CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Nitric acid has a lot of potential for usage in the chemical processing industry because of its strong oxidi
zing and acidic [Link] the industrial sector, it can be employed as a solvent, nitrating agent, oxidizin
g agent, catalyst, hydrolyzing agent, and activating [Link] nitrate, which is mostly used in th
e production of fertilizers, is made using around 65% of the nitric acid produced [Link] days,
ammonia is catalyzed to gradually form nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide with air, which is utiliz
ed to make commercial nitric [Link] absorption in water, these nitrogen oxides yield 50%68% s
trong nitric acid by weight. There are many methods for concentrating the acid when a higher
concentration is required.
The conventional techniques are as follows:
(a) Reaction with extra nitrogen oxides;
(b) Extractive distillation using dehydrating agents like sulfuric acid or magnesium nitrate.
The latter method is the most widely used in the business world.
Ammonia oxidation chemistry is remarkably straightforward, involving only six primary reactions that
need to be taken into account.
1.2 PROPERTIES OF NITRIC ACID
1.2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

 Crystals of pure nitric acid are colorless.

 The normal boiling point of nitric acid is 83.1˚C
 The colour may range from yellow to red.
 The melting point is -41.6 ˚C
 Nitric acid is completely miscible with water.
 At high temperatures, nitric acid is decomposed.
 Strong, overpowering smell that is akin to chlorine bleach.
1.2.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

 ACIDIC PROPERTIES
1. As a typical acid it reacts readily with alkalis, basic oxides and carbonates to form salts.
2. HNO3 is a strong monobasic acid.
3. It is a powerful oxidizing agent and many organic compounds.
4. An industrial application of HNO3 is the reaction with NH3 to produce (NH4)NO3.
5. However it is oxidizing in nature HNO3 does not always behave as a typical acid.

 OXIDIZING PROPERTIES
 1. HNO3 is a powerful oxidizing agent that reacts violently with many organic materials e.g.
turpentine, and charcoal.
2. The concentrated acid may react explosively with ethanol.
3. HNO3 is used with certain organic e.g. furfuryl alcohol and aniline.
4. Depending on acid concentration, temperature and the reducing agent involved any of the
following oxidation may occur.

4 HNO3 + 2e‾ → 2 NO 3‾ + 2 H 2 O+ ¿+ 2 NO 2

8 HNO3 + 6e ‾ → 6 NO 3‾ + 4 H 2 O + 2 NO

10 HNO3 + 8e‾ → 8 NO 3‾ + 5 H 2 O + N 2 O
+¿¿
10 HNO3 + 8e ‾ → 9 NO 3 ‾ + H 2 O + NH 4

16 HNO3 + 12e‾ → 14 NO 3‾ + 4 H 2 O + 2 N H 3OH

5. Concentrated HNO3favors the formation of NO2 while at low strength the formation of NO.

6. Concentrated HNO3 reacts with all metals except gold, iridium, Pt, Rh, Tantalum, Titanium and
certain alloys.
7. Concentrated HNO3 converts the oxides and sulphides etc. of most elements in a low oxidation
state to a higher level e.g., sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphuric acid.

8. Chrome, iron, and Al readily dissolves in HNO3 but concentrated acid form a metal oxide.

1.3 COMMERCIAL USES OF NITRIC ACID

Nitric acid is used in the production of many chemicals (eg, pharmaceuticals, dyes, synthetic fibers,
insecticides, and fungicides) but is used mostly in the production of ammonium nitrate for the fertilizer
industry. Most growth in demand has come from the production of polyurethanes, fibers, and
ammonium nitrate-based explosives. Other uses of nitric acid are in the manufacture of explosives
(trinitrotoluene, nitroglycerin, etc), metal nitrates, nitrocellulose, and nitrochlorobenzene, the treatment
of metals (eg, the pickling of stainless steels and metal etching ), as rocket propellant, and for nuclear
fuel processing.
For the most part, nitric acid is manufactured and consumed at concentrations of about 60%. But
concentrated (90% or more) nitric acid is needed for,
The production of chemicals such as;
 Isocyanates
 Nitrobenzene
Which are used as starting materials for diverse commercial chemicals/ materials.
Concentrated nitric acid is required for many organic reactions of industrial importance.
 It is used as a catalyst for many reactions.
 It can promote the downstream chemical industry.
1.4 DESIGN JUSTIFICATION:
Bangladesh does not currently have any nitric acid plants. The country's fertilizer plants use up the little
nitric acid they produce to make fertilizer straight away. This indicates that imports account for the
majority of the nation's use of nitric acid.
In addition to lowering acid imports, a nitric acid plant located within the nation and supplied to the
Bangladesh market will boost fertilizer production, generate employment opportunities, and improve the
surrounding area.
1.5 DESIGN OBJECTIVES:
• To create a facility capable of producing 140 MTPD of 60% (wt) nitric acid.
• To assess the plant's viability from a technical and financial standpoint.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORY OF NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION:

Up until the turn of the 20th century, sulphuric acid was reacted with sodium nitrate (Chile saltpetre or
nitre) or potassium nitrate (saltpetre) to produce nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua fortis and spirit
of niter. The two ingredients were heated over a furnace in large retorts holding up to four tonnes of each
(Kirk 1996). After the flammable substance evaporated, it was gathered for distillation. There was a 93–
95% (wt) acid production (Gregory 1999).
The electric-arc furnace replaced this antiquated initial method in 1903. By passing air through an
electric-arc furnace, nitric acid was directly produced from nitrogen and oxygen using the arc process
(Ray 1990).
"Even though the process benefited from an endless supply of free feed material (air), the power
consumption for the arc furnace was cost prohibitive," claims Gregory (1999, p. 40).
In an attempt to enhance production economics, researchers looked again at the oxidation of ammonia in
air, which was first documented in 1798, according to Ray (1989, p. 8). Wilhelm Ostwald was the first to
successfully catalyze the oxidation of ammonia over a platinum catalyst in 1901. The resulting gaseous
nitrogen oxides were easily cooled and dissolved in water to create a nitric acid solution. This
accomplishment marked the start of the hunt for an economic process path.
Using this novel catalytic oxidation process, the first commercial nitric acid production facility was put
into operation by 1908 close to Bochum, Germany (Ray et al 1989). The ammonia oxidation process for
the synthesis of nitric acid was guaranteed to continue developing and evolving after the Haber-Bosch
ammonia synthesis process was put into operation in 1913. (Ray and others, 1989)
The nitric acid industry grew during World War 1 due to the high demand for explosives and synthetic
dyestuffs.
Numerous new plants that used the ammonia oxidation process were built. Multiple process technology
breakthroughs were spurred by this increased demand.
Among these were:
(a) the creation of alloys made of chrome steel to replace acid-proof bricks and heavy stoneware
in the construction of towers. This made it possible to use process pressures higher than
atmospheric pressure.
(b) Higher process temperatures were possible because feed preheaters were designed better.
Elevated temperatures increased capacities and yields while decreasing the need for equipment
(Ohrue et al 1999).
(c) The performance of processes was enhanced and labor requirements were decreased by early
advancements in automatic process control.
Each of these elements contributed to increasing process efficiency. Ammonia's growing availability
further decreased processing costs.
Manufacturers were able to use higher operating pressures in the late 1920s thanks to the development
of stainless steel. Despite higher ammonia consumption, the use of high pressure operation was easily
justified by the increase in yield and lower capital requirements.
The industry experienced a divergence in operating techniques due to the introduction of higher pressure
processes. The American manufacturers chose a high-pressure system and maintained a high pressure
throughout. The manufacturers in Europe chose to use a split-pressure system. In the latter system,
enhanced absorption rates are realized by operating the absorption unit at higher pressures while the
ammonia oxidation section is operated at atmospheric pressure. (Harvin and others, 1979).
Reducing catalyst losses in the ammonia oxidation process has been one of the recent developments.
Throughout the process, platinum recovery filters have been installed at different points. Ohrue and
associates (1999).
Inside the reactor/converter units, gold/palladium gauze filter pads have been added to the catalyst bed's
exit side. According to reports, these filters have guaranteed an 80% recovery of platinum (Anon 1979).
Adding more filters to the downstream units has become a trend as well. These filters are made of
aluminum silicate.
The production of strong nitric acid (>90% by weight) has perhaps seen the biggest advancement in
nitric acid production technology. The most important developments are in the fields of high pressure
absorption and super-azeotropic distillation. In 1999, Ohkubo et al.
In an effort to lower nitrogen oxide emissions from nitric acid plants, research is constantly being done.
One example of a new approach being used to the absorption systems of weak nitric acid plants (50–
68% by weight) is the Humphreys and Glasgow/Bolme nitric acid process. From 2000–5000 ppm to less
than 1000 ppm, nitrogen oxide emissions have decreased (Ray et al 1989).
Selective or non-selective catalytic combustion systems are now used to treat tail gases in order to
produce stronger nitric acid. Thanks to these creative units, nitrogen oxide emissions are now less than
400 parts per million (ppm) (Ray et al 1989).

2.2 AMMONIA OXIDATION CHEMISTRY:

Remarkably, the oxidation of ammonia is at the heart of every commercial nitric acid production process
employed today. Considering that the chemistry of this process can be directly applied to any available
production process, it makes sense to look into it. (Chilton, 1960).
The oxidation of ammonia has surprisingly straightforward chemistry. With almost no byproducts, it
starts with a single pure compound, air, and water. At the end, it produces another pure compound in an
aqueous solution. There are just six main reactions that can be used to characterize the process, as
follows:

1. N H 3(g ) +2O2 → HN O3(aq) + H 2 O(l)

2. 4 N H 3 (g) +5 O2(g ) → 4 N O(g) +6 H 2 O(l)

3. 2 N O(g )+O2 → 2 N O2(g )

4. 2 N O2 (g) ⇌ N 2 O4

5. 3 N 2 O 4 +2 H 2 O(l ) → 4 HN O3+ 2 N O(g)

6. 3 N O2(g) + H 2 O(l) → 2 HN O3(aq) + N O( g)

Reaction 1 is the overall reaction for the process. This net result is achieved from three separate, and
distinct, chemical steps. The first is the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen monoxide (Reaction 2). The
second is the further oxidation of nitrogen monoxide to nitrogen dioxide (Reaction 3), then nitrogen
dioxide to nitrogen tetroxide (Reaction 4). The third and final stage involves the absorption of these
nitrogen-based oxides into water to form the nitric acid product (Reactions 5 and 6). In most commercial
processes, each of these three stages is conducted in separate process units. (Chilton 1960).
The heterogeneous, highly exothermic, gas-phase catalytic reaction of ammonia with oxygen (Reaction
2) is the initial stage of the process. At process temperatures of 900–970°C, the primary oxidation of
ammonia to nitric acid proceeds quickly over a catalyst gauze of 9:l platinum/rhodium alloy. Kent
1983).
There are two reactions involved in the second step of the process (Reactions 3 and 4). These nitrogen
monoxide oxidations result in the forms of dioxide and tetroxide. We refer to the equilibrium mixture as
nitrogen peroxide. Both processes are gas-phase catalytic, homogenous, and somewhat exothermic.
Every reaction displayed is extremely exothermic. (Chilton, 1960).
To create a liquid phase of weak nitric acid, the reaction gases must be cooled below their dew point in
the third stage of the process. This phase efficiently eliminates water from the gas phase and advances
the states of oxidation and dimerization (Reactions 3 and 4). The nitrogen peroxide component's partial
pressure rises as a result. (Chilton, 1960).
Lastly, the reaction of dissolved nitrogen peroxide with water yields nitric acid (Reactions 5 and 6).
Two processes are used to produce nitric acid. The first technique creates a weak nitric acid by means of
oxidation, condensation, and absorption. Concentrations of weak nitric acid can range from 30 to 70
percent nitric acid. The second method turns a weak nitric acid into a high-strength nitric acid by
combining dehydration, bleaching, condensing, and absorption. Typically, over 90% of high-strength
nitric acid is made up of nitric acid. For each of these procedures, more detailed information is given in
the text that follows. (Chilton, 1960).

2.2.1 WEAK NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION:

Nearly all of the nitric acid produced in the United States is made by high-temperature catalytic
oxidation of ammonia, according to Ray (1989). Three steps usually make up this process:

(1) oxidation of ammonia,

(2) oxidation of nitric oxide,
(3) absorption.
Every stage relates to a different chemical process.
 AMMONIA OXDATION:
First, a 1:9 ammonia/air mixture is oxidized at a temperature of 1380 to 1470 0F as it passes through a
catalytic convertor, according to the following reaction:
4 N H 3 +5 O2 → 4 NO+6 H 2 O
The most widely used catalyst is composed of fine wire squares that are 90% platinum and 10%
rhodium gauze. In these circumstances, ammonia undergoes an exothermic reaction that yields nitric
oxide (NO) in the range of 93 to 98 percent. The range of oxidation temperatures is 1380°F to 16500°F.
(Chilton, 1960)
The selectivity of the reaction toward NO production increases with higher catalyst temperatures. Lower
catalyst temperatures have the tendency to be more selective toward nitrogen (N 2) and nitrous oxide
(N2O), two less useful products.
Nitrous oxide is recognized as a gas that contributes to global warming, while nitric oxide is regarded as
a criterion pollutant. After that, the nitrogen dioxide/dimmer mixture goes via a platinum filter and a
waste heat boiler. (Chilton, 1960).
 NITRIC OXIDE OXIDATION:
The nitric oxide formed during the ammonia oxidation must be oxidized. The process stream is passed
through a cooler/condenser and cooled to 100 0F or less at pressures up to 116 pounds per square inch
absolute (psia). The nitric oxide reacts non-catalytically with residual oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and its liquid dimmer, nitrogen tetra-oxide:
2 N O2 +O2 →2 N O2 ⇌ N 2 O 4
This slow, homogeneous reaction is highly temperature and pressure dependent. Operating at low
temperatures and high pressures promotes maximum production of NO 2 within a minimum reaction time
(Kent 1983).
 ABSORPTION:
The nitrogen dioxide/dimmer mixture is cooled and then added to the absorption process in the final
step. At one point in the absorption tower, liquid dinitrogen tetra-oxide is added, and the mixture is
pumped into the bottom of the tower. Process water that has been de-ionized enters the column's top. To
the mixture of dimmer gas and nitrogen dioxide, both liquids flow countercurrently. While absorption
happens on the trays, oxidation happens in the empty space between the trays. Typically, sieve trays or
bubble cap trays are used as absorption trays. Here is how the exothermic reaction happens:
3 N O2+ H 2 O →2 HN O3 + NO
To reoxidize the NO created in Reaction 3, a second air stream is added to the column. The product
acid's NO2 is also eliminated by this secondary air. At the base of the tower, an aqueous solution
containing 55–65 percent (usually) nitric acid is extracted. Nitric acid can make up between 30 and 70
percent of the acid concentration. The amount of nitrogen oxides entering the absorber, temperature,
pressure, and number of absorption stages all affect the acid concentration.
Single-stage pressure processes and dual-stage pressure processes are the two main types of systems
used to produce weak nitric acid (Harvin et al., 1979). The pressure at which nitric acid plants were
previously operated ranged from atmospheric pressure to 14.7 to 203 psia. However, because Reactions
2 and 3 are favored by higher pressures, and Reaction 1 is favored by lower pressures, newer plants
typically operate a dual stage pressure system, which includes a compressor positioned between the
condenser and the ammonia oxidizer. Pressures ranging from slightly negative to roughly 58 psia are
used for the oxidation reaction, and 116 to 203 psia are used for the absorption reactions. (Harvn and
others, 1979)
The nitric acid generated in the absorber (bottoms) of the dual-stage pressure system is typically sent to
an external bleacher where air is used to remove (bleach) any dissolved oxides of nitrogen. After being
compressed, the bleacher gases are directed through the absorber. To remove acid mist, the distillate, or
absorber tail gas, is directed towards an entrainment separator. The tail gas is then heated to about 3920F
in the ammonia oxidation heat exchanger. The gas in the power-recovery turbine is expanded in the last
phase. The compressor can be run on the thermal energy generated by this turbine.
2.2.2 HIGH STRENGTH NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION:
A high-strength nitric acid (98 to 99 percent concentration) can be obtained by concentrating the weak
nitric acid (30 to 70 percent concentration) using extractive distillation. (Imai et al 1999) The weak nitric
acid cannot be concentrated by simple fractional distillation. The distillation must be carried out in the
presence of a dehydrating agent. Concentrated sulfuric acid (typically 60 percent sulfuric acid) is most
commonly used for this purpose. The nitric acid concentration process consists of feeding strong sulfuric
acid and 55 to 65 percent nitric acid to the top of a packed dehydrating column at approximately
atmospheric pressure. The acid mixture flow downward, countercurrent to ascending vapors.
Concentrated nitric acid leaves the top of the column as 99 percent vapor, containing a small amount of
NO2 and oxygen (O2) resulting from dissociation of nitric acid. The concentrated acid vapor leaves the
column and goes to a bleacher and a countercurrent condenser system to effect the condensation of
strong nitric acid and the separation of oxygen and oxides of nitrogen (NO 2) byproducts. (Ohkubo et al
1999) These byproducts then flow to an absorption column where the nitric oxide mixes with auxiliary
air to form NO2, which is recovered as weak nitric acid. Inert and un-reacted gases are vented to the
atmosphere from the top of the absorption column. Emissions from this process are relatively minor. A
small absorber can be used to recover NO2. (Kirk et al 1981)

2.3 EMISSION AND CONTROL:

The main emissions from the production of nitric acid are NO, NO2 (which are responsible for the
emissions that are visible), and ammonia (NH3) in trace amounts. The acid absorption tower's tail-gas is
by far the main source of nitrogen oxides (NO2). Generally speaking, the kinetics of the nitric acid
formation reaction and the absorption tower design have a direct impact on the amount of NO2
emissions. High temperatures in the cooler-condenser and absorber, (1) insufficient air supply to the
oxidizer and absorber, (2) low pressure, particularly in the absorber, (4) production of an excessively
strong product acid, (5) operation at high throughput rates, and (6) malfunctioning machinery, such as
pumps or compressors, which result in leaks and lower pressures, which lower plant efficiency. (Leray
and others, 1979)
According to Roudier (1979), catalytic reduction and extended absorption are the two methods most
frequently employed to regulate emissions from absorption tower tail gas. By adding an extra absorption
tower or improving the efficiency of the current process absorption tower, extended absorption lowers
NO2 emissions. Increasing the number of absorber trays, running the absorber at higher pressures, or
chilling the absorber's weak acid liquid are ways to increase efficiency. It is also possible to replace the
current tower with one that has a bigger diameter and/or more trays.
The tail gases from the absorption tower are heated to ignition temperature, combined with fuel (natural
gas, hydrogen, propane, butane, naphtha, carbon monoxide, or ammonia), and then passed over a
catalyst bed in the catalytic reduction process (also known as catalytic oxidation or incineration). The
fuels oxidize and the NO2 is reduced to N2 in the presence of the catalyst. The fuel type, operating
temperature, pressure, and design of the plant all affect how much NO2 and NO to N2 are reduced.
Acid-concentrating plants also lose space-velocity through the relatively small amounts of nitrogen
oxides. The condenser system is the source of these losses, which are primarily NO2. Nevertheless, the
emissions are negligible enough to be readily managed with affordable absorbers. When a plant is run
correctly, its tail gas does not produce acid mist emissions. A separator or collector filters out any tiny
particles that might be in the absorber exit gas streams before they can reach the expander or catalytic
reduction unit. Kent, 1983.
The acid production system and storage tanks are the only significant sources of visible emissions at
most nitric acid plants. Emissions from acid storage tanks may occur during tank filling.

2.4 STRUCTURE AND BONDING:

Figure 2.1: Two major resonance representations of HNO3

There are planar molecules. The comparable and comparatively short length of two of the N-O bonds
can be explained by resonance theories. The third N-O bond is elongated because the O is also attached
to a proton, and the canonical forms exhibit double bond character in these two bonds, making them
shorter than typical N-O bonds.

2.5 REACTIONS:
2.5.1 ACID-BASE PROPERTIES:
Nitric acid is normally considered to be a strong acid at ambient temperatures. The pKa value is usually
reported as less than (−1). This means that the nitric acid in solution is fully dissociated except in
extremely acidic solutions. The pKa value rises to 1 at a temperature of 250 °C.
Nitric acid can act as a base concerning an acid such as sulfuric acid.
HNO3 + 2H2SO4 NO2+ + H3O+ + 2HSO4–
The nitronium ion, NO2+, is the active reagent in aromatic nitration reactions. Since nitric acid has both
acidic and basic properties it can undergo an autoprotolysis reaction, similar to the self-ionization of
water
2HNO3 NO2+ + NO3– + H2O
2.5.2 REACTIONS WITH METALS:
The specifics of the reaction between nitric acid and most metals rely on the acid's concentration and the
metal's composition. When diluted nitric acid reacts with most metals, it reacts like any other acid. H2 is
released by zinc, manganese, and magnesium. Nitrogen oxides are provided by others. (Ababio, 2007)
Silver and copper, which are inactive metals, can be oxidized by nitric acid. The products of these less
electropositive or non-active metals are dependent on both acid concentration and temperature. For
instance, at room temperature, copper combines with diluted nitric acid.
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 → 3 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O + 6 NO3-

With more concentrated nitric acid, nitrogen dioxide is produced directly in a reaction with 1:4
stoichiometries.

Cu + 4 H+ + 2 NO3− → Cu2+ + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O

Most metals react with nitric acid to produce the corresponding nitrates. Sn, As, Sb, and Ti are oxidized
into SnO2, As2O5, Sb2O5, and TiO2, respectively, by certain metalloids and metals.
Pure gold reacts with aqua regia, a solution of concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, while other
precious metals, like platinum group metals and pure gold, do not react with nitric acid. Nonetheless,
nitric acid can readily oxidize and dissolve some less noble metals (Ag, Cu, etc.) found in some gold
alloys that are relatively low in gold, such as colored gold, changing the color of the gold-alloy surface.
In jewelry stores, nitric acid is a cheap way to identify low-gold alloys (less than 14 carats) and quickly
determine the purity of the gold.
Nitric acid is a potent oxidizing agent that reacts violently and sometimes explosively with many non-
metallic compounds. All metals undergo reaction, except for some alloys and the noble metals series.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) formation is generally favored by oxidizing reactions that mostly involve
concentrated acid. (Ababio, 2007) Though nitric acid has strong oxidizing properties that are
thermodynamic in nature, its oxidation reactions can occasionally be rather kinetically unfavorable. The
rate of reaction is significantly increased when small amounts of nitrous acid (HNO2) are present.
While diluted nitric acid easily dissolves chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and aluminum (Al), concentrated
acid creates a layer of metal oxide that shields the majority of the metal from additional oxidation.
Passivation is the process by which this barrier forms. Passivation concentrations typically vary between
20 and 50 percent by volume (ASTM A967-05 2000). Concentrated nitric acid is used to passivate iron,
cobalt, chromium, nickel, and aluminum metals.
2.5.3 REACTION WITH NON-METAL:
Being a powerful oxidizing acid, nitric acid reacts violently with many organic materials and the
reactions may be explosive. (Kent 1983) Reaction with non-metallic elements, with the exceptions of
nitrogen, oxygen, noble gases, silicon and halogens, usually oxidizes them to their highest oxidation
states as acids with the formation of nitrogen dioxide for concentrated acid and nitric oxide for dilute
acid. (Ababio 2007)
C + 4 HNO3 → CO2 + 4 NO2 + 2 H2O
or
3 C + 4 HNO3 → 3 CO2 + 4 NO + 2 H2O

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes I2, P4 and S8 into HIO3, H3PO4 and H2SO4 respectively.

2.5.4 XANTHOPROTEIC TEST:

Nitric acid reacts with proteins to form yellow nitrated products. This reaction is known as the
xanthoproteic reaction (Gregory 1999). This test is carried out by adding concentrated nitric acid to the
substance being tested, and then heating the mixture. If proteins that contain amino acids with aromatic
rings are present, the mixture turns yellow. Upon adding a strong base such as liquid ammonia, the color
turns orange. These color changes are caused by nitrated aromatic rings in the protein. Xanthoproteic
acid is formed when the acid contacts epithelial cells and is indicative of inadequate safety precautions
when handling nitric acid.

2.6 USES:

2.6.1 NITRIC ACID IN A LABORATORY:

The main use of nitric acid is for the production of fertilizers. Nitric acid is neutralized with ammonia to
give ammonium nitrate. According to Gregory (1999, p.408) this application consumes 75-80% of the
26M tons produced annually. The other main applications are for the production of explosives, nylon
precursors, and specialty organic compounds.

2.6.2 PRECURSOR TO ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS:

In organic synthesis, industrial and otherwise, the nitro group is a versatile functionality. Most
derivatives of aniline are prepared via nitration of aromatic compounds followed by reduction.
Nitrations entail combining nitric and sulfuric acids to generate the nitronium ion, which
electrophilically reacts with aromatic compounds such as benzene. (Gregory 1999) Many explosives,
e.g. TNT, are prepared in this way.

The precursor to nylon, adipic acid, is produced on a large scale by oxidation of cyclohexanone and
cyclohexanol with nitric acid.

2.6.3 ROCKET FUEL

Nitric acid has been used in various forms as the oxidizer in liquid-fueled rockets. These forms include
red-fuming nitric acid, white-fuming nitric acid, mixtures with sulfuric acid, and these forms with HF
inhibitors. IRFNA (inhibited red-fuming nitric acid) was one of 3 liquid fuel components for the
BOMARC missile. (Gregory 1999)

2.6.4 ANALYTICAL REAGENT

In elemental analysis, dilute nitric acid (0.5 to 5.0%) is used as a matrix compound for determining
metal traces in solutions. Ultrapure trace metal grade acid is required for such determination because
small amounts of metal ions could affect the result of the analysis. (Kirk 1981)

It is also typically used in the digestion process of turbid water samples, sludge samples, solid samples
as well as other types of unique samples which require elemental analysis via flame atomic absorption
spectroscopy. Typically these digestions use a 50% solution of the purchased HNO 3 mixed with
deionized water.

In electrochemistry, nitric acid is used as a chemical doping agent for organic semiconductors, and in
purification processes for raw carbon nanotubes.

2.6.5 WOODWORKING

In a low concentration (approximately 10%), nitric acid is often used to artificially age pine and maple.
The color produced is a grey-gold very much like very old wax or oil-finished wood (wood finishing).

2.6.6 ETCHANT AND CLEANING AGENT

The corrosive effects of nitric acid are exploited for a number of specialty applications, such as pickling
stainless steel. A solution of nitric acid, water and alcohol, Nital, is used for etching of metals to reveal
the microstructure (Gregory 1999). Commercially available aqueous blends of 5–30% nitric acid and
15–40% phosphoric acid are commonly used for cleaning food and dairy equipment primarily to remove
precipitated calcium and magnesium compounds (either deposited from the process stream or resulting
from the use of hard water during production and cleaning). The phosphoric acid content helps to
passivate ferrous alloys against corrosion by the dilute nitric acid.(Anon 1979) Nitric acid can be used as
a spot test for alkaloids, giving a variety of colors depending on the alkaloid.

2.7 SAFETY:

Nitric acid is a potent oxidizing agent and strong acid. Its primary risk is chemical burns because it
breaks down living tissue (such as skin and flesh) by performing acid hydrolysis on proteins (amide) and
fats (ester). Because concentrated nitric acid reacts with keratin, it stains human skin yellow. When
neutralized, these yellow stains take on an orange hue. However, systemic effects are unlikely, and the
material is not regarded as a mutagen or carcinogen.

Like other corrosive agents, acid spills on the skin are typically treated with extensive water irrigation as
first aid. To stop further damage and to cool the tissue around the acid burn, wash for a minimum of ten
to fifteen minutes. Immediately remove contaminated clothing and thoroughly wash the underlying skin.
(Othmer and associates, 1981)

Being a potent oxidizer, nitric acid can react explosively with substances like cyanides, carbides, and
metallic powders. It can also react violently and hypergolicly (i.e., self-igniting) with many organic
substances like turpentine. Therefore, keep it stored away from organics and bases.

2.8 PINCH TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN PLANT:

Pinch technology is one of the most effective and widely applicable methods created by Bodo Linnhoff
and associates. The phrase refers to the fact that there is typically a pinch between the hot stream and
cold stream curves in a plot of the system temperatures versus the heat transferred. (Sinnot, 2005) A
comparatively new engineering tool known as pinch technology was created in the late 1970s and early
1980s. This innovative method of assessing a site's energy needs rapidly revealed opportunities to reduce
overall energy consumption. The method of identifying the point or points in the energy flow where
restrictions applied, limiting the amount of low-grade energy that could be reused, led to the term "pinch
technology."
The rigorous application of thermodynamic principles in a formalized methodology distinguished this
new technology from earlier engineering approaches. Large chemical and petrochemical companies
were the first to use pinch technology. Because of the energy profile of the beet sugar industry, it was
quick to adopt, and the cane industry is now following suit. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that
the pinch signifies a clear thermodynamic break in the system and that heat shouldn't pass through it to
use the least amount of energy (Linnhoff et al 1983).
2.9 PLANT LOCATION:
Plant location refers to the choice of a region or the selection of a particular site for setting up the
business or a factory. However, the choice is made only after considering alternative sites. It is a
strategic decision that cannot be changed once it is taken. Therefore, careful care must be taken before a
decision is made on the location of the plant site (Ray et al 1989).
2.9.1 IDEAL PLANT LOCATION:
An optimal site for a plant would have low production costs, a sizable market, little risk, and the
potential for maximum profit. It is the location with the lowest production and distribution unit costs or
the maximum net advantage. Both large and small-scale entrepreneurs can use local analysis to
accomplish this goal.
2.9.2 LOCAL ANALYSIS:
To choose the ideal location for a particular enterprise, an entrepreneur conducts a dynamic process
known as "local analysis," in which they evaluate and contrast the viability of several sites. It takes into
account the following:
 Demographic analysis: Demographic analysis is the study of the local population,
including its overall size, age distribution, per capita income, level of education, and
occupational structures, among other factors.
 Trade area analysis: this refers to a study of the regions that consistently supply the
industry with customers. It is a good idea to check if it is possible to reach the trade area
from other locations. (Ray and others, 1989)
 Competitive analysis: This method aids in assessing the type, extent, location, and
caliber of competition within a specific industry.
 Traffic analysis: this is carried out to get a ballpark estimate of how many prospective
clients would pass by the suggested location during business hours. The purpose of the
traffic analysis is to evaluate the alternate locations based on the volume of vehicle and
pedestrian traffic that passes by the location.
 Site economics: under this, alternative locations are assessed in terms of establishments,
expenses, and running costs. In essence, plant establishment costs are associated with
permanent physical facilities, whereas plant operation costs are associated with the day-
to-day management of the plant.
2.9.3 SELECTION CRITERIA
According to Ray (1989, p. 76) the important considerations for selecting a suitable location are as
follows:

 Nature or climate conditions

 Availability and nearness to the sources of raw materials
 Transport costs: this should be considered both for obtaining raw material and also
distribution or marketing finished products to the ultimate users.
 Close proximity to the anticipated market: the industry’s warehouse should be located
within the vicinity of densely populated areas.
 Availability of infrastructural facilities such as developed industrial shed or site, link
roads, nearness to railway stations, airports or seaports, availability of electricity, water,
public utilities, civil amenities and means of communication are important.
 Availability of skilled and non-skilled labor and technically qualified and trained
managers.
 Banking and financial institutions should be located nearby.
 Safety and security should be given due consideration
 Government influences: tax relief, subsidies, liberation and other positive policies of the
government to support the start off of any industry should be duly considered before any
industry is set up. Also, negative government influences like restrictions for setting up
 industries in an area for reason of pollution control and decentralization of industries
should be considered.
 Utility costs and availability.

[Link] LOCATION ONE: CHATTOGRAM (NEAR TO KARNAPHULI FERTILIZER

COMPANY LIMITED)

 ADVANTANGS:
 Strategic Location: Chittagong is the main port city in Bangladesh, providing
quick access to natural gas and ammonia for imports or local shipping. This
guarantees a dependable supply chain and lowers transportation costs.
 Well-Developed Infrastructure: Chittagong has a well-established infrastructure,
which makes it easier to move equipment and goods around the city. This
infrastructure includes major highways, railways, and an airport. This is essential
for exporting completed nitric acid as well as importing raw materials.
 Industrial Hub: Steel, textiles, chemicals, and other industries are all based in
Chittagong. This established industrial base offers access to a trained labor force
knowledgeable about the safety procedures and chemical processes involved in
the production of nitric acid.
 Potential Market: Nitric acid is an essential component of fertilizers, which are
widely used by Bangladesh's agriculture industry. Building a plant in Chittagong
could meet local demand as well as possible exports to nearby nations.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Environmental Concerns: The production of nitric acid may release greenhouse
gases and nitrogen oxides, among other hazardous emissions. The implementation
of pollution control measures and the mitigation of environmental impact require
careful consideration.
 Safety Risks: Nitric acid is a dangerous and extremely corrosive substance. Tight
safety regulations and emergency action plans are necessary to stop mishaps and
safeguard employees as well as the neighborhood.
 Community Opposition: The presence of a nitric acid plant may cause locals to
express concerns about possible health risks, pollution, and safety issues. It is
essential to address these issues through candid dialogue and community
involvement.
 Competition: A new nitric acid plant in Chittagong may be seen as competition by
the area's ammonia and fertilizer plants, which could make it difficult to obtain
raw materials or market share.

By utilizing the skilled labor force, pre-existing infrastructure, and easy access to markets and raw
materials, Chittagong presents a favorable economic environment for the establishment of a nitric acid
plant. To ensure a sustainable and responsible operation, it is imperative to carefully address safety risks,
competition, potential opposition from the community, and environmental concerns. It is imperative to
carry out an exhaustive feasibility study and consult with relevant parties prior to arriving at any
conclusive decisions.

[Link] LOCATION TO: KUSHTIA (NEAR TO GORAI RIVER, KUSHTIA)

 ADVANTANGES:
 Central Location: As the nation's capital, Kushtia offers easy access to the
government offices, banks, and knowledgeable individuals required for project
planning and administration.
 Huge Market: Fertilizers, which are primarily made of nitric acid, are in high
demand due to Kushtia's large population and close proximity to agricultural
areas. Being close by guarantees simpler distribution and market penetration.
 Current Infrastructure: The effective transportation of raw materials and
completed goods is made possible by Kushtia's excellent road, rail, and aviation
networks.
 Research and Development: Kushtia is home to research centers and universities
with chemistry and engineering backgrounds, which may present advantageous
joint venture and innovation opportunities for plant development.

 DISADVANTANGES:
 Restricted Space: It is difficult to locate a large-scale industrial facility in Kushtia
due to the city's dense population and scarcity of available land. Zoning
restrictions and increased land acquisition costs could result from this.
 Environmental Concerns: Kushtia already has problems with water and air
pollution. With its possible emissions, adding a nitric acid plant might make
these problems worse and necessitate a large investment in pollution control
technology.
 Safety Risks: There is a higher chance of accidents or leaks in densely populated
areas. Strong safety procedures and emergency response plans are necessary to
guarantee the security of city workers and residents.
 Public Opposition: Locals may voice concerns about the plant's possible effects
on their health, the environment, and traffic congestion. It is imperative that these
issues be addressed and that communication be transparent.
 Infrastructure Strain: As industrial activity grows, Kushtia's water and electricity
supplies may become more scarce, necessitating renovations or new
infrastructure spending.

Kushtia has benefits, such as being close to the market, having a skilled workforce, and being centrally
located, but its spatial constraints, environmental issues, and possible backlash from the public need to
be carefully considered. Prior to making any decisions, a comprehensive feasibility study and open
communication with stakeholders are imperative.

The viability of constructing a nitric acid plant in Kushtia ultimately rests on striking a balance between
financial gains and ethical environmental and social policies.
[Link] LOCATION TWO: SYLHET (NEAR TO SHAHJALAL FERTILIZER COMPANY
LIMITED)
 ADVANTANGES:
 Resource Availability: Sylhet has abundant natural gas reserves, which may provide
a cheap and easily accessible fuel source for the production of nitric acid.
 Strategic Location: Sylhet's closeness to northeastern India may present prospects
for the export of nitric acid, an essential ingredient in fertilizers and other chemicals.
 Infrastructure Development: The operations and logistics of the plant may be helped
by the government's emphasis on Sylhet's infrastructure development, which
includes the creation of a special economic zone and enhanced transit connections.
 Competent Workforce: Sylhet is home to an increasing number of professionals with
advanced degrees in chemistry, engineering, and related fields who could be able to
supply the labor required for the upkeep and operation of the plant.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Impact on the Environment: The production of nitric acid may release greenhouse
gases and nitrogen oxides, among other hazardous emissions. It would be essential to
minimize environmental impact and put strong pollution control measures into place.
 Seismic Activity: Due to Sylhet's earthquake-prone location, it is important to
carefully consider building methods that are resistant to seismic activity as well as
safety precautions in order to guarantee plant stability and worker safety.
 Social Concerns: Communities nearby may voice worries about the possible health
effects, pollution, and safety risks connected to a nitric acid plant. Transparent risk
management techniques, community involvement, and open communication are
crucial.
 Economic Viability: To evaluate the project's economic viability, a comprehensive
feasibility study must be carried out, taking into account elements such as production
costs, market demand, and competition from other producers.

The establishment of a nitric acid plant in Sylhet has advantages and disadvantages. Resource
accessibility, a prime location, and the development of infrastructure all present opportunities, but it is
crucial to carefully address environmental issues, seismic risks, social concerns, and economic viability.
A thorough feasibility study and open communication with stakeholders are essential steps prior to
making any final decisions.

2.10 PLANT LAYOUT:

After deciding on a suitable location for the chemical plant, a preliminary choice about the equipment
layout of the plant can and should be made. (Ray and others, 1989) The equipment list should include an
initial estimate of each item's physical size, even though the equipment has not been designed in detail.
When determining the layout, it is important to allow enough space around the plant items and to
account for any size discrepancies between the initial and final estimates.s.
The location of the control room and administrative offices, pipe runs and pressure drops, access for
maintenance and repair, and what to do in the event of an accident or spill can all be taken into account
with a preliminary understanding of the plant layout. Revision of the site selection may be necessary as a
result of the preliminary plant layout, which can also assist in identifying undesired and unforeseen
problems with the preferred site. Baasel (1989) In order to guarantee affordable construction and
effective operation of the finished plant, the suggested plant layout needs to be taken into account early
in the design process and in sufficient detail. The layout of the plant that is chosen also has an impact on
how safely it operates and how well the community accepts the plant (as well as any future additions or
modifications).

There are two approaches that can be used to decide how to arrange the plant. (Harker & Buckhurst,
1973) The first layout is called a "flow-through" or "flow-line" pattern, in which the plant parts are
placed (sequentially) in the order that they are listed on the process flow sheet. This kind of setup—
which is frequently used for small plants—usually reduces pipe runs and pressure drops. Secondly, the
apparatus is situated on the premises in clusters of comparable plant components, such as heat exchanger
pre-heaters, reactors, separation stages, and distillation columns. Larger plants frequently employ the
grouped pattern, which offers the benefits of simpler operation and maintenance, reduced labor costs,
and fewer transfer lines, which lowers the energy needed to move materials. These two plans depict the
most extreme circumstances; in real life, a compromise arrangement is typically used. Whether a new
plant (referred to as "grass roots") or an extension or modification of an existing plant is being designed
determines the plant layout that is used. The most prevalent limitations are those related to space;
nonetheless, these restrictions are typically applied to new sites as well. Other elements to take into
account are:

(a) Placing the control room, offices, and other structures upstream of the prevailing winds and away
from high-accident risk areas.

(b) Reactor, boiler, and other equipment placement away from chemical storage tanks.

(c) Storage tanks should be positioned for ease of access, and the location of all tanks—for product and
raw materials—should be decided upon before proceeding.

(d) Labor needed to run the plant.

(e) Raising the apparatus.

(f) Specific plant item requirements, such as those for pumps.

(g) Provision of utilities, such as steam, water, electricity, etc.

(h) Reducing the amount of piping in plants.

(i) Appropriate access to the following pieces of equipment that need routine upkeep or repairs.

(j) Plant design to make chemical dispersal and cleanup procedures simple in the case of a spill.
(k) In the event of an accident, access to the plant.

(l) Placing cooling water-dependent equipment adjacent to rivers, estuaries, etc.

(m) The locations of treatment tanks and the drainage systems for plant waste and water (separate or
combined?).

(n) Choosing a plant arrangement that will help to contain any explosions or fires.

(o) The distances between different pieces of equipment (insurance companies that specialize in
covering chemical plants have recommended distances between specific pieces of equipment).

The arrangement of plant equipment should minimize the following:

I. property and human damage from fire or explosion;

II. maintenance costs;
III. plant staffing;
IV. operating and construction costs; and
V. costs associated with plant modifications or expansion.

Some of these objectives—like (i) and (iv)—conflict, so in order to maintain both safety and economical
operation, concessions are typically needed when thinking about the plant layout. The plant's overall
design will be determined by its energy-saving measures, any ensuing adjustments, and the piping
configurations [Link] layout of the process units and supporting structures allows for the most
efficient movement of people and materials throughout the property. Processes that pose a risk are
situated safely apart from other structures. Future expansion is taken into account as well. The following
auxiliary structures and services are needed on the property:

 An administrative block;
 A laboratory; storage for products and raw materials;
 A maintenance workshop;
 Utilities (steam boiler, generator, transformer station);
 Astore for supplies needed for upkeep and operation; and
 Additional facilities like a parking lot, restaurant, and clinic.
 Figure 2.10: Plant Layout of nitric acid Production

2.11 PROCESS ROUTES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF NITRIC ACID:

CHILE SALTPETRE/NITRATE PROCESS

Chile saltpeter is composed of approximately 35–60% sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and the remaining
percentage of compounds containing KNO3 and NaCl. During the pre-treatment of the ore, this raw
material, Chile saltpeter, is concentrated by crystallization to produce 95% NaNO3 and the remaining
KNO3 as feed raw material. Kent, 1983

93% sulphuric acid and refined Chilean saltpetre are combined in the proper ratio according to
stoichiometry, and the mixture is then placed in a cast-iron retort. Furnace flue gasses and coal fire are
used to heat the mixture to 200°C.

Therefore, the following reaction continues at this temperature to produce HNO3 and nitric acid vapors.

NaHSO4 + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2SO4

All hot nitric acid vapors are directed to cool in water-circulated, cooled silica pipes, and condensed
HNO3 is gathered in a receiver with nitric acid-resistant material. Nitric acid is collected in a diluted
form by scrubbing the uncondensed gas that escapes from the collector with cooled water in a packed
bed tower. One gathers liquid sodium bi-sulphate from the retort's bottom outlet.
Benefit: It was among the earliest processes for producing nitric acid.
Drawback: The raw material source may run out.
BIRKELAND-EYDE PROCESS/ARC PROCESS

This process is based upon the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen by atmospheric oxygen to nitric oxide
at very high temperatures. An electric arc is used to provide high temperatures, and yields of up to 4%
nitric oxide were obtained. ( Ohrue 1999)

N2 + O2 →2NO

The nitric oxide was cooled and oxidized by the remaining atmospheric oxygen to nitrogen dioxide

2 NO + O2 →2NO2

This nitrogen dioxide is then dissolved in water to give dilute nitric acid.

3 NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO

Advantage: unlimited source of raw material (air)

Disadvantage: The process is very energy intensive and is only feasible when electricity is available and
cheap.
WINSCONSIN PROCESS/NITROGEN FIXATION PROCESS
Atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen are combined in a high temperature regenerative furnace operating at
about 2000oC. Nitric oxide is formed with a yield of nearly 2%.
Advantage: it does not use electricity to provide the high temperature and therefore does not have the
disadvantage of the Birkeland-Eyed process.
Disadvantage: cannot compete favorably with the Ostwald process.

Another method of production of nitric acid via nitrogen fixation is the nuclear nitrogen fixation route.
This method directly combines oxygen and nitrogen. Yields of nitrogen oxide of 5-15% have been
reported by exposing air at 150 and 400oF to radiation from Uranium 235.
Advantage: gives a greater yield of nitrogen oxide than the Winsconsin process

Disadvantage: with this method comes all the disadvantages of nuclear reaction (problem of managing
the radiation which is harmful to living things)
OSTWALD PROCESS

In this process, anhydrous ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide, in the presence of platinum or rhodium
gauge catalyst at high temperature of about 500K and a pressure of 9bar. (Ray et al 1989)
4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) → 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g) (∆H= -905.2KJ)
Nitric acid is then reacted with oxygen in air to form nitrogen dioxide.
2 NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g) (∆H= -114KJ/mol)
This is subsequently absorbed in water to form nitric acid and nitric oxide
3 NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → 2 HNO3 (aq) + NO (g) (∆H= -117KJ/mol)
The nitric oxide is cycled back for re-oxidation. Alternately, if the last step is carried out in air:
4 NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)
The aqueous HNO3 obtained can be concentrated by distillation up to about 68% by mass.
There are 2 basic types of systems used to produce weak nitric acid:
Both processes follow the basic Ostwald process for the catalytic oxidation of ammonia. In summary,
this involves an oxidation stage whereby ammonia is reacted with air in a catalytic converter at
temperatures in the range of 850-950°C. Reaction gases pass through a series of energy recovery stages
before entering an absorption column. The bottoms from the column are bleached of dissolved nitrogen
peroxide using air, and the resulting solution is the weak nitric acid product (Roudier et al 1979).
The first stage of conversion is where the two processes diverge most. The dual-pressure process uses a
reactor temperature of roughly 865°C and a conversion stage that operates in the range of l00-350 kPa.
However, the converter is run using a single-pressure process at 800-1100 kPa, with a reactor
temperature that is closer to 940°C. (1979, Harvin et al.)
1. Single-stage pressure process: in this case, the plant is operated at a single pressure
throughout.
Advantage:
 Less expensive as less equipment’s are used.
 The single-pressure process uses a higher ammonia conversion pressure. This higher
pressure provides advantages in terms of equipment design, e.g. smaller converter
dimensions and a single heat-exchanger-train layout.( Leray et al 1979)
 The higher temperature and the favorable pressure both increase the energy recovery from
the process.
 Limited space availability may favor the single-pressure process
Disadvantage:
 Less efficient as the overall process is favored by varying pressure.
 Experimental work indicates that the rate loss of catalyst (without a catalyst recovery
system) is approximately three times more rapid at 973°C than at 866°C. This means that
more catalyst is lost in the single-stage pressure process ( Harvin et al 1979).
 2. Dual-stage pressure process: here, the plant is operated at different pressures and different
stages.
Advantages:
 The first reaction (catalytic conversion of anhydrous ammonia to nitric oxide) is favored by
lower pressure while the remaining reactions are favored by higher pressures. This
variation in pressure is achieved in dual-stage pressure process. (Harvin et al 1979)
 Capacities of 1130-1360 tonnes per day favor the dual-pressure process, because of the
possibility of absorption up to 1550 KPa.
 Less catalyst is lost because of lower operating temperature

The process selected for this design of nitric acid is single-stage pressure Ostwald process because of its
abov mentioned advantages.
CHAPTER THREE
PROCESS SELECTION AND DETAILS OF THE SELECTED PROCESS
The process of choosing which method to use to manufacture nitric acid is covered in this chapter. The
following procedures have been discovered based on a literature review. These are:
1. From Chile saltpeter or nitrate
2. The Birkeland-Eyde or Arc process
3. Ammonia oxidation process, also known as Ostwald's process
The following table compares the aforementioned processes based on raw materials, catalyst, benefits
and drawbacks, and process yield to help you select a specific method for making nitric acid.
3.1 SELECTION CRITERIA:

SL Process Raw Materials Catalyst Advantage Disadvantage Yield%

no

1 Chile salt Sodium nitrate, Source of raw 95%

peter Sulphuric acid materials can
be exhausted

2 Arc process Air, Water Unlimited sources High electrical 98%

of raw material(air) energy
consumed,
High cost

3 Ostwald’s Ammonia, Air, Pt-Rh alloy Operating cost is Absorber 96%

process water half compare to efficiency is
others reduced.

From the above comparison we select the Ostwald’s process to produce nitric acid as we
found it to be a far better process then the rest as it has got high efficiency, high quality of
acid and economic process.
3.2 Manufacture of nitric acid using Ostwald’s process (single stage pressure process):
Raw material: Ammonia, Air, Water
Nitric acid is made by the oxidation of ammonia, using platinum or platinum10% rhodium as
catalyst, followed by the reaction of the resulting nitrogen oxides with water. The process
involves three steps:

1. Nitrogen monoxide is produced through the catalytic oxidation of ammonia with ambient
[Link] reaction occurs when an ammonia/air mixture goes through a catalytic convertor.
The most widely used catalyst is composed of fine wire squares that are 90% platinum and 10%
rhodium gauze. In these circumstances, ammonia undergoes an exothermic reaction that yields
nitric oxide (NO) in the range of 93 to 98 percent. It is well known that nitrous oxide contributes
to global warming and that nitric oxide is a criterion pollutant. After that, the nitrogen
dioxide/dimmer mixture goes via a platinum filter and a waste heat boiler.

NH3(g) + 5/4 O2(g) NO(g) + 3/2H2O(g) ΔH°298 = -226,334 kJ/kmol

NH3(g) + ¾ O2(g) 1/2N2(g) + 3/2H2O(g) ΔH°298 =-316,776 kJ/kmol

2. Nitrogen dioxide is produced by oxidizing the nitrogen monoxide product. This is necessary to
get rid of the nitric oxide that was created when ammonia was oxidized. A cooler or condenser is
used to cool the process stream. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is created when non-catalytic nitric
oxide combines with leftover oxygen.

NO(g) + ½ O2 NO2(g) ΔH°298 = 57120 kJ/kmol

3. Absorption of the nitrogen oxides to yield nitric acid:

The nitrogen dioxide/dimmer mixture is cooled and then added to the absorption process in the last step.
Pumped into the absorption tower's base is the mixture. While absorption happens on the trays,
oxidation happens in the empty space between the [Link], sieve or bubble cap trays are used as
absorption trays. As seen, the exothermic reaction takes place. In addition to eliminating NO2 from the
product acid, a secondary air stream is injected into the column to reoxidize the NO that has formed.
From the bottom of the tower, an aqueous solution containing 55 to 65 percent (usually) nitric acid is
extracted. Nitric acid can make up between 30 and 70 percent of the acid concentration. The acid
concentration depends upon the temperature,

pressure, number of absorption stages, and concentration of nitrogen oxides entering the

absorber.

4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3 ΔH°298 = -254,765 kJ/kmol

Side reactions involved in various steps:

 4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O

2NH3 + 2O2 N2O + 3H2O

3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3+ NO

2NO2 N2O4

2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2

Compressed air is mixed with anhydrous ammonia, fed to a shell and tube convertor designed

so that the preheater and steam heat recovery boiler-super heater are within the same reactor shell.
Within the tube, layers of 10–30 Pt–Rh alloy sheets in the form of 60–80 mesh wire gauge make up the
convertor section. In the 2.5E-4sec catalyst zone, the gas passes downward during the contact time and
is heated to 800°C.

The reactor's product gases, which contain 10-12% NO, are routed into the oxidizer absorber system
after passing through heat recovery units, which include a heat recovery boiler, super heater, and
quenching unit for quick cooling to remove a significant portion of the product heat. In order to convert
NO to NO2, air is added to the absorption system, which has a more favorable temperature range of 40–
500C.

A sequence of horizontal cascade absorbers or a series of packed or sieve tray vertical towers could
make up the absorption train's equipment. This water absorption system produces a 57–60% HNO 3
solution that is marketable.
3.3 PROCESS FLOW SHEET:
 Figure 3.3: process flow sheet

H01 Ammonia E02 Tail gas pre E07 Heat E11 Condenser D03 Bleaching
 Filter heater exchanger column
H02 Air filter E03 Waste heat E07 Heat E12 Reboiler D05 Distillation
boiler exchanger column
M01 Mixer E04 Air pre E08 Heat D01 Oxidation K01 Compressor
heater exchanger tower
E01 Heat E05 E09 Heat D02 Super N01 Expander
Exchanger Coller/condenser exchanger azeotrope tower
R01 Reactor E06 heat E10 acid Heat D03 Weak acid N02 Motor
exchanger exchanger tower

CHAPTER FOUR
 MATERIAL BALANCE
One of the most crucial elements of a process design is material balance. The total amount of raw
materials used in the process dictates the quality of raw materials needed and the end products.
Process stream flows and their compositions, as well as the sizes of the different process equipment used
in the process, are determined by the balance over individual process units.
4.1 CONVERSION OF MASS:
The accumulation term in a steady state process will be zero, but in the event of a chemical reaction,
specific chemical species may be created or consumed. The material balance equation in the case of a
chemical reaction is as follows:

Input +Generation=Output + Consumption

If there is no chemical reaction, the steady state balance reduces to;

Input = Output
A balance equation can be written for any identifiable species present, elements or compounds; and for
the total material.
4.2 METHODS OF MATERIAL BALANCE:
There are two types of material balance and they are:
a) Algebraic Methods:
One of the simplest and most widely used techniques for balancing the materials that flow through a
system is the algebraic method. It entails using a methodical, sequential approach to identify certain
variable sets that are connected by a system of linear or non-linear equations, the solution to which
depends on the system's final degree of freedom. This degree of freedom gives us the upper bound on
how much freedom we have to choose how to set values for some of the variables—also known as the
design variables. The remaining variables have corresponding values based on the values selected for the
design variables. The different methods of simultaneous equation solution, most notably substitution
and elimination, yield the solutions to the set of equations. The algebraic approach works best for
straightforward systems, but it might not be suitable for complicated systems with lots of units. For
these systems, the split fraction and method are advised.
b) Split Fraction Methods:
This approach is predicated on Magier's (1964) theory of recycle processes. The approach is predicated
on the understanding that dividing a component's inlet flow between two or more outlet streams is the
fundamental duty of the majority of chemical processing units (Unit Operation). When material
balancing a complex of multi-unit plants, this technique works best.
4.3 MATERIALS BALANCE ASSUMPTIONS:
The following assumptions were made during the material balance calculations:
[Link] system is operating at a steady state i.e. there is no accumulation of any sort in the
system.
ii. There is a negligible amount of inert in the process air.
iii. Reasonably high conversion in the reactors.
iv. The effect of side reactions is minimal.
4.4 BASIS OF THE MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATION:

Typical valves, taken from the literature cited:

I. 8000 operating hours per year,

II. Overall plant yield on ammonia is 94 per cent
III. Oxidiser (reactor) chemical yield 96 per cent.
IV. Acid concentration produced 58 per cent w/w HNO3.
V. Tail gas composition 0.2 per cent v/v NO.
BASIS

 140 metric tons/day of 98% HNO3 on 100% basis

 1 hr operation

Establishing the amounts of raw materials for the desired production of Nitric acid

Acid produced = 140 metric tons/day

= 5833.33kg/hr (1 metric ton =

1000kg) Total solution = 5833.33/0.98

= 5952.38 kg/hr

Water produced =5952.38 – 5833.33

= 119.95 kg/hr

(5833.3 kg HNO3 / hr) (I mole of HNO3/63 kg HNO3) (1 Kg mole NH3 required/I Kg

mole HNO3) (17 Kg NH3/I Kg mole NH3) (1 day/130 metric tons)

(24 hr/1 day)

NH3 required = 290.59 kg/metric ton HNO3

 NH3 required = 290.59kg/metric ton x 130 metric tons / day

= 37777.5 kg/day

= 1574.06 kg/hr

= 92.59 kgmol

Overall NH3 to Air ratio = 1:10

Total air required for process = 925.9 kg mol

Primary air entering ammonia oxidation reactor;

For ammonia oxidation, the stoichiometric gas composition is 15% by Vol% of NH 3 in

air. However, this composition is in explosive range of NH3 air mixture. So atmospheric
plants are operated at 14%.
Primary air entering reactor = (92.59 / 0.14) – 92.59
= 568.76 kg mol/hr
Oxygen entering reactor = 568.76* 0.21
= 119.44 kg mol/hr
Nitrogen entering reactor = 568.76-119.4
= 449.36 kg mol/hr
4.5 MATERIAL BALANCE AROUND INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT:
4.5.1 REACTOR (R 01):

3b

NH3=92.54kgmol/hr
O2=119.4kgmol/hr
N2=449.36kgmol/hr

NO=92.59 kgmol/hr
H2O=141.57 kgmol/hr
O2=4.6115 kgmol/hr
N2=450.28n kgmol/hr

REACTIONS OCCURRING IN REACTOR;

4NH3 + 502 4NO + 6H2O (98 %)
4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O (2 %)
According to 1st reaction;

NH3 consumed = 92.59 x 0.98

= 90.73 kgmol/hr
 O2 consumed = (90.73 Kg mole NH3/hr) (5 Kg mole O2 consumed/4 Kg mole NH3)

= 113.4 kg mol/hr

NO produced = 992.59 Kg mole NH3/hr) (4 Kg mole NO produced/4 Kg mole NO /hr)

=92.59 Kg mole NO/hr

H2O produced = (92.59Kg mole NH3/hr) (6 Kgmole H2O/4 Kg mole NH3)

=138.88KgmoleH2O/hr
According to 2nd reaction;

NH3 consumed = 92.59 x 0.02

= 1.85 kg mol/hr

O2 consumed = 1.3888KgmoleO2/hr

N2 produced =(1.85 KgmoleNH3/hr)(2KgmoleN2/4KgmoleNH3)

=0.925KgmoleN2/hr

H2O produced = 1.85KgmoleNH3/hr(6KgmoleH2O/4KgmoleNH3)

= 2.775KgmoleH2O/hr

Total NH3 consumed = 90.73+1.85

= 92.58Kgmole/hr

Total O2 consumed = 113.4+1.3885

= 114.7Kgmole/hr

O2 leaving un-reacted = 119.4-114.7

= 4.6115 kg

mol/hr N2 leaving = N2 entering + N2

produced

= 0.925+449.36

= 450.28 kg mol/hr

NO leaving = 92.59 kg mol/h

 H2O leaving = H2O produced in 1st reaction + H2O produced in 2nd reaction

= 0.925+449.36

= 141.575 kgmol/hr

4.5.2 TAIL GAS PREHEATER (E02) + WASTE HEAT BOILER (E03);

NO=92.59kgmol/hr
H2O=141.575kgmol/hr
O2=4.6115kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr

NO2=9.223kgmol/hr
NO=83.36kgmol/hr
H2O=141.575kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr
REACTION;
2NO + O2 2NO2 (100% conversion is assumed)
O2 is limiting reatanct

NO consumed = (4.6115 Kg mole/hrO2)/(2 Kg mole NO./I Kgmole/hrO2)

=9.23 Kgmole/hr(NO)

NO2 produced = (4.6115 kg mol/hr O2) (2KgmoleNO2/1KgmoleO2)

=9.223Kgmole/hr
4.5.3 COOLER/CONDENSOR (E 05):

7 NO2=7.948kgmol/hr
9
NO=83.785kgmol/hr
NO2=9.223kgmol/hr
NO=83.36kgmol/hr N2=450.28kgmol/hr
H2O=141.57kgmol/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr

HNO3=0.8kgmol/hr
H2O=141.5kgmol/hr

REACTION;
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO
Water is drained off as 2% nitric acid solution.

Let 0.8kg mol of HNO3 produced when water is condensed, then

HNO3 produced = 0.85kgmol

H2O consumed = (0.85 Kgmole/hrHNO3) (1 Kgmole/hrH2O)/(2Kgmole/hrHNO3))

=0.425Kgmole/hrH2O

NO2 consumed =1.275 Kgmole/hrNO

NO produced = 0.425 Kgmole/hr

NO

Check;
 0.85
2% =

x 100%
 (0.8 x 63) + [(141.57 x 18) – (0.425 x 18)]
= 2%

Therefore our assumed value is correct.

NO2 leaving = NO2 entering – NO2 consumed

= 9.223-1.275

= 7.948 kgmol/hr

NO leaving = NO entering + NO produced

= 83.36 + 0.425

= 83.785 kgmol/hr

HNO3 produced = 0.85 kgmol/hr

H2O condensed = H2O entering – H2O consumed

= 141.575-0.425

= 141.15 kgmol/hr
4.5.4 OXIDATION TOWER (D 01):

13
11

D
B (60wt%HNO3)
NO=8.375kgmol/hr
HNO3=297.27kg/hr
NO2=234.18kgmol/hr
H2O=693.6kg/hr
N2=450.28kgmol/hr

12
10

A C (35 wt%HNO3)
HNO3=146.48kg/hr
NO=83.785kg/hr
H2O=769.05kg/hr
N2=450.28kg/hr

REACTION;
NO + 2HNO3 3NO2 + H2O (90%)
NO consumed = 83.785 x 0.9

= 75.40 kgmol/hr

HNO3 consumed = (75.40 KgmoleNO)(2Kgmole HNO3/1KgmoleNO)

= 150.8 kgmol/hr

NO2 produced =(75.40 KgmoleNO)(3Kgmole of NO2/1Kgmole NO)

= 226.2 kgmol/hr

H2O produced = (75.40NO)/(1KgmoleH2O/1Kgmole NO)

=75.40 kgmole H2O/hr

NO leaving = NO entering – NO consumed

 =83.785-75.40

=8.3785 Kgmole/hr

NO2 leaving =234.18 kgmol/hr

HNO3 BALANCE;

0.60 B – 9500.4 = 0.4 C

H2O BALANCE;

0.4 B + 1375.2 = 0.6 C

Solving these two equations, B & C comes out to be,

B = 31213.65 kg/hr

C =23071.65 kg/hr

4.5.5 COMPRESSOR (K 01):

16

NO2=247.5kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr 15
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
3b

NO=8.37kgmol/hr
NO2=239.181kgmol/h
r O2=74.99kgmol/hr
N2=732.148kgmol/hr

REACTION;
 2NO + O2 2NO2 (100% conversion)

NO entering = 8.37 kgmol/hr

O2 consumed = ½ x 8.37 = 4.18 kgmol/hr
NO2 produced = 8.37kgmol/hr = 385.25 kg/hr
Now leaving stream;
NO leaving = 0 kgmol/hr
NO2 leaving = NO2 leaving from oxidation tower + NO2 entering from recycle
stream + NO2 produced
= 10772.28 + X + 385.25 = 11157.57+ X kg/hr
15
NO=8.37kgmol/hr
NO2=239.181kgmol/hr
O2=74.99kgmol/hr
N2=732.148kgmol/hr
2NO2
(100% conversion)
25
NO2 entering from recycle stream is 2% of total NO2 entering the compressor
Let NO2 entering from recycle stream is 230 kg/hr;
2% = 230
11157.57 + 230
2% = 2.007%
So, X = 230 kg/hr
NO2 leaving = 11387.53 kg/hr
= 247.5 kgmol/hr
O2 leaving = O2 entering– O2 consumed
= 74.99– 4.18
= 70.81 kgmol/hr N2 leaving = 732.14 kgmol/hr
4.5.6 DISTILLATION COLUMN (D 05):
24

HNO3 (98wt
%)=5833.3kg/hr H2O =
119kg/hr

23

HNO3 (80%)=11905.8kg/hr
18
H2O (20%wt)=2976.4kg/hr
C

HNO3(68%wt)=607
2.4kg/hr H2O
(32%wt)=2857.6k/
hr

Pure acid product = 5833.3

kg/hr Acid solution =

5833.3/0.98

= 5952.3kg/hr

Overall balance around column;

A=B+C
 A = 5952.3 + C eq.1

HNO3 balance;

0.8 A = 0.68 C + 5833.3 eq.2

Solving equations 1 & 2;

C = 8930 kg/hr; A = 14882.3kg/hr

4.5.7 SUPERAZEOTROPIC COLUMN (D02):

HNO3(68%)=6072.4kg
NO2=103.6kgmol/hr /hr
NO=46.3kgmol/hr H2O(32%)=2857.6kg/
hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr

H2O=52.9kgmolhr

HNO3(80%)=11905.8kg/
NO2=247.5kgmol/hr
hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr H2O(20%)=2976.4kg/hr
N2=732.14kgmol/hr NO2=10580kg/
hr=230kgmol/hr

REACTION;
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO

HNO3 balance,

HNO3 entering from distillation column + HNO3 produced = HNO3 leaving

6072.4 + X = 11905.8

X = 5833.4 kg/hr = 92.6 kgmol/hr

NO produced = ½ x 92.6
 = 46.3mol/hr

H2O consumed = ½ x 92.6

= 46.3mol/hr = 833.4kg/hr

H2O leaving = H2O entering – H2O consumed

2976.4 = 2857.6 + (water from stram 19) – 833.4

2976.46 = 2024.2 + (watr from stream 19)

2976.46 = 2024.2 + 952.26

2976.46 = 2976.46

NO2 consumed = 3/2 x 92.6

= 138.9kgmol/hr

NO2 leaving = NO2 entering – NO2 consumed

= 247.9 – 138.9

= 108.6 kgmol/hr

4-5 % of this leaving NO goes into a stream entering bleaching column.

= 108.6 X 0.046 = 4.99 ≈ 5 kgmol/ hr

So in stream 20 NO2 = 108.6 – 5 = 103.6 kgmol/ hr

4.5.8 ABSORPTION COLUMN (D 01):

NO2=1.036kgmol/hr

HNO3(40%)=146.48k NO=1.389kgmol/hr
gmol/hr O2=11.49kgmol/hr
H2O(60%)=769.05kg
N2=732.14kgmol/hr
mol/hr

NO2=103.6kgmol/hr
NO=46.3kgmol/hr
O2=70.81kgmol/hr HNO3(60%)=297.27kgmol
/hr H2O(40%) =
N2=732.14kgmol/hr 693.6kgmol/h

REACTIONS
4NO + 3O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3 eq.1
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3 eq.2

from eq.1,

NO consumed = 46.3 x .97 = 44.91

kgmol/hr O2 consumed = ¾ x 44.911

=33.66kgmol/hr

H2O consumed = 2/4 x 44.911

 = 22.46kgmol/hr

HNO3 produced = 44.911kgmol/hr

From eq.2,

NO2 consumed = 103.6 x 0.99 = 102.56 kgmol/hr

O2 consumed = ¼ x 102.56

= 25.64kgmol/hr

H2O consumed = 2/4 x 102.56

= 51.28kgmol/hr

HNO3 produced = 102.56kgmol/hr

O2 leaving = O2 entering – O2 consumed

= 70.8119 – ( 25.64 + 33.68)

= 11.49kgmol/hr
4.5.9 BLEACHING COLUMN (D 03):

14

21
O2 = 112.35 kgmol/hr

HNO3(80%) = 17858.7 kg/hr N2 = 423.21 kgmol/hr

H20 = 44646 kg/hr NO2= 7.5kgmol/hr

NO2 = 7.5kgmol/hr

22

23
O2 = 112.35 kgmol/hr
N2 = 423.21 kgmol/hr
HNO3(80%wt)=17858.7kg/hr
H2O (20%wt)=4464.69 kg/h

Total air required for process = 1388.85 kg mol/hr

Primary air used in Oxidation tower = 853.35 kgmol/hr
Remaining secondary air = 1388.85 – 853.35 = 535.5 kgmol/hr
O2 = 535.5 X 0.21 = 862.35 kgmol/hr
 N2 = 535.5 X 0.79 = 423.21 kgmol/hr

4.6 OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE:

D
A E

H2O=52.9kgmol/hr
O2=119.4kgmol/hr HNO3=92.59
N2=449.36kgmol/hr kgmol/hr H2O=6.61
kgmol/hr

F
B
Overall plant balance
NH3=92.59kgmol/hr HNO3=0.85
kgmol/hr
H2O=141.5
kgmol/hr
G
C

NO2=0.1%=1.036 kgmol/hr
O2=74.9 kgmol/hr NO=0.2%=1.389 kgmol/hr
N2=282.14kgmol/hr O2=1.5%=11.49 kgmol/hr
N2=98.12%=732.14 kgmol/hr

A = primary air entering

B = ammonia entering
C = secondary air entering
 D = water entering
E = acid product solution leaving
F = water condensate leaving as 2% nitric acid solution
G = tail gases leaving

CHECK:

Stream A:

O2 = 119.4 kgmol/hr = 3820.8 kg/hr

N2 = 449.36 kgmol/hr =

12582.08kg/hr

= 16402.88kg/hr

Stream B:

NH3 = 92.59 kgmol/hr = 1574.03kg/hr

Stream C:

O2 = 74.9 kgmol/hr = 2396.8 kg/hr

N2 = 282.14 kgmol/hr = 7899.92 kg/hr

= 10296.72kg/hr

Stream D:

H2O = 52.9 kgmol/hr = 952.2kg/hr

Stream E:
 HNO3 = 92.59 kgmol/hr = 5833.17 kg/hr

H2O = 6.61 kgmol/hr = 118.98kg/hr

= 5952.15 kg/hr

Stream F:

HNO3 = 0.85 kgmol/hr = 53.55kg/hr

H2O = 141.15 kgmol/hr = 2540.7 kg/hr

= 2594.25kg/hr

Stream G:

NO2 = 1.036 kgmol/hr = 47.65kg/hr

NO = 1.389 kgmol/hr = 41.67kg/hr

O2 = 11.49 kgmol/hr = 367.68kg/hr

N2 = 732.14 kgmol/hr = 20499.29kg/hr

= 20956.92Kg/hr

INPUT = OUT PUT

A + B + C + D = E + F +G

16402.88 +1574.02 +10296.7 +952.2 = 5952.12 +2594.25 +20956.92

29503.29 = 29225.
 Jashore University of Science and Technology

CHAPTER FIVE
ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 ENERGY BALANCE OF REACTOR:
MOLAL FLOW RATES OF REACTANTS (kg mol/hour)
NH3 = 92.59 k mol / hour = 14.00 %
O2 = 119.4 kg mol/hour = 18.05%
N2 = 449.36 = 67.94%
661.35
MOLAL FLOW RATES OF PRODUCTS (kg mol/hour)
NO = 92.59 k mol/ hour = 13.44%
H2O = 141.575 = 20.55 %

O2 = 4.6115 = 0.67 %

N2 = 450.28 = 65.347 %
689.05

4NH3 + 5O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O ΔH 298 K = -54.1 kcal / mol

4NH3 +3 O2 → 2 N2 +6 H2O ΔH 298 K = -75.7 kcal / mol

Heat of reaction for reaction-1

Heat of formation of reactions and products NH3 = -10.96 kcal/mol
NO = 21.6 kcal/mol

H 2 O = -57.7979 kcal/mole

Hat of reaction 1 =(ΔHf.p - ΔHfr)

ΔHfp = (92.59 * 1000 * 21.6) + (138.88 * 1000 * -57.7979)
=1999944-8026972.352
=-6027028.35 kcal/hr

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ΔHfr= (90.73 * 1000 * -10.96)

=-994400.8 kcal/hr

ΔH r*n 1 = -6027028.35 + 994400.8

=-5032627.55 kcal/hr
For Reaction 2
ΔHf.p = 2.2775 * 1000 * -57.7979
=-160389.17 kcal/hr
ΔHf.r = 1.85 * 1000 *-10.98
=-20276 kcal/hr
ΔH r*n2 =-160389.17 = 20276
=-140113.1725 kcal/hr
Now
Hat Of Reaction = -5032627.55 = (-140113.17)
=-5172740.725 kcal/hr

Calculating Cp of inlet at = 200 ˚C

Cp of NH3 = 9.6299 kcal / k mol ˚C

Cp of O2 = 7.553 kcal / k mol ˚C

Cp of N2 = 6.973 kcal / k mol ˚C

Σ Hr = [m Cp) NH3 + (m Cp )O2 + ( m Cp)N2 ] ΔT

= [(92.59*9.6799) + (119.4*7.553) + (449.36*6.973) ] (200 – 25 )

= 863008.475 kcal

Cp of outlet is calculated at 870 ˚C

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Cp of NO = 8.19 kcal / kg mol ˚C

Cp of H2O = 10.14 kcal / kg mol ˚C

Cp of O2 = 8.42 kcal / kg mol ˚C

Cp of N2 = 7.643 kcal / kg mol ˚C

Σ Hp = [ (m Cp ) NO + (m Cp) H2O + (m Cp ) O2 + (m Cp ) N2 ] ΔT

= [ (92.59*8.19) + (141.575*10.14 ) + (4.6115*8.42) + (450.28*7.643) ] (870 – 25)

= 4794700.24 kcal

q = Σ Hp + Σ ΔH at 25˚C - Σ Hr

= 4794700.24+(-5172740.725)-863008.4

=--1241048.885 kcal

5.2 ENERGY BALANCE OF COMPRESSOR:

P1 = 1 atm
P2 = 10atm
T1 = 48˚C
No. of stages (n) = 2
C.R = (P2/P1)1/n
= 3.16
Cp/Cv =  = 1.4
m=  - 1/ Ec
Ec = efficiency of compressor = 78% m= 0.366

For stage 1,

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T 0.366
2 = T1 (P2 /P1)
= 321 (3.16)0.366
= 489.09˚K
=216.9 ˚C

For stage 2;
After passing through intercoolers temperature is reduced to 50˚C Now T1 =50˚C
Again,
T 0.366
2 = T1 (P2 /P1)
= 323 (3.16)0.366
= 492.13˚K
=492.13 ˚C

5.3 ENERGY BALANCE OF OXIDATION TOWER:

Inlet Temperature of reactants = 50 °C
Moles of Reactants ( kg mol) NO = 83.784
N2 = 450.28
HNO3 = 297.27
H2O = 693.6
Moles of Products :( kg mol ) NO = 8.375
NO2 = 234.18
N2 = 450.28
HNO3 = 146.48
H2O = 769.05
Specific Heat of Reactants & Products (kcal/k mol °C) Cp of N O = 7.146

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Cp of N2 = 6.95 Cp of HNO3 = 26.29 Cp of H2O = 9.25 Cp of NO2 = 8.9625

Calculating Enthalpy of reactants :(kcal ) H1 of NO = mCp(T2 –T1)
= 83.784 x 7.146 x (50 – 25)
= 14968.01
H2 of N2 =m Cp (50 – 25)
= 450.28 x 6.95 x 25
= 78236.15 kcal
H3 of HNO3 = 297.27 x 26.29 x (50 - 25)
=195380.7 kcal H4 of H2O = 693.6 x 9.25 x25
= 160395 kcal
H of reactants Hr = H1 + H2 + H3 +H4 =450760.66 kcal Calculating enthalpy of products (kcal)
H1of NO = m Cp (T2 – 25)
= 8.375 x7.146 x (T2 – 25)
= 59.8 (T2 – 25)
H2 of NO2 = 234.18x 8.9625 x (T2 – 25)
= 2098.8 (T2 – 25)
H3 of N2 = 450.28 x 6.9449 x(T2 – 25)
= 2098.8 (T2 – 25)
H4 of H2O = 769.05 x 9.25 x (T2 – 25)
= 7113.7 (T2 – 25)
H5 of HNO3 = 146.48 x 26.29 x (T2 – 25)
=3850.95 (T2-25)
Summing enthalpy of products
H of products Hp = 16250.39 (T2 – 25)
For reaction
NO + 2 HNO3 → 3 NO2 + H2O

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ΔH rxn at 25 °C = 32.4 kcal /g mol = 2553424.56 kcal (from Kirk Othmer, Vol 13)
Now,
Hp + ΔHrxn at 25oC - Hr = 0
Putting all the above values and calculating T2 16250.39(T2 – 25) + 2553424.56 – 450760.6 = 0
Outlet Temp of products T2 = 48 °C

5.4 ENERGY BALANCE OF ABSORPTION COLUMN:

HEAT OF REACTION
Heat evolved from reaction 1,
No. of moles of NO2 entering = 46.3 kg mol No. of moles of NO2 leaving = 1.389 kg mol
No. of moles of NO2 consumed=(46.3-1.389) kg mol=44.911 kg mol Now form reaction1,
Qrxn1 = -263000 kJ/kg mol x 44.911 kg mol Qrxn1= -1.181x107 kJ/hr
Heat evolved from reaction 2,
No. of moles of NO entering = 103.6 kg mol No. of moles of NO leaving = 1.036 kg mol
No. of moles of NO consumed=(103..6 – 1.036)kg mol=102.564 kg mol

Now form reaction 2,

Qrxn2 = -149000 kJ/kg mol x 102.564 kg mol Qrxn2= -1.528x107 kJ/hr

Total heat evolved during the reaction,

Qrxn= Qrxn1+ Qrxn2 = -2.709x107 kJ/hr

SENSIBLE HEAT:
At T= 25˚C
CpNO2 = 37.04 kJ/kg mol-˚C
CpNO = 29.7 kJ/kg mol-˚C

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CpO2 = 29.39 kJ/kgmol-˚C

CpN2 = 29.1 kJ/kgmol-˚C
CpHNO3 = 110 kJ/kgmol-˚C
CpH2O = 74.88 kJ/kgmol-˚C
Datum temperature = 0˚C = 273 K
Stream 1:
Streams Mol% Cp “kJ/kg mol ˚C” Cpmix “k J/kg mol˚C”
NO2 10.87 37.04 0.1087*37.04

NO 4.85 29.7 0.0485*29.7

O2 7.43 29.39 0.0743*29.39

N2 76.83 29.1 0.7683*29.1

30.01 kJ/kgmol-˚C

Inlet temperature = 25˚C

ń = 1001.22745 kgmol/hr
Q1= ńCpmixΔT
Q1 =7.14x105kJ/hr
Stream 2:
Streams Wt % Cp “kJ/kgmol-˚C” Cp/Mr “kJ/kg˚C” Cpmix “kJ/kg˚C”
HNO3 35 110 1.746 0.40x1.746
H2O 60 74.88 4.16 0.60x4.16
3.1944 kJ/kg˚C

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Inlet temperature = 25˚C m = 23071.14 kg/hr

Q2= mCpmixΔT
Q2 =1.84x106kJ/hr

Stream 3:
Streams Mol % Cp “kJ/kg mol ˚C” Cpmix “kJ/kg
mol C”
NO2 00.14 37.04 0.0014x37.04
NO 0.18 29.7 0.0018x29.7
O2 01.5 29.39 0.015x29.39
N2 98.13 29.1 0.987x29.1
29.06 kJ/kgmol-˚C
Outlet temperature = 45˚C ń = 746.05 kgmol/hr
Q3= ńCpΔT

Q3=4.34×10 5

STREAM 4:
Streams Wt% C p“kJ/kgmol-˚C” Cp C pmix“kJ/kg-˚C”
“kJ/kg-˚C”
Mr
HNO3 60 110 1.746 0.60*2.619

H2 O 40 74.88 4.16 0.40*6.24

=4.06 kJ/kg ˚C
Outlet temperature =50℃
m=46819.2(50-25)kg/hr

Q4 =mC pmix ∆ T

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Q4 =2.11×10 6

Now,

Q¿=Q1 +Q2=2.59×10 6

Qout =Q3 +Q4 =2.544×10 6

△ Q =Q¿ −Qout =50000 kJ/hr

Heat transferred to the cooling coils ,

Q=Qrnx - △ Q=¿2.709×10 7kJ/hr -50000 kJ/hr=2.7×10 7kJ/hr

Mass flow rate of water through coils:

Inlet temperature of water in cooling coils=25℃
Outlet temperature of water from cooling coils=80℃
Change in temperature=∆ T =55 ℃

Heat removed by the cooling medium =Q=4.05×10 7kJ/hr

C pH O =4.14 kJ /kg ˚ C
2

Q = ṁ C pΔT

ṁ= 32.8 kg/s;
As there are total 15 coils in absorption column,
So,
Mass flow rate through one coil, ṁ=2.18 kg/s

5.5 ENERGY BALANCE OF HEAT EXCHANGER:

Cold fluid
Process gases from cooler/condenser
Inlet = 25˚C
Outlet=50˚C

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Composition
NO=83.785kgmol/hr = 17.12%
N2 = 450.28kgmol/hr = 82.81%
Cp(mix)=6.94 Kcal/kgmol˚C
Q= n Cp ΔT
= 540.013 x 6.94 x (50-25)
= 94039.25 Kcal/hr
Hot fluid
Gases leaving compressor
Inlet =73˚C Composition:
N2=23.56 mole%
NO2=69.7 mol%
O2=6.74 mol%
Cp(mix)=7.98 Kcal/kgmol˚C
Q = n Cp ΔT
89100.99 = 1050.45 x 7.98 x (73 – T)  T = 61.78˚C

5.6 ENERGY BLANCE OF PARTIAL CONDENSER:

Heat duty:

NO=0.1346  4.714 2.2046 3600=5035.78 lbm/hr

NO2=67.343 lbm/hr

N2=24490.513lbm/hr

H2O=7815.56 lbm/hr

Refrence temperature=77oF

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Enthalpies or heat rates carried:

Q1 for NO=380705.1373 Btu/hr

Q2 for NO2 =6151.8095 Btu/hr

Q3 for N2=2005773.01 Btu/hr

Q4 for H2O =6510364.77 Btu/hr

Total heat load without condensation load

∑Q=Q1+Q2+Q3=2392629.962 Btu/hr

If the mixture is cooled up to 50oF below the saturation temperature of steam then
Q5=∑mCp∆T=6008.159  50 oF

=300407.9847Btu/hr

Total duty of condenser Qc=Q4+Q5

=6810772.75 Btu/hr

Amount of coolant Water (treated) Temperature limit 77 oF to 203 oF Qc = ∑mCp∆T

m=54053.75 lbm/hr

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CHAPTER SIX
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
Chemical process industries utilize two types of equipment: non-proprietary equipment, which
includes reactors, heat exchangers, evaporators, stills, condensers, and bleaching vessels, and
proprietary equipment, which includes pumps, centrifuges, and other pieces of machinery
designed and produced by specialized companies.
While the non-proprietary equipment will be created as unique, one-of-a-kind pieces specifically
for the specific processes and uses they are anticipated to fulfill, the proprietary equipment will
only be chosen and specified.
Choosing and sizing the equipment is typically the extent of the chemical engineer's involvement
in the design of "non-proprietary" equipment. In this design work, the same will be done.
6.1 PROCESS UNITS OF NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION PLANT:
The nitric acid process plant comprises:
Unit of Ion Exchange:
This device removes undesired divalent and monovalent ions by means of a sequence
of packed beds filled with different organic polymer resins. utilized to produce water
that has been de-ionized.
De-ionized water cooler:
Consist of finned fan-type cooler for cooling the circulating de-ionized water.
Air-compressor:
In this case, air is compressed twice. Low-pressure compression from atmospheric
pressure to 310 kPa is the first stage of compression. A gas turbine provides the shaft
drive for an axial compressor. A compressor of the centrifugal type is used in the
second compression. When it comes to air flow rate (36 000 kg/h) and outlet pressure
(1090 kPa), the centrifugal compressor is more efficient. The expansion of tail gas
provides the shaft drive for the centrifugal compressor. An intercooler, located halfway
between the two compression stages, can reduce air temperature from 180°C to 45°C
while losing 10 kPa of pressure. The second compression stage is made more effective
by the temperature drop.
Ammonia vaporizer:
A shell and tube heat exchanger with two shell passes on the tube side makes up this
unit. Pressure during operation is 1240 kPa. Mild steel is used to make the heat
exchanger.
Ammonia super-heater:
It is made up of a heat exchanger that is shell and tube in design and has a mechanical
structure akin to the ammonia vaporizer. It's made out of mild steel.
Reactor:
Operating within the pressure vessel range of 1050 kPa to 1100 kPa is the reactor. The
reactor's lower portion is jacketed. This jacket heats the air before it comes into contact

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with ammonia. An additional heat exchanger of the shell and tube type is located in the
reactor's lower section. The last phase of tail-gas preheating is supplied by this
exchanger. The reactor's exchanger section receives tail gas at 235°C, and the reaction
gases exit at 645°C.
Stream super-heater:
Saturated steam is superheated by this unit from 250°C (and 4000kPa) to 380°C. The
product steam has a medium pressure and is good enough for both "in-house" use and
export. The reaction gases are cooled by the super-heater from 645°C, the reactor exit
temperature, to 595°C.
Waste-heat boiler:
This unit superheats saturated steam from 250°C (and 4000kPa) to 380°C. The steam
produced is suitable for "in-house" use as well as export, with a medium pressure. The
super-heater lowers the reaction gases' temperature from 645°C, which is the reactor's
exit temperature, to 595°C.
Tail-gas pre-heater:
Includes exchangers of the shell and tube types as well. It takes reaction gases that are
about to exit the platinum filter at 315°C and 1020 kPa, and it cools them down to
185°C. Tail gas is used as the cooling media. It enters the tail-gas pre-heater at roughly
50°C and exits at 235°C.
Cooler/condenser:
This unit cools the residual gases from an inlet temperature of 185°C to 60°C and
condenses weak nitric acid from the gaseous mixture. The cooling medium of the shell
and tube heat exchanger is de-ionized water.
Oxidation unit:
An empty pressure vessel called the oxidation unit mixes in extra air from the bleaching
column along with reaction gases that are fed in. The gas mixture temperature rises to
140°C as a result of the additional oxygen that is supplied, allowing for more oxidation.
A mist eliminator located at the top of the oxidation unit stops acid vapor from being
carried over by entrainment. The weak-acid drain is located at the base of the container.
Absorber:
Usually, the absorber is a column designed like a sieve tray. It operates at about 990 kPa
of pressure. Pressurization is relieved by a bursting disc. Cooling coils are installed on
each tray to facilitate the absorption liquor's cooling process. Two separate cooling
circuits, one using de-ionized water, are present. The temperature in the upper section is
7°C at the inlet and 20°C at the outlet. The temperature at the bottom of the cooling
loop is 20°C at the inlet and 40°C at the exit. There is more flexibility in adjusting the

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absorption conditions in the column when two cooling circuits are used. At roughly
10°C, the tail gas exits the column. Midway up the column, a tray designated for that
purpose receives weak acid from the cooler/condenser, and the top tray receives make-
up water at 7°C. There are some dissolved nitrogen oxides in the acid that was removed
from the column's bottom.
Stripping column:
A smaller column resembling a sieve tray is used for bleaching. To eliminate dissolved
nitrogen oxides, air bubbles up through the liquor and impure acid flows down the
column from the top tray. The final desired 60% (wt.) product is the acid from the
column's base.
Storage tank:
Store the supply of ammonia and nitric acid produced from the plant.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

During plant operation, instruments are provided to monitor the critical process variables. They
can be utilized for manual process operation monitoring or integrated into automatic control
loops. They could also be a part of a system that automatically logs computer data. instruments
keeping an eye on important processes.
7.1 OBJECTIVES OF PROCESS CONTROL
 Safety
 Production Specifications.
 Operating Constraints
 Economics
7.2 PROCESS MESUREMENT INSTRUMENTATION
One cannot undervalue the significance of process measurement in a process plant. To
provide a return on investment in line with the process plant's design, current process control
technology depends on precise and repeatable data. The process parameter is unable to
measured directly by the measuring tools. Instead, it measures a different parameter and
extrapolates the needed values from there. Examine the subsequent instances.
I. Assume that employing alcohol in a glass thermometer to measure the temperature of
a room is necessary. It is evident that the true measurement being made in relation to
room temperature is the expansion and contraction of alcohol. An estimate of the
temperature is made by comparing the height of the alcohol column to a calibrated
scale.
II. When measuring the steam pressure in a boiler drum using a standard pressure gauge,
what is actually being measured in relation to the steam pressure is the mechanical
deflection of the measuring element inside the gauge. This measuring element's

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deflection turns into angular motion, and an inferred pressure measurement is made
by attaching a pointer to the measuring element and comparing it to a calibrated scale.
7.3 TYPES OF INSTRUMENTATION
Following are some of the main types of instrumentation
7.3.1 RECORDING INSTRUMENTATION
Continuous measurements are necessary for practical work process parameters including flow,
pressure, and temperature. Provisions must be made to mark the parameters with regard to time
if a review of the measurements is necessary. This may be done via a recorder, which comes in
many formats depending on the application. Typically, the process involves noting the
parameter's measurement in relation to time on a chat. A clock mechanism may be used to drive
either a linear or circular chart. A pen is used to record the process parameter, leaving a trace on
the chart. The length of the chart paper and the chart speed (time base) determine the record's
duration.
7.3.2 INDICATION INSTRUMENTATION
Instrument indicators are widely employed in process flow to give plant operators a visual
indication of process parameters. The indicators might be a conventional digital display with a
circular dial. Indicator may be field mounted, or panel mounted in a control room. The indicator
method is chosen to meet the intended measurement range and parameter signal; for example, it
may indicate using a pointer on a calibrated scale. The linear indicator, which shows the process
parameter as a pointer against a calibrated scale, has supplanted circular gauges in recent years.
7.3.3 ALARM INSTRUMENTATION
Alarm instrumentation is designed to identify deviations in process parameters from predefined
limits. An alarm instrument loop typically comprises of an end device, such as a horn, light, or
bell, and a field device, such as a switch or contact closure device. An alarm state and a non-
alarm state are represented by the two conditions of the alarm loop, which is typically digital.
7.4 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
The control systems' three primary goals are

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I. To lessen the impact of outside disruptions on a process.

II. To guarantee a process plant's stability and security.
III. To maximize an industrial plant's productivity.
7.5 CANCLELING THE EFFECT OF DISTURBANCES

The most typical goal of a control system is to lessen the impact of disruptions . This control goal
makes an efficient effort to bring the process parameter back to the set point. To neutralize the
impact of any outside disruptions, the control systems altered the procedure.
7.6 PROCESS STABILITY
A crucial component of control is guaranteeing a process's stability. The behavior of the control
process might vary from being almost completely inert to having very little control action
occurring in the absence of reliable control. An unstable process might result from this. Unstable
conditions have a negative impact on worker and plant safety and lower production.
7.7 OPTIMIZING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF THE PROCESS
It is feasible to operate the plant at the maximum production rate with adequate control over
process variables and process stability.
7.8 THE FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP
The feed back control loop is an essential component of any industrial control system. It has the
following features.
I. Controller
II. Measurement Element
III. Final control Element
IV. Process
Process variables include things like pressure, level, flow, temperature, and composition.
7.8.1 SET POINT
The process variable's desired value is known as the set point.
7.8.2 ERROR
It is the variation between the controlled variable's actual value and its set point.
7.8.3 FEED BACK
Information obtained by tracking the controlled variable and comparing its signal to the
predetermined point is called feed back. A positive feed back is one that results in a rise in the

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difference between the controlled variable and the set point. This is an unfavorable and risky
condition. Negative feed back control, on the other hand, continuously compares the controlled
variable and the set point, which is often a fixed value, and reduces the error between the two.
7.8.4 CLOSE FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP
The loop is referred to as a closed fed back control loop if all of its parts are connected to one
another so that information may be transferred constantly around the loop.
7.8.5 OPEN FEED BACK CONTROL LOOP
When the controller is set to manual control, for example, or when there is any other disruption
in the information flow around it, the loop is considered open and automated feedback cases.
The components of the control loop are as follows.
i. CONTROLLER
The main job of a controller is to provide an output signal that will direct the final control
element to eliminate error. Usually, the controller is the sole part of the loop that has the ability
to offset disturbances' effects on the process.
ii. SENSING OR MEASURING ELEMENT
This calculates a controlled variable's value. Measurement conversion involves the employment
of sensing devices like as flow, temperature, or pressure, into a movement or signal that may be
sent to a recorder, controller, or indicator. They go by the names sensors or detectors as well.

iii. FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

This is the part of a control system that modifies the controlled variable's value, such as a valve
or variable transformation.

iv. PROCESS:
A process is an industrial procedure that uses energy to modify a substance or create a
different energy conversion. The procedure might take a variety of shapes. It might be the
preservation of a vessel's pressure, the regulation of the flow rate of different liquids and
gases, or the maintenance of the water level in a boiler tank.

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7.9 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

Heat exchangers, reactors, and other similar devices employ temperature measurement to
regulate the temperature of their intake and exit streams.
To make it easier to get the results to a single area, thermocouples are used for the majority of
temperature measurements in the industry. Bi-metallic or filled system thermometers are used
less often for local readings at the equipment. Resistance thermometers are often used for
excellent measurement accuracy.
When utilized locally, all of these meters have thermo-wells fitted. This offers defense from the
environment and other material factors.
7.10 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT &CONTROL
Similar to temperature, pressure is a useful indicator of the composition and condition of a
material.
Actually, when combined, these two measurements serve as the main tools for assessing
industrial materials.
Pressure measurement equipment is attached to pumps, compressors, and other process
equipment that is related to pressure variations in the process material. As a result, measuring
pressure may now be used to determine changes in energy. Elastic element devices, either
directly connected for local usage or sent to a centralized site, make up the majority of pressure
measuring equipment in industry. The most often utilized industrial pressure element is the
Bellows gauge, or a diaphragm or Bourdon tube
7.11 FLOW MEASUREMENT & CONTROL
Liquid quantity is regulated by flow-indicator-controllers. Additionally, all manually adjusted
streams need a flow indicator or a simple way to monitor samples on occasion. The feed and
product stream are metered for accounting reasons. Furthermore, metered utilities are provided
for both individual and group equipment. Variable Head devices are used in the industry for the
majority of flow measurements. Variable Area and the many other varieties are employed to a
lesser extent when unique metering scenarios emerge.

CHAPTER EIGHT
SAFETY
Every organization has a legal and moral obligation to safe-guard the health and welfare of its
employees and general public. Safety also leads to good business. So by good management
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practice and ensuring safe operations personal safety, plant safety and efficient operations can he
achieved.
8.1 MAJOR GOALS OF SAFETY:
The ultimate goal of safety is the complete protection of
I. Personnel injury and loss of life.
II. Destruction of plant and property as a result of:
 Accidents
 Fires
 Explosions or
 Other hazards situation
8.2 MAJOR CAUSES OF HAZARD:
Process industries have a wide range of hazards. These hazards are the result of the presence
of:
 Sizable quantities of flammable and unstable materials.
 I ugh temperatures which promote ignition and decomposition.
 High pressure which may release in the case of structural failure or explosion.
 Improper handling of material by employees
8.3 PROTECTION AGAINST HAZARD:
One can categorize the risks and ways to prevent them into two main groups.
 Safety measures and mechanical risks.
 Personal health risks and safeguards
8.3.1 PROTECTION AGAINST MECHANICAL HAZARDS
1. MAJOR MECHANICAL HAZARDS:
Major hazards are mishaps that could result from equipment breaking down mechanically in
extremely hot or pressurized environments.
PROTECTION FROM MECHANICAL HAZARDS:
The following actions can be taken to prevent equipment mechanical failure:
A. The equipment should be designed in accordance with standards that have been
recommended by authorities to prevent mechanical failure. For instance, the
American Petroleum Institute (A.P.I.) code should be followed when designing
pressure vessels and storage tanks, and they should undergo testing at the intended
pressure two or more times.

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B. Appropriate instrument selection and process control at safe operating conditions are
essential during equipment design. Safety serves as a guide when designing control
systems, in addition to other considerations.
C. An essential component of a chemical plant's safe operations are well-defined and
functional protocols. Operating instructions are supplied by the equipment
manufacturers. However, standard operating procedures (S.O.P.s) must be
established in the plant where hundreds of small units are monitored in order to
guarantee safe startup, shutdown, and regular operations.
8.3.2 PERSONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND PROTECTION:
Hazardous material handling and storage can also lead to accidents. The toxicity of the chemicals
handled during operations can also cause injuries to plant personnel. As a result, having a MI
comprehension of the material's chemical and physical properties is essential.
8.4 MAJOR HEALTH HAZARDS AT NITRIC ACID PLANT:
Both nitric acid and nitrogen oxides are handled in large quantities at a typical nitric acid plant.
The following lists the main hazards associated with nitric acid and nitrogen oxides.
When handled improperly, nitric acid, its vapors, and nitrogen oxides can cause severe injuries or
even death because they are:
 extremely toxic;
 quickly acting; and
 Capable of producing sever injuries or death if improperly handled
8.4.1 TYPICAL HAZARDS OF NITRIC ACID AND NITROGEN OXIDES:
Typical Hazards of these chemicals can be divided into two groups.
i. Contact Hazards
ii. Respiratory Hazards
CONTACT HAZARDS:
 An injury may result by contact of skin with acid.
 The symptoms resulting from skin contact vary from moderate irritation to sever
 burns, depending on
o Contact time and
o Strength of acid
 Signs of contact may include a yellow discoloration of skin.
 Sever burns may penetrate deeply causing ulceration.

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RESPIRATION HAZARDS:
1. Due to highly toxic action of nitrogen oxides these gases are taken as the most toxic gases.
2. The major Hazards of these gases is the sever pulmonary problems.
3. The detail of problem is as follows:
i. Sever pulmonary symptoms may set with in 5-8 hours after breathing as little as 25
PPM through out an 8-hour period.
ii. Breathing 100-150 PPM for 0.5-1 hour may produce pulmonary edema.
iii. A few breaths of 200-700 PPM may produce sever pulmonary edema with in 5-8
hours.
4. Most cases of nitrous fume poisoning can be classified into the following categories.
o Slight symptoms
o Mild immediate effects
o Sever effects
Slight symptoms:
a. Slight symptoms may occur with in 48 hours breathing light nitrous oxide fumes.
b. This form of poisoning occurs in industry.
Mild Immediate Effects:
From mild effects the recovery is apparently complete but after words the sever attacks
eventually continue. In typical case of NO poisoning the sequence of attacks may be
a. A few breaths of apparently harmless gas.
b. Only slight discomfort may be felt with worker continuing his job.
c. 5-8 hours after exposure, the victim may face very sever attack?
Sever Effects:
In case of sever attacks, attacks may be followed by
a. Shocking
b. Dizziness and
c. Irregular respiration

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8.5 PROTECTION AGAINST HEALTH HAZARDS:

Protection against health Hazards may he classified as:
I. Protection against contact Hazards.
II. Protection against respiratory Hazards
I. Protection against contact Hazards:
To protect contact Hazards following safety equipment should be provided to the workers.

 Acid proof safety shoes

 Acid proof over-all clothes
 Rubber gloves
 Safety goggles
 Gas masks
 Fire extinguisher
 Some of employees should be given proper first aid training.
TREATMENT OF ACID CONTACT INJURY:

Generally contact injury occur on

i. Skin ii. Eye

SKIN INJURY TREATMENT:

 Since acid damages skin, the affected area should be cleaned with a weak
alkali solution or Na2CO3.
 After that, the wound needs to be dried and cleaned with water.
 Bandage and apply moist picric acid gauze.
 If the victim swallows acid, they should consume a lot of warm, soapy
water or milk.
 If vomiting doesn't happen, it should be introduced.

EYE INJURY TREATMENT:

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 If an eye is injured, wash it right away with a saturated Na2CO3 solution.

 Put a bandage over the eye.
 Report the case right away so that a physician can examine it right away.

II. Prevention of respiratory dangers:

In order to safeguard against respiratory hazards, it is recommended that workers be equipped

with safety equipment such as safety goggles, gas masks, fire extinguishers, rubber gloves, acid-
proof safety shoes, and acid prod over all clothing.

8.6 TREATMENT OF RESPIRATORY HAZARDS:

o In the case of nitrogen oxides poisoning first acid should be given immediately.
o In such situation patient should he moved to open and un-contaminated
atmosphere.
o No exertion should he allowed to the patient. Patient should breath pure
o Oxygen for 30 minutes to 1 hr for 6 hours.
o If breathing is normal O2 inhaling should be discontinued.

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CHAPTER NINE
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
Numerous industries are affected by the corrosion issue. In the chemical industry, this is one of
the most important—and possibly most expensive—problems that chemical engineers face. This
is because, in addition to the increased production costs brought on by equipment replacement,
maintenance shutdowns, and other factors, there is also a risk of product contamination through
catalytic action or other means. As a result, losses from corrosion may total hundreds of millions
of rupees. Therefore, the chemist and the engineer should applaud any advancement that aims to
control or reduce this heavy loll.
The possibility that ammonia could undergo an oxidation process and produce nitric acid has
long been recognized. The chemist's expertise and creativity alone should not be credited with
the process' success. The construction of the required plants and equipment has also been made
possible by the availability of suitable materials that satisfactorily resist the corrosive action of
the acid and can be fabricated into the required forms. These substances are alloys of iron and
chromium. As a result, until high chromium content iron was developed in the 1920s, the design
of early nitric acid plants was severely constrained by the materials of construction. Commonly
used materials included acid brick, earthenware, and glass. With the development of better
building materials, the design of the nitric acid process could be enhanced. Plant capital cost
decreased as a result of increased operating pressure.
9.1 CORROSION PRINCIPLE:
When it comes to pure metals, their ability to combine with other substances is determined by
their atoms' "affinity," which typically results in the stranger atoms of the metal dislodging the
other element with which it had previously been in combination. This is the fundamental idea
behind the "corrosion" process. If, as is the case in solid solutions (a solid solution is created
when two or more elements or compounds share a common lattice), this affinity can be
diminished by the atoms of another metal.

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The composition may differ within extremely broad bounds, but the vulnerability to attack will
be significantly diminished. There will be increased resistance to attack if a third metal is added
to the solid solution and this energy of affinity is further decreased. Several alloys serve as
excellent examples of this. Even at room temperature, oxygen can easily attack [Link]
appropriate amount of chromium added to create a solid solution, even at slightly elevated
temperatures, generates nearly total resistance at standard temperatures. If a third metal is added,
such as silicon or nickel,which also dissolves into solution with the iron and chromium resistance
to oxidation is increased to even higher temperatures, and the alloy gains resistance to several
substances that neither plain iron nor even the solid solution of iron and chromium will
withstand. Solid solution alloys are superior to other alloys in the series not only in terms of
chemical resistance but also mechanically, as they typically have the best physical characteristics
in terms of strength and toughness.

EQUIPMENT FOR AN AMMONIA OXIDATION PLANTS INCLUDES:

 Converters.
 Absorption towers.
 Heat exchangers.
 Valves.
 Pipe lines, etc.
9.2 HIGH TEMPERATURE NH3 OXIDATION:
There are alloys that can withstand high temperatures and have good strengths between 1000 and
1900 degrees Fahrenheit, but they are typically very costly. These alloys should have strong
sealing resistance and be resistant to oxidation and nitriding when used in the ammonia burner.
Additionally, having good thermal shock properties is preferable, especially for internal
components and uncooled items that experience high stress. Fe-Ni-Cr alloys like RA-333,
Inconel 601, Hastelloy X, Nichrorme, and others are good choices to take into account for
application in these high-temperature environments.
While some heat strength is necessary for the alloys used, the main worry with equipment in
nitric acid hot zones is whether the material can withstand the environment without degrading.
Generally speaking, an alloy with high concentrations of silicon, nickel, and chrome is ideal.
High nickel is defined as more than 35% Ni, high Cr as more than 20% Cr, and high Si as more
than 0.5% Si. This analysis includes a large number of wrought and even a few cast alloys, and
any one of them can do the.
9.3 NO & NO2 AT INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURE:

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When temperatures drop to 1000°F or lower and the gases are dry, standard austenitic stainless
steel can be used, as long as cooling media with high chloride content doesn't damage them. In
this context, alloys like 304L, 321, 430, 329, 310, and Incoloy 800 may be utilized. The majority
of this equipment has tubular components; while the dry gases being cooled may not always be
problematic, problems are frequently caused by the cooling media on the water side. The
selection of materials may be determined by carefully examining the water's edge.
Equipment components are among the trouble spots. such as cooler condensers, tail-gas pre-
heaters, and tail-gas heaters. Although type 304L and type 430 are typically used in construction,
type 329, which has superior corrosion resistance, is occasionally used in their place. Certain
plants ascribed their issues to acid condensate in the tail gas pressing against the O.D., while
others believed the attack was directed towards the tube I.D. due to the relatively cool tail gas
(originating from the tail-gas heater) pressing against the tubes holding hot process gas, resulting
in localized cooling and weak acid re-boiling.
9.4 AQUEOUS NITRIC ACID CORROSION:
For the majority of materials, including steel, copper alloys, rubber goods, aluminum (in low
concentrations), and many more, the aqueous acid is highly oxidizing and corrosive.
Given that weak-acid condensers and absorption towers experience the worst aqueous corrosion,
great care must be taken when choosing materials for these structures.
The common stainless alloys, special purpose stainless alloys, or high silicon irons (rarely used
in modern construction except for pumps and valves) are the materials of choice for wet acid
service.
Absorption towers employ Type 304L cooling coils, but the alloy is only marginally suitable.
Better corrosion-resistant alloys are being investigated, especially since higher absorption
pressures are being used. The corrosion rates of the majority of the other common grades of
austenitic stainless steel would be comparable. Because type 316 is more expensive and has
marginally less resistance than type 304L, it is not specifically chosen for nitric acid service.
When exposed to hot, strong acids, such as fuming nitric acid, type 304L exhibits poor corrosion
resistance; however, at room temperature, it exhibits good resistance to red and white fuming.

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Only extremely high acid concentrations (80–100%) at room temperature are suitable for
aluminum alloys. An accelerated attack will result from any dilution of the [Link] high nickel
alloys like Inconel 600, Hstelloy B and C, Chlorimet 3, and others don't function as well as
standard type 304L, they shouldn't be used in aqueous acid [Link] they are
pricey, gold, tantalum, and platinum have exceptional resistance. When the acid is weak and
cold, nonmetallic materials—particularly teflon and kynar—are utilized for nitric acid service.
Teflon and kynar perform well at high temperatures in weak acids (up to 20%), but at higher
concentrations, these plastics are only effective at room temperature. Excellent resistance to
400°F is present in glass in all concentrations. The only widely used rubber product is viton
linings. It works well at all concentrations up to 100°F. Table 1 provides a list of many materials'
concentrations and limiting temperatures that indicate whether or not they should be used in
nitric acid service.

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CHAPTER TEN
HAZOP STUDY & ENVOIRMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
REPORT

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10.1 INTRODUCTION:
One of the most popular and widely recognized techniques for systematic qualitative hazard
analysis is the HAZOP survey. It can be applied to an entire plant, a production unit, or a single
piece of equipment, and it is utilized for both new and existing facilities. It makes use of the
standard database of plant and process data and trusts the expertise of engineering and safety
specialists in the domains they know the best. As a result, the final product meets engineering
and operational expectations with reliability; however, it lacks quantitative analysis and might
not account for the effects of intricate chains of human error. A HAZOP study's goals can be
summed up as follows:

1. To pinpoint any parts of the design that might have a high risk of injury.
2. To determine and research design elements that affect the likelihood that a
dangerous incident will occur.
3. To acquaint the research team with the available design data.
4. To guarantee that the regions with a high risk potential are thoroughly studied.
5. To find relevant design data that the team does not currently have access to.
6. To give the client a way to respond to the study team's in-depth remarks.

10.2 STEPS CONDUCTED IN HAZOP STUDY:

 Indicate the goal, purpose, and parameters of the research. The goal could be to assess the
risk of an existing unit or analyze a plant that hasn't been built [Link] objectives can
be further defined in light of the study's purpose and conditions. The physical unit's
boundaries as well as the variety of events and variables taken into account make up the
study's scope. For instance, whereas the scope of HAZOPs typically includes toxic
release, offensive odor, and environmental endpoints, they were previously primarily
focused on fire and explosion endpoints. It is crucial to clearly define the study's purpose,
objectives, and scope at the outset so that it will be obvious both now and in the future
what was and wasn't covered in the research. Responsible management at the proper level
must make these decisions.
 Choose the study team for HAZOP. To promote productive group interaction, the team
leader needs to be knowledgeable about HAZOP and interpersonal skills. The team
should consist of as many additional experts as possible to cover every facet of process
chemistry, design, operation, and safety. The team leader is responsible for guiding the
group through the HAZOP process and stressing that hazard identification is the ultimate
goal of a survey; problem-solving is a different endeavor.

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 Collect data. Theodore16 has listed the following materials that are usually needed:

 Process description.
 Process flow sheets.
 Data on the chemical, physical and toxicological properties of all raw materials,,
intermediates, and products.
 Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs).
 Equipment, piping, and instrument specifications.
 Process control logic diagrams
 Layout drawings.
 Operating procedures.
 Maintenance procedures.
 Emergency response procedures.
 Safety and training manuals.

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HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings:

Guide words meaning
No Negation of design intent

Less Quantitative decrease

More Quantitative increase

Part of Qualitative decrease

As well as Qualitative Increase

Reverse Logical opposite of the intent

Other than Complete substitution

 Carry out the investigation. The unit is divided into study "nodes" based on the
information gathered, and each node follows the sequence shown in Figure. Nodes
are places in the process where different equipment, such as pumps, heat
exchangers, distillation columns, or other pieces of machinery, operate and cause
changes in the process's parameters, such as temperature and [Link] the
purpose of organizing the node process parameters and control logic data, a number
of forms and work sheets have been created. Following the identification of the
nodes and parameters, each node is examined by applying the specific guide words
to each parameter. The definitions of these guiding terms are essential components
of the HAZOP process. Table contains a list of [Link] HAZOP study's core
methodology is a repeated cycle through this process, which takes into account the
ways in which each parameter may deviate from the intended and the resulting
consequences.
 Compose the report. It is important to document as much information as the study
reveals regarding the events and their effects. Naturally, appropriate follow-up
action is required if the HAZOP identifies a plausible sequence of events that could
lead to a disaster. Therefore, even though risk reduction measures are not included
in the HAZOP, the HAZOP may necessitate their [Link] HAZOP
studies take a lot of money and effort to complete. On an older plant, simply
updating the P&IDs could require significant engineering work. However, when

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weighed against the possible loss of life, property, business, and even the
enterprise's future that could arise from a major release, processes with significant
risk are still cost-effective.

10.3 HAZOP STUDY OF AMMONIA AIR MIXING TEE:

Intention: Transfer vapor to mixing tee.

Guide Word Deviation Cause Consequences and Action

LESS Flow CV plug gage As no flow
FRC failure

MORE Flow FR/ ratio control Danger of high ammonia concentration: fit
Miss-operation alarm, fit analyzers (duplicate) with high alarm
14 percent NH3.

10.4 Environmental Impact Assessmeent (EIA) Report:

NOx: What is it? Where does it come from?
The general term for a class of extremely reactive gases with variable concentrations of both
nitrogen and oxygen is nitrogen oxides, or NOx. Numerous nitrogen oxides have no color and no
smell. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a common pollutant, can be observed as a reddish-brown layer
over many urban areas when combined with airborne particles.
When fuel is burned at a high temperature, like during a combustion process, nitrogen oxides are
produced. Motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other fuel-burning industrial, commercial, and
residential sources are the main man-made sources of NOx. Additionally, NOx can form
naturally.

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Health and Environmental Impacts of NOx:

The family of nitrogen oxides, which includes nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid, nitrous oxide,
nitrates, and nitric oxide, is responsible for a wide range of health and environmental effects.
Ground-level Ozone (Smog) –
When NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) combine in the presence of sunlight,
ground-level ozone, or smog, is created. Children, those who work or exercise outside,
and those who have lung conditions like asthma are more vulnerable to negative
consequences like lung tissue damage and decreased lung function. Wind currents have
the ability to carry ozone, which can have negative health effects far from its original
source. Millions of Americans reside in regions where ozone levels are below what is
considered healthy. Reduced crop yields and damaged vegetation are two additional
effects of ozone.
Acid Rain-
When NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) combine in the presence of sunlight,
ground-level ozone, or smog, is created. Children, those who work or exercise outside,
and those who have lung conditions like asthma are more vulnerable to negative
consequences like lung tissue damage and decreased lung function. Wind currents have
the ability to carry ozone, which can have negative health effects far from its original
source. Millions of Americans reside in regions where ozone levels are below what is
considered healthy. Reduced crop yields and damaged vegetation are two additional
effects of ozone.

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Particles-
Nitric acid and associated particles are produced when NOx reacts with ammonia,
moisture, and other substances. Effects on breathing and the respiratory system, lung
tissue damage, and early mortality are among the health issues facing people. Small
particles can induce or exacerbate respiratory conditions like bronchitis and emphysema,
as well as exacerbate pre-existing heart disease, by penetrating deeply into sensitive areas
of the lungs.
Water Quality Deterioration-
Increased nitrogen loading throws off the chemical balance of nutrients used by aquatic
plants and animals in water bodies, especially coastal estuaries. More nitrogen speeds up
"eutrophication," which lowers fish and shellfish populations by depleting oxygen. One
of the main causes of nitrogen pollution in the Chesapeake Bay is airborne NOx
emissions.
Climate Change-
Nitrous oxide, or N2O, is a greenhouse gas and one of the NOx members. It builds up in
the atmosphere along with additional greenhouse gases, gradually raising the planet's
temperature. This will result in higher health risks for people, an increase in sea level, and
other unfavorable changes to the habitat of plants and animals.

Toxic Chemicals-
NOx in the air easily combines with common organic compounds, including ozone, to
produce a wide range of hazardous byproducts, some of which have the potential to alter
biological [Link] substances include, for instance, nitroarenes, nitrosamines,
and the nitrate radical.
Visibility Impairment-
Light transmission can be obstructed by nitrogen dioxide and nitrate particles, which can
lower visibility in national parks and urban areas.
10.5 National Environmental Quality Standards For Industrial Gaseous
Emissions(mg/Nm3,Unless Otherwise Defined):

Parameter Source of emission Standards Revised standards

Oxides of Nitric Acid manufacturing unit 400 3000

Nitrogen
Gas fired 400 600

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(NOx) Oil fired 400

Coal fired 1200

CHAPTER ELEVEN
COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMIC OF PLANT LOCATION
11.1 PLANT COST ESTIMATION:
Accurate cost estimation is made possible once the final process-design stage is completed, as
specific plant facility information and detailed equipment specifications become available.
Following that, a direct price quote based on a thorough specification can be acquired from
different producers. Nonetheless, the design project should move forward to its conclusion
before expenses are taken into account, and in the event that full specifications are not available,
a cost estimate should be made at every stage of the design process. Predesign cost estimation is
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the assessment of expenses in the preliminary design. The management of the company should
be able to use this estimate as a basis for determining whether or not to invest additional funds in
the project.
Guess estimations are a term used to describe the assessment of costs during the preliminary
design phase.
Naturally, a plant design needs to include a process that can run in a way that will make a
[Link] industrial process requires a capital investment, and figuring out how much money is
needed is a crucial step in the plant design process. The entire cost of any process includes the
physical plant infrastructure, equipment, and supplies, as well as working capital that is needed
to cover overhead, maintain product and raw material inventories, and handle other unique items
that call for a direct cast-out lay.
11.2 CAPITAL INVESTMENTS:
An industrial plant needs to be built, land and service facilities need to be acquired, and a
significant sum of money needs to be paid for the purchase and installation of the required
machinery and equipment. fully furnished with all pipe controls and amenities. Money must also
be on hand to cover other costs related to running the plant. The capital required for the plant's
operation is referred to as working capital investment, whereas the capital required for
manufacturing and plant facilities is known as fixed capital investment.
1. Working Capital Investment: The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant
is called working capital investment.
2. Fixed Capital Investment: The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini1
and plant facilities is called fixed capital investment.
The fixed capital investment classified in to two sub divisions,
i. Direct Cost
ii. Indirect Cost

11.2.1 DIRECT COST:

The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of
equipment.
 Purchased Equipment
 Purchased Equipment Installation
 Instrumentation and Control

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 Piping
 Electrical Equipment and Materials
 Building (Including Services)
 Yard Improvement
 Services Facilities
 Land
11.2.2 INDIRECT COST:
 Design and Engineering
 Contractor's Expenses
 Contractor's Fee
 Contingency

11.3 METHODS OF CAPITAL INVESTMENT:

Various methods are employed for estimating capital investment. The choice of any method
depends on the foil owing-factors,
i. Amount of detailed information available
ii. Accuracy Desired
Seven methods of estimating capital investments are outlined, estimate
1) Detailed item estimate
2) Unit estimate
3) Percentage of delivered equipment cost
4) “Lang” factor approximation of capacity ratio
5) Investment cost per capacity
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the accuracy
of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the early stages of a
project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the amount of information
by then developed.

11.4 PERCENTAGE DELIVERED EQUIPMENT:

The cost of the delivered equipment must be ascertained in order to use this method of estimating
total investment. A number of pre-design techniques for estimating capital investment are based
on the cost of the equipment that was [Link] get the most accurate estimate of the cost of

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process equipment, ask fabricators or suppliers for firm [Link] delivered equipment cost
must be determined in order to apply the percentage of delivered equipment cost method for
estimating the fixed or total capital investment. Next, the estimated percentage of the delivered
equipment is applied to the other items included in the total direct plant cost. The additional
capital investment components are determined by calculating the average percentage of the total
cost of the direct plant, the total cost of the direct and indirect plant, or the total capital
investment.
Preliminary and study estimates are frequently made using the delivered equipment cost as a
percentage of the total cost. When applied to a project with a configuration akin to recently built
plants, it produces the most accurate results.
11.5 DIRECT COST:
Purchased equipment cost=E

COMPONENTS % AGES OF E COST (BDT)

Purchased equipment 47% E a
installation
Instrumentation (installed) 12% E b
Piping (installed) 66 % E c
Electrical (installed) 11% E d
Building (installed) 18% E e
Yard improvement (including 10 % E f
service)
Service facilities 70% E g
Land 6% E h
Total direct cost D

Total direct cost= D

11.6 INDIRECT COST:

Engineering and supervision 33%E

Construction Cost 41% E
Total indirect cost I
Total direct and indirect cost D+I
Contractor’s fee 5%(D+I) =y

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Contingency 10%(D+I) =x
E/fixed capital investment D+I+x+y
Working capital investment W.C.I.
W.C.I. 10%(D+I) =x

11.7 COST ESTIMATION OF OUR PLANT:

EQUIPMENT PURCHASE COST:
ABSORPTION COLUMN
 Cost of trays:
Cost of 1 tray = 43200 Tk
Material factor = 1.1 (for cast iron)
Corrected cost/tray = 43200 X 1.1 = 47520 Tk
Cost of 10 trays = 10 X 47520 = 475200 Tk

 Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 2160000 Tk
Material factor = 1.5 (for SS)
Pressure = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1 x 1.5 x 2160000= 3564000Tk
Total column cost = 475200 + 3564000 = 4039200 Tk

SUPERAZEOTROPIC COLUMN:
 Cost of trays:
Cost of one tray = 43200 $
Material factor = 1.11 (For SS)
Corrected cost per tray = 43200x1.11 = 47952

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Cost of 10 trays = 10x47952= 479520

Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 2160000 Tk
Material factor = 1.5 (for SS)
Pressure = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1 x 1.5 x 2160000= 3564000Tk

Total superazeotropic column cost = 475200 + 3564000 = 4039200 tk

DISTILLATION COLUMN:
 Cost of trays:
Cost of one tray = 48000
Material factor = 1.065 (for Carbon Steel)
Corrected cost per tray = 48000x1.065x426 = 21777120
Cost of 15 trays = 15x51120 = 3266568000

 Cost of column:
For D = 1m
Cost = 2160000
Material correction factor = 1.5 (for SS)
Pressure factor = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1x1.5x2160000= 3564000
Total column cost = 29700+3690 = 36090$

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STRIPPER
 Cost of trays:
Cost of one tray = 360$ Material factor = 1.0
Corrected cost per tray = 360x1.0 = 360$
Cost of 18trays = 18x360 = 6480$

 Cost of column:
For D = 1.25m Cost = 20000$
Material correction factor = 1.5
Pressure factor = 1.1
Purchased cost for column = 1.1x1.5x20000= 33000$
Total column cost = 6480+33000 = 39480$

Reactor
 Cost of catalyst:

Cost of 90% Pt, 10% Rh = 11257 x 0.9 + 29907 x 0.1 = 13122 $ / kg

Weight of catalyst = 11.8 kg

Cost = 13122 x 11.8 = 154839.6$

 Reactor Head Cost:

Cost in 1977 = 7777.77$

Cost in 2005 = 89720.96$
Total Cost = 154839.6+89720.96 = 244560.56$

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BOILER COST
Cost in 1977 = 34839.68$
Cost in 2006 = 374958.54$

NH3 EVAPORATOR COST:

Cost in 1977 = 22222.22 $
Cost in 2006 = 238805.96$

TAIL GAS TURBINE

Cost in 1977 = 236185.73$
Cost in 2006 = 2542951.9$

COMPRESSOR
Cost in 1977 = 409618.57$
Cost in 2006 = 4409618.56$

COOLER CONDENSOR
Heat transfer area = 30.23 m2
Pressure factor = 1.0
Type factor = 0.8

Material of construction:

Shell and tubes = stainless steel

Base cost = 30000$
Actual cost = 30000x 0.8 x 1.0 = 24000$

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Its the cost in 1992

Cost is 2006 = 27443.28$
Total Equipment Cost =7981300.8$

DIRECT COST

Purchased equipment cost

Purchased equipment installation = 0.47 7981300.8

Instrumentation & Process Control = 0.12 7981300.8

Piping (installed) = 0.66 7981300.8

Building (Including Services) = 0.18  7981300.8

Yard improvements = 0.1  7981300.8

Service facilities (installed) = 0.7 7981300.8

Land = 0.06 x 7981300.8

Total direct plant cost=26258479.24$

INDIRECT COST

Engg & Supervision = 0.33  7981300.8

Construction expenses = 0.41  7981300.8

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Total Indirect Cost = 5906162.5$

Total Direct & Indirect Cost = 32164641.77$

Contractor’s fee = 0.05 32164641.77 = 1608232.08$

Contingency = 0.1  32164641.77 = 3216464.17$

FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Fixed Capital Investment = Total direct + indirect cost + contingency + Contractor’s fee

= 36989338.02$

Total capital investment = F.C.I + W.C

Now

W.C = 0.15 (T.C.I)

= 0.15(36989338.02 + W.C)

= (5548400.703/0.85)

= 65275530.239 $

Total capital investment = 43516868.26$

12.8 PRODUCT COST:

PRODUCT COST.
Depreciation Value.
d=(V – Vs)/n
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Where
V=36989338.02$
Vs=5%V
n=10 years
d= 3513987.112$
Raw Material Cost.
For 1 M.T NH3 price=2366.7 Rs (Pak Saudi Fertilizer limited)
For 1 hr operation NH3 required = 92.59 Kgmole
For one day operation NH3 required
(92.59Kgmol NH3/hr)*(17 Kg NH3/1 Kgmole NH3)*(1 M.T/1000Kg)*(24hr/1 day)
=37.77 M.T/day
For one year NH3 required
=(37.77 M.T NH3/day)*(330 day/1 year)
=12466.317 M.T NH3/year
Price of NH3 for one year=12466.317*2366.7
=29504033.86 Rs
=491733.89$
W.C.I.
W.C=65275530.239 $
Total Amount=W.C+Raw material cost+Depreciation Value Total Amount=69281251.23$

Manufacturing cost (Direct production cost + fixed capital investment)

[Link] production cost: (60% OF TCI) = 3131754849.4 TAKA.

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Raw materials =20% TCI

=1043918283 TAKA
Operating labor =10% TCI
=521959141.56 TAKA
Directs supervisory & electrical labor =20% of operating labor
=104391828.2 TAKA
Utilities =15% TCI
=782938712.35 TAKA
Maintenance & repair =5% FCI
=221832635 TAKA
Operating supply =1% FCI
=44366527 TAKA
Laboratory charge =10% operating labor
=52195914.15 TAKA
Patents & royalities =0.3 TCI
=1565877424 TAKA

[Link] charges=(15% of TCI)

=78238712.346 TAKA
Depreciation =5% FCI
=221832635.2 TAKA
Local taxes =3% FCI
=133099581.12 TAKA
Insurance 0.6% FCI
=26619916.22 TAKA
Rent =10% FCI
=443665270.3 TAKA

C. Plant overhead cost=10% TCI

=521959141.564 TAKA
General expenses=(Administrative cost +Distribution & selling cost+Research cost)
Administrative cost =5% TCI
=260979570.78 TAKA
Distribution & selling cost =10% TCI
=521959141.564 TAKA
Research cost =5% TCI
=260979570.78 TAKA

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
CONCLUSION
In summary, the proposed 210 MTPD nitric acid manufacturing plant is a comprehensive, well-
thought-out facility. With careful engineering and analysis, we've addressed a variety of topics,
including process optimization, safety measures,sustainability of the environment and raw
material sourcing When choosing technology, process flow, and equipment, industry best
practices have been adhered to in order to guarantee operational performance and cost-
effectiveness. Our commitment to maintaining a secure and environmentally responsible
industrial environment is evidenced by our emphasis on putting modern safety procedures and
control systems into place. The project's economic viability is strengthened by a thorough
financial analysis that takes operating expenses, capital expenditures, and income projections
into [Link] payback period, NPV, and IRR indicators demonstrate the project's potential
for long-term profitability, which point to a strong investment opportunity.
In addition, the plant's design prioritizes sustainability, implementing techniques to reduce
energy consumption, minimize environmental impact, and optimize resource [Link]
plant's reputation as a morally and environmentally responsible business is enhanced by its
implementation of cutting-edge technologies and strict adherence to regulations. To sum up, the
design of the Nitric acid manufacturing plant presented in this paper not only positions it as a
stable, efficient, and sustainable participant in the fertilizer manufacturing industry, but it also
satisfies production demands thanks to its sizable annual capacity.

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Engineers”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill.
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22. Harvin R.L, Leray D.G & Roudier L.R 1979, ‘Single pressure or dual pressure nitric
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