The OSI Model

The OSI model has proved itself a worthy blueprint for network administrators
since its creation in 1984. The OSI model is derived from a proposal that
was developed by the International Standards Organization. The OSI model
was designed to aid manufacturers to create technology in line with universal
standards that set out the basics of how devices would communicate with each
other.

What is the OSI Model?

The OSI model refers to a computer network framework that is comprised of
seven layers. The layers of the OSI model along with summaries of the layers
are as follows:

Layer Number Layer Name Description

7 Application Home of the protocols and services that comprise an
application.
6 Presentation Ensures that information is presented in a format the
device can understand.
5 Session Manages connections and terminations between con-
nected computers.
4 Transport Manages data transfers and ensures transmitted data
is the same as received data.
3 Network Addresses data and delivers it between networks.
2 Data Link Transfers data across network media.
1 Physical Provides the physical connection between devices.

You’ll notice that these are listed from 7 − 1 rather than 1 − 7, the reason
for this is that the application layer is the one that is most visible, and most
interacted with by users.

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The Application Layer (Layer 7)
As mentioned above, the Application layer is the one that the user actually
interacts with. Whenever you’re interacting with an application on your com-
puter you’re active on the Application layer. For example, if you use Google
Chrome or Skype then you’re interacting with an application at Layer 7. This
layer utilizes protocols like HTTP, Telnet, and FTP. In a nutshell, this layer is
focused on end-user processes and delivering any application the user wants to
access.

The Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation Layer or Layer 6 of the OSI model is designed to prepare and
translate data from the network format to the application format or vice versa.
This layer determines how data is presented for each of these entities in terms
of syntax and structure. In many cases, the Presentation Layer can be seen
through the encryption and decryption of data. Other examples include ASCII,
TIFF, JPEG, GIF, ESBCDIC, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, and MIDI.

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The Session Layer (Layer 5)
Layer 5 of the OSI model is referred to as the Session Layer. The Session Layer
is the layer responsible for establishing, maintaining, and ending connections
between different applications. This layer controls the terms on which appli-
cations interact with each other. A key part of this is simple coordination, as
the Session Layer will dictate how long a system will wait for a response from
another application. Typically you’ll see protocols such as NetBios, NFS, RPC,
and SQL operating on this layer.

The Transport Layer (Layer 4)

The Transport Layer is one of the most well-known OSI layers of the OSI model
as it is the layer responsible for transferring data between end systems and
hosts. It dictates what gets sent where, and how much of it gets sent. At this
level, you see protocols like TCP, UDP, and SPX. In the event that something
goes wrong, the Transport Layer also has the responsibility of end-to-end error
recovery.

The Network Layer (Layer 3)

The Network Layer of the OSI model has the job of dealing with most of the
routing within a network. This layer deals with packet forwarding and sets
the route that packets travel through a network. In simpler terms, the Network
Layer determines how a packet travels to its destination. Protocols like TCP/IP,
AppleTalk, and IPX operate at this layer.

The Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

At Layer 2 of the OSI model, you have the Data Link Layer. The Data Link
Layer handles node-to-node data transfers and can be divided into sublayers;
The Media Access Control (MAC) Layer and Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer.
The MAC Layer determines how a connected computer accesses data in terms
of permissions. On the other hand, the LLC
layer controls elements like flow control, frame synchronization, and scans for
errors. Switches work at this layer.

The Physical Layer (Layer 1)

At Layer 1 we have the Physical Layer. The Physical Layer is the hardware
layer of the OSI model which includes network elements such as hubs, cables,
ethernet, and repeaters. For example, this layer is responsible for executing
electrical signal changes like making lights light up. At this layer, you will

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encounter Ethernet, RS232, ATM, and FDDI. Most of the time administrators
use the Physical Layer to check that cables and devices are connected correctly.

OSI Model Mnemonics: Remember the Layers

The OSI model can be very tricky to memorize once you first learn about it.
However, there are some tricks you can do to make this process much easier.
The easiest way to remember the OSI model is to use mnemonics. These help
you turn OSI model into a memorable sentence. We’ve included some OSI
mnemonics below to help you memorize the OSI model:

ˆ All People Seem to Need Data Processing

ˆ A Penguin Said that Nobody Drinks Pepsi

ˆ All Pros Search Top Notch Donut Places

ˆ Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

ˆ People Don’t Need to See Paul Allen

ˆ Please Do Not Tell Salespeople Anything

ˆ Please Do Not Teach Stupid People Acronyms

TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP history
TCP/IP began life as the ”Transmission Control Program.” Many people claim
to have invented the internet but many consider Vint Cerf and Bob Khan the
true creators. Cerf and Khan published ”A Program for Packet Network Inter-
communication” in May 1974. This paper was sponsored by the US Department
of Defense and was published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic En-
gineers.

Protocol model
The Internet Protocol Suite, the official name for TCP/IP stack, consists of four
layers.

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 The Link Layer at the bottom of the stack prepares data to be applied to the
network. Above that is the Internet Layer, which is concerned with addressing
and routing packets so that they can cross interconnecting networks to arrive
at a remote location on a remote network.
The Transport Layer is responsible for managing the data transfer. These
tasks include encryption and segmenting a large file into chunks. The receiving
transport layer program has to reassemble the original file. The Application
Layer doesn’t just include apps that the computer user can access. Some appli-
cations are also services to other applications. These applications do not need
to be concerned with how data is transferred, just that it is sent and received.

OSI 7-layer model overview; TCP/IP 4-layer model

COMPARISON
What is the OSI Model?
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework used
to understand and implement standard networking protocols in seven layers. It
was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
facilitate interoperability between different systems and network architectures.
As we have seen, the OSI Layers (Top to Bottom) and their functions are
as follows:

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 Layer Name Function
7 Application Interfaces with end-user software (e.g., web
browsers, email). Provides network services like file
transfer, email, etc.
6 Presentation Translates data between application and network
formats (e.g., encryption, compression, encoding).
5 Session Manages sessions (establishment, maintenance, ter-
mination) between applications.
4 Transport Provides reliable data transfer, error detection, and
flow control (e.g., TCP, UDP).
3 Network Handles logical addressing and routing of data pack-
ets (e.g., IP).
2 Data Link Ensures reliable transmission of frames over a phys-
ical link. Includes MAC and LLC sublayers.
1 Physical Deals with the hardware transmission of raw bit
streams over a medium (e.g., cables, connectors,
voltage levels).

Some of the key concepts here are: Key Concepts:

✓ Encapsulation: Data is wrapped with protocol information at each layer.
✓ Decapsulation: The process of removing headers as data moves up the layers.
✓ Each layer serves the layer above and is served by the layer below.

What is the TCP/IP Model?

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is a sim-
plified, practical model used as the foundation of the modern internet. It consists
of 4 layers, each performing specific roles for end-to-end data communication.
The TCP/IP Layers four layers and their functions are presented in the table
below:
Layer Equivalent OSI Layer(s) Function
4 Application (OSI Layers 5–7) Provides application-
level services such as
HTTP, FTP, DNS.
3 Transport (OSI Layer 4) Handles end-to-end
communication, ensur-
ing reliability (TCP)
or speed (UDP).
2 Internet (OSI Layer 3) Responsible for logical
addressing and routing
using IP.
1 Network Access / Link (OSI Layers 1–2) Deals with physical
transmission of data
and MAC-level ad-
dressing.

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 Now that you have looked at the two models, the table below presents a
comparison of the OSI vs TCP/IP Models.

Aspect OSI Model TCP/IP

Model
Developed By ISO DARPA (U.S.
Dept. of De-
fense)
Number of Layers 7 4
Layer Names Physical, Data Network Ac-
Link, Network, cess, Internet,
Transport, Ses- Transport,
sion, Presenta- Application
tion, Applica-
tion
Approach Theoretical Practical /
/ Reference Protocol-
Model Oriented
Usage Conceptual Actual imple-
understanding mentation on
and academic networks (e.g.,
model Internet)
Protocol Example at Transport Layer TCP, UDP TCP, UDP
Protocol Example at Application Layer HTTP, FTP, HTTP, FTP,
SMTP SMTP

Key Differences
✓ OSI separates the presentation and session layers, while TCP/IP combines
them into the application layer.
✓ OSI is a reference model; TCP/IP is a practical suite used in real-world
networking.
✓ OSI uses layer-by-layer communication, while TCP/IP uses layer grouping to
optimize performance.

Encapsulation in Computer Networks

Encapsulation is the process of wrapping data with protocol-specific information
at each layer of a network model as it travels from the application layer down to
the physical layer (sender side). On the receiving side, the process is reversed
(decapsulation). Decapsulation occurs at the receiving end, each layer removes
its corresponding header and passes the remaining data to the upper layer for
further processing until it reaches the application.
Each layer adds a header (and sometimes a trailer) to the data, forming a
protocol data unit (PDU). These headers contain control information such as

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addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing info.

Steps of Encapsulation:
Here’s how data gets encapsulated in the OSI model (similar in TCP/IP):
✓ Application Layer (Layer 7) - Generates user data (e.g., an email, webpage,
etc.).
✓ Transport Layer (Layer 4) - Breaks data into segments (TCP) or datagrams
(UDP). Also, adds source and destination port numbers.
✓ Network Layer (Layer 3) - Adds IP addresses (source and destination). It
also creates a packet.
✓ Data Link Layer (Layer 2) - Adds MAC addresses (physical addresses). Adds
frame check sequence (FCS) in the trailer. It also creates a frame.
✓ Physical Layer (Layer 1) - Converts the frame into bits and transmits over
physical media.

Table 1: Encapsulation Example:

Layer PDU Name Added Info
Application Data User data
Transport Segment Port numbers
Network Packet IP addresses
Data Link Frame MAC addresses + trailer
Physical Bits Raw binary data