CHAPTER TWO

ELEMENTARY FLOW PRESSURES IN RESERVOIRS

Fig. 2.1: Overburden and Hydrostatic Pressure Regimes (FP = fluid pressure; GP = grain pressure)

At a given depth, the overburden pressure can be equated to the sum of the fluid pressure (FP) and
the grain or matrix pressure (GP) acting between the individual rock particles, i.e. OP=FP+GP and,
in particular, since the overburden pressure remains constant at any particular depth, then d(FP)=
−d(GP). That is, a reduction in fluid pressure will lead to a corresponding increase in the grain
pressure, and vice versa. Fluid pressure regimes in hydrocarbon columns are dictated by the
prevailing water pressure in the vicinity of the reservoir. In a perfectly normal case, the water
pressure at any depth can be calculated as;

 dp 
Pw =    D +14.7 (psia) (2.1)
 dD  water

in which dp/dD, the water pressure gradient, is dependent on the chemical composition (salinity),
and for pure water has the value of 0.4335 psi/ft. Addition of the surface pressure of one
atmosphere (14.7 psia) results in the expression of the pressure in absolute rather than gauge units
(psig), which are measured relative to atmospheric pressure. In many instances in reservoir
engineering the main concern is with pressure differences, which are the same whether absolute or
gauge pressures are employed, and are denoted simply as psi. Equation (2.1) assumes that there is
both continuity of water pressure to the surface and that the salinity does not vary with depth. The
former assumption is valid, in the majority of cases, even though the water bearing sands are
usually interspersed with impermeable shales, since any break in the areal continuity of such
apparent seals will lead to the establishment of hydrostatic pressure continuity to the surface. The
latter assumption, however, is rather naive since the salinity can vary markedly with depth.
Nevertheless, for the moment, a constant hydrostatic pressure gradient will be assumed, for
illustrative purposes. As will be shown presently, what really matters to the engineer is the
definition of the hydrostatic pressure regime in the vicinity of the hydrocarbon bearing sands. In

Compiled by Adeleye J. O., Petroleum Engineering Department, UMaT, Tarkwa, Ghana 31

contrast to this normal situation, abnormal hydrostatic pressures are encountered which can be
defined by the equation

 dp 
Pw =    D + 14.7 + C (psia) (2.2)
 dD  water

where C is a constant which is positive if the water is overpressured and negative if underpressured.
For the water in any sand to be abnormally pressured, the sand must be effectively sealed off from
the surrounding strata so that hydrostatic pressure continuity to the surface cannot be established.
List of various conditions which can cause abnormal fluid pressures in enclosed water bearing
sands, include:
− temperature change; an increase in temperature of one degree-Fahrenheit can cause an increase in
pressure of 125 psi in a sealed fresh water system.
− geological changes such as the uplifting of the reservoir, or the equivalent, surface erosion, both
of which result in the water pressure in the reservoir sand being too high for its depth of burial; the
opposite effect occurs in a down-thrown reservoir in which abnormally low fluid pressure can
occur.
− osmosis between waters having different salinity, the sealing shale acting as the semi-permeable
membrane in this ionic exchange; if the water within the seal is more saline than the surrounding
water the osmosis will cause an abnormally high pressure and vice versa.
Some of these causes of abnormal pressuring are interactive, for instance, if a reservoir block is
uplifted the resulting overpressure is partially alleviated by a decrease in reservoir temperature.
Reservoir engineers, however, tend to be more pragmatic about the subject of abnormal pressures
than geologists, the main questions being; are the water bearing sands abnormally pressured and if
so, what effect does this have on the extent of any hydrocarbon accumulations? So far only
hydrostatic pressures have been considered. Hydrocarbon pressure regimes are different in that the
densities of oil and gas are less than that of water and consequently, the pressure gradients are
smaller, typical figures being:

 dp 
  = 0.45 psi/ft
 dD  water
 dp 
  = 0.35 psi/ft
 dD  oil
 dp 
  = 0.08 psi/ft
 dD  gas
Thus, for the reservoir containing both oil and a free gas-cap as shown in fig. 2.2; using the above
gradients would give the pressure distribution shown on the left hand side of the diagram. At the
oil-water contact, at 5500 ft, the pressure in the oil and water must be equal otherwise a static
interface would not exist. The pressure in the water can be determined using equation (2.1),
rounded off to the nearest psi, as;
Pw =0.45D +15 (psia) (2.3)
which assumes a normal hydrostatic pressure regime. Therefore, at the oil-water contact
Po = Pw = 0.45 × 5500 + 15 = 2490 (psia)

Compiled by Adeleye J. O., Petroleum Engineering Department, UMaT, Tarkwa, Ghana 32

Fig. 2.2: Pressure regimes in the oil and gas for a typical hydrocarbon accumulation

The linear equation for the oil pressure, above the oil water contact, is then
Po = 0.35D + constant
and since Po = 2490 psia at D = 5500 ft, the constant can be evaluated to give the equation
Po = 0.35D + 565 psia
At the gas-oil contact at 5200 ft, the pressure in both fluids must be equal and can be calculated to
be 2385 psia. The equation of the gas pressure line can then be determined as
Pg = 0.08D + 1969 psia
Finally, using the latter equation, the gas pressure at the very top of the structure, at 5000 ft, can be
calculated as 2369 psia. The pressure lines in the hydrocarbon column are drawn in the pressure
depth diagram, fig. 2.2, from which it can be seen that at the top of the structure the gas pressure
exceeds the normal hydrostatic pressure by 104 psi. Thus in a well drilling through a sealing shale
on the very crest of the structure there will be a sharp pressure kick from 2265 psi to 2369 psia on
first penetrating the reservoir at 5000 ft. The magnitude of the pressure discontinuity on drilling
into a hydrocarbon reservoir depends on the vertical distance between the point of well penetration
and the hydrocarbon water contact and, for a given value of this distance, will be much greater if
the reservoir contains gas alone.

At the time of drilling an exploration well and discovering a new reservoir, one of the main aims is
to determine the position of the fluid contacts which will facilitate the calculation of the oil in
place. Consider the exploration well, shown in fig. 2.2, which penetrates the reservoir near the top
of the oil column. The gas-oil contact in the reservoir will be clearly "seen", at 5200 ft, on logs run
in the well. The oil-water contact, however, will not be seen since it is some 225 ft below the point
at which the well penetrates the base of the reservoir. The position of the contact can only be
inferred as the result of a well test, such as a drill stem or wireline formation test, in which the
pressure and temperature are measured and an oil sample recovered.

Compiled by Adeleye J. O., Petroleum Engineering Department, UMaT, Tarkwa, Ghana 33