑁𝑑
2
1
= × 3 × 3 − 1 + 10
2

= 13 links
Introduction: 1-46
 Network topologies: hybrid
▪ Example #2: Find number of bidirectional links for a network with 𝑁𝑠 = 5
fully meshed switches and 𝑁ℎ = 1000 hosts connected in star fashion to
these switches.
1 1
▪ Solution: 𝑁𝑙 = 𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑠 − 1 + 𝑁ℎ = × 5 × 5 − 1 + 1000 = 1010 links
2 2

Introduction: 1-47
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network, physical media
▪ A closer look at Internet structure
▪ LANs and WANs
▪ Network core: packet/circuit switching, internet structure

Introduction: 1-48
The network core
▪ mesh of interconnected routers mobile network
national or global ISP
▪ packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
• network forwards packets from one local or
regional ISP
router to the next, across links on
path from source to destination home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-49
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:

Forwarding: local
local forwarding
forwarding table
table
▪ global action:
header value output link determine source-
▪ aka “switching” 0100
0101
3
2 destination paths
▪ local action: 0111 2
taken by packets
1001 1
move arriving
packets from ▪ routing algorithms
router’s input link 1
to appropriate
router output link 3 2

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-50
routing

Introduction: 1-51
 forwarding
forwarding

Introduction: 1-52
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

▪ packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps ▪ L = 10 Kbits
▪ store and forward: entire packet must arrive at ▪ R = 100 Mbps
router before it can be transmitted on next link ▪ one-hop transmission delay
= 0.1 msec

Introduction: 1-53
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-54
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
▪ packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
▪ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up
Introduction: 1-55
Characteristics of packet switching
Packet switching networks give What may happen with packets?
connectionless, best-effort ▪ random queuing delay
service to end systems.
▪ out-of-order arrivals
▪ no connection setup
▪ might be lost before arrivals
▪ link bandwidth is shared, not
dedicated ▪ packets might have bit errors
upon arrivals

Introduction: 1-56
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between source
and destination
▪ in diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
▪ dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
▪ circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
▪ commonly used in traditional telephone networks

Introduction: 1-57
Characteristics of circuit switching
▪ Circuit switching networks give What may happen with packets?
connection-oriented service to ▪ rarely lost before arrivals
end systems.
• Offer guaranteed Quality-of-
▪ might still have bit errors upon
Service (QoS). arrivals
• A connection is called a virtual
circuit.

Introduction: 1-58
Packet switching versus circuit switching
example:
▪ 1 Gb/s link
N
▪ each user: users
• 100 Mb/s when “active” 1 Gbps link
• active 10% of time

Q: how many users can use this network under circuit-switching and packet switching?

▪ circuit-switching: 10 users
▪ packet-switching: with 35 users, Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active at same time
is less than .0004
via Binomial Distribution…

Introduction: 1-59
Binomial Distribution
▪ A binomial distribution models
the probability of a certain
number of users 𝑘 transmitting
simultaneously when a fixed
number of users 𝑛 exist, where
each user has only two possible
outcomes (transmitting or not
transmitting) and a constant
probability of transmitting 𝑝.
▪ Any 𝑘 users, not specific 𝑘 users.

Introduction: 1-60
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner”?
▪ great for “bursty” data – sometimes has data to send, but at other times not
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
▪ excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss due to buffer overflow
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control

Introduction: 1-61
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ A closer look at Internet structure
▪ LANs and WANs
▪ Network core: packet/circuit switching, internet structure

Introduction: 1-62
 Questions?

These slides were adapted from the materials provided by the authors of Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach (Jim Kurose and Keith Ross).
All material copyright 1996-2025, J.F. Kurose and K.W. Ross. All Rights Reserved. Introduction: 1-63