Special theory of Relativity

 Introduction
I t d ti
 Michelson – Morley experiment
 Einstein´s postulates
 Time dilation.
dilation The twin paradox
 Length contraction
 Lorentz transformations
 The velocity transformation
 Relativistic momentum
 Relativistic energy
 Some ideas regarding general relativity
 I t d ti
Introduction
 Our everyday
y y life experience
p involves objects
j movingg at speeds
p much lower
than that of the speed of light (c). Newtonian mechanics were formulated to
describe motions performed by such objects.
objects But it fails when it tries to
describe motion of objects which move at speeds comparable with c, as it
has been experimentally verified (i.e. by using accelerated electrons).

 The special theory of relativity,

relativity formulated by Albert Einstein in 1905,
1905
correctly predicts the experimental results for v values ranging from zero
to approximately c, and agrees with Newtonian mechanics when v << c.

 The theory of relativity is not just theoretical physics. Devices such as a

GPS or installations such a nuclear power plant will not work properly if
relativistic effects were not considered.
 Inertial frames of reference
reference. Galilean transformations
 All reference frames moving at constant velocity relative to an inertial reference
f
frame (IRF) are also
l inertial
i ti l reference
f f
frames. If we have
h t IRFs
two IRF moving
i with
ith
constant velocity relative to each other, there are no mechanics experiments that
can tell
t ll us which
hi h is
i att restt and
d which
hi h is
i moving
i or if they
th are both
b th moving.
i Thi
This
result is known as the principle of Newtonian relativity: absolute motion cannot
b detected.
be d t t d
 The laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames (Galilean invariance).
Newton´s laws are observed for IRFs.
 Consider two inertial frames of reference S (O, x, y, z) and S´(O´, x´, y´,z´), so
that O ≡ O´ initially and S´ moves with respect to S at a constant speed v0 along
the x axis. Then:
x´= x − v0t t´= t
→ → →
Equations of a Galilean transformation y´= y v´= v − vo
for space-time
space time and velocity → →
z´= z a´= a
 The speed of light
 But, are the equations of electromagnetism invariant with respect to Galilean
transformations? Can the Galilean invariance principle be applied to
electromagnetism and optics? The answer is NO.
 James Clerk Maxwell unifies, in the 19th century, optic, electric and magnetic
phenomena. Light is an electromagnetic wave and its speed in a vacuum is c
= 3x108 m/s. Nevertheless, it seemed impossible for a wave to propagate in
vacuum without any supporting material medium.
medium
 By the end of the 19th century physicists proposed the existence of a medium
for the propagation of light, that was called the ether. The ether was supposed
to be similar to a very low density fluid, rigid, invisible and difficult to detect.
 It was thought that the speed of light was c just when measured from a
special
p frame of reference in absolute rest relative to the ether. But it was
necessary to prove first that ether actually existed. In fact:
 The speed of light
 The principle of Galilean relativity refers only to the laws of mechanics and does not
apply to electromagnetism.
electromagnetism If it is assumed that the laws of electromagnetism are the same
in all IFRs, a paradox concerning the speed of light immediately arises: Maxwell’s
equations seem to imply that the speed of light always has the fixed value 3x108 m/s in all
IFRs, in direct contradiction to what is expected based on the Galilean velocity
transformation equation. According to Galilean relativity, the speed of light should not be
the same in all IFRs. To resolve this contradiction in theories, we must conclude that:

 Either the laws of electromagnetism are not the same in all IFRs,
IFRs which means then a
preferred reference frame in which the speed of light has the value c must exist and the
measured speed must be greater or less than this value in any other reference frame, in
accordance with the Galilean velocity transformation equation.

 Or that the Galilean velocity transformation equation is incorrect. Then we are forced to
incorrect Then,
abandon the notions of absolute time and absolute length that form the basis of the
Galilean space
space-time
time transformation equations.
equations That would mean that Maxwell
Maxwell´ss equations
are correct and deviations from Newton´s laws should be experimentally found.
 Michelson – Morley experiment
 The experiment was designed in 1881 to determine the velocity of the Earth relative to
that of the hypothetical ether. It was repeated in 1887 and afterwards, in different times
of the year, different places on Earth and different L, always obtaining a negative result.
 The experiment was based on an optical method, interferometry.

Mirror #1 Ether Velocity

v
Mirror #2
L
Source
L The speed of light
should be (c-v) when
the beam approaches
Beam splitter mirror # 2 and (c+v)
after the reflection
Interferometer
occurs.
 Michelson – Morley experiment
 Both beams are reflected in the mirrors and combine to create an
interference pattern. This pattern is observed while the interferometer is
rotated 90° in a horizontal plane, so that the two beams exchange roles.
This rotation results in a time difference that will slightly shift the
interference pattern …but such shift was NEVER observed !!

If both beams reach the interferometer

att the
th same time,
ti a constructive
t ti
interference pattern is observed.

If both beams DO NOT reach the

interferometer at the same time, a shift
of the fringes, that would depend on the
speed of the interferometer v relative to
the ether, should be observed.
 Michelson – Morley experiment
Time necessary to cover 2L along the parallel direction:

L L 2 L / c
t = + =
C + v C − v 1 − (v / C )
// 2

Time necessary to cover 2L along the perpendicular direction:

(V´is the speed of the beam with respect to the Earth, c2 = V2 + V´2):

2 L 2 L / c
t⊥ = =
V ´ 1 − (v / C ) 2

t ⊥ > t //
A shift of the fringe pattern was expected (1/25 of a fringe). The shift
will depend on v (speed of the ether relative to the interferometer).
 Einstein´ss postulates
Einstein
 The results of the Michelson-Morley experiment (Nobel prize in Physics 1907)
confirmed the impossibility of measuring the speed of the ether with respect to
the Earth and the failure of the Galilean velocity transformation equation in the
case of light. What happens then with Galilean transformations and Maxwell
equations?
i ?

 New theory: Albert Einstein (1905) “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies”.
Changes completely our notions about space and time. Based on two postulates:

1 The principle of relativity: The laws of physics must be the same in all IRFs.
1. IRFs

2. The constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light in vacuum has the
same value, c = 3 x 108 m/s, in all inertial frames, regardless of the velocity of
the observer or the velocity of the source emitting the light.
 Consequences of the special theory of relativity
 Events at different locations that are observed to occur simultaneously in one
frame are not necessarily observed to be simultaneous in another frame
moving uniformly with respect to the first. Simultaneity is not an absolute
concept but rather one that depends on the state of motion of the observer.
 The time interval Δt measured by an observer moving with respect to a clock
is longer than the time interval Δtp measured by an observer at rest with
respect to the clock (time dilation).
dilation)
 The proper length Lp of an object is the length measured by someone at rest
relative
l i to the
h object.
bj Th length
The l h off an object
bj measured
d by
b someone in
i a
reference frame that is moving with respect to the object is always less than
Lp (Lorentz – Fitzgerald contraction).
 Speed is limited by the speed of light in a vacuum.
 Length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion.
 Time dilation
 Observers in different inertial frames can measure different time intervals
between a pair of events.
events Consider the situation depicted in the figure.
figure A mirror
is fixed to a moving vehicle and an observer O´ at rest in the frame attached to the
vehicle holds a flashlight at distance d below the mirror.
mirror At some instant,
instant the
flashlight emits a pulse of light directed toward the mirror (event 1), and at some
later time after reflecting from the mirror,
mirror the pulse arrives back at the flashlight
(event 2). For this observer, Δtp = 2d / c (proper time).
 Now consider the same pair of events
as viewed by observer O in a second
frame (see figure).
figure) According to this
observer, the mirror and flashlight
are moving to the right with a speed vv,
and as a result the sequence of events
appears completely different
different.
 Time dilation
By the time the light from the flashlight reaches the mirror, the mirror has moved
t the
to th right
i ht a distance
di t v∆t/2 where
v∆t/2, h ∆t is
i the
th time
ti i t
interval
l required
i d for
f the
th light
li ht to
t
travel from O´ to the mirror and back to O´ as measured by O.
 2nd postulate  both observers must measure c for the speed of light. Because
the light travels farther according to O, it follows that the time interval ∆t
measured by O is longer than the time interval ∆tp measured by O´:
2d Δt p
= γΔ t p
2 2
 cΔ t   vΔ t  Δt = =
  =  +d
2
2 2
 2   2  v v
c 1− 1−
c2 c2

1
γ =
v2
1− 2
c
 Time dilation
 γ > 1  the time interval ∆t measured by any observer moving with respect
t a clock
to l k is
i longer
l th the
than th time
ti i t l ∆tp measured
interval d by
b an observer
b att
rest with respect to the clock. This effect is known as time dilation and has
b
been experimentally
i t ll verified.
ifi d
 The time interval ∆tp is known as proper time interval and is the time
interval between two events measured by an observer who sees the events
occur at the same point in space.
 Th twin
The t i paradox
d
John and Peter are
both 20 years old J h travels
John l to a planet
l
distant 20 light years
from the Earth in a
spacecraft moving at
0.95 c

John comes back John is surprised when

immediately after he finds out Peter has
reaching the aged 42 years and is
planet. now 62. On the other
side,
id John
J h has
h only l
aged13 years.
 The twin paradox
 From Peter’s frame of reference, he was at rest while his brother away from him and
then came back.
back According to John,
John however,
however he himself remained stationary while
Peter and the Earth raced away from him and then headed back. This leads to an
apparent contradiction due to the apparent symmetry of the observations.
observations

 But the situation is actually not symmetrical. The special theory of relativity
describes observations made in IFRs moving relative to each other.
other The space
traveler must experience a series of accelerations during his journey because he must
fire the engines to slow down and start moving back toward Earth.
Earth As a result,
result his
speed is not always uniform, and he is not in an IRF. Therefore, there is no paradox.
Only Peter, who is always in a single inertial frame, can make correct predictions
based on special relativity.

 Only Peter can then apply the time-dilation formula to John

John’ss trip.
trip Thus,
Thus Peter finds
that instead of aging 42 yr, John ages only (1 - v2/c2)1/2 (42 yr) = 13 yr. Thus,
according to Peter, John spends 6.5 yr traveling to the planet and 6.5 yr returning,
for a total travel time of 13 yr, in agreement with our earlier statement.
It doesn´t make sense to say
WHEN something has
occurred if we do not say
WHERE it happened
 Length contraction
 The measured distance between two points depends on the frame of reference. The proper
length Lp of an object is the length measured by someone at rest relative to the object. The
length of an object measured by someone in a reference frame that is moving with respect
to the object is always < Lp. This is known as length contraction and takes place only along
the direction of motion.
 Consider a spacecraft traveling with a speed v from one star to another. There are two
observers: one on the Earth and the other in the spacecraft. The observer at rest on the
Earth (also assumed to be at rest with respect to the stars) measures the distance between
the stars to be the proper length Lp and the time interval required for the spacecraft to
complete the voyage is Δt = Lp/v .
 However,
H th passages off the
the th two
t stars
t b the
by th spacecraft
ft occur att the
th same position
iti for
f the
th
traveler. Thus, the space traveler measures the proper time interval Δtp = Δt / γ . Since the
space traveler reaches the second star in the time Δtp, he concludes that the distance L
between the stars is :
Δt Lp v2
L = vΔ t p = v = = Lp 1− 2 = L < Lp
γ γ c
 Space - time graphs
 Space - time graphs (ct is plotted vs. x) are useful to represent events. That shown in
the figure corresponds to the twin paradox.
paradox A path through space - time is called a
world-line.
 At the origin,
origin the world-lines
world lines of Peter and John coincide because the twins are in the
same location at the same time. After John leaves on his trip, his world-line diverges
from that of his brother. Peter
Peter’ss world
world-line
line is vertical because he remains fixed in
location. At their reunion, the two world-lines again come together. Note that it would
be impossible
p for John to have a world-line that crossed the p
path of a light
g beam that
left the Earth when he did. To do so would require him to have a speed greater than c.

World-line
W ld li off
John

World-line
World line of
Peter
World-line of a
light beam

450
 Space - time graphs
 World - lines for light beams are diagonal lines on space - time graphs, typically drawn
att 45° to
t the
th right
i ht or left
l ft off vertical
ti l (assuming
( i that
th t the
th x and
d ctt axes have
h th same
the
scales), depending on whether the light beam is traveling in the direction of increasing
or decreasing x.
x These two world-lines
world lines mean that all possible future events for Peter
and John lie within two 45° lines extending from the origin. Either twin’s presence at
an event outside this “light cone” would require that twin to move at a speed > c,
c
which is impossible. Also, the only past events that Peter and John could have
experienced occurred within two similar 45
45° world - lines that approach the origin
from below the x axis.
World-line of
John

World-line of
Peter
World-line of a
light beam

450
 The
h ““pole-in-the-barn”
l i h b ” paradox
d
Suppose a runner moving at 0.75c carries a horizontal pole 15 m long toward a
barn that is 10 m long. The barn has front and rear doors. An observer on the
ground can instantly and simultaneously open and close the two doors by remote
control When the runner and the pole are inside the barn,
control. barn the ground observer
closes and then opens both doors so that the runner and pole are momentarily
captured inside the barn and then proceed to exit the barn from the back door.

Do both the runner and the ground observer agree that the runner makes it
safely through the barn?
 The “pole-in-the-barn” paradox
F
From our everyday
d experience,
i we would
ld be
b surprised
i d to
t see a 15-m
15 pole
l fit inside
i id a
10-m barn. But the pole is in motion with respect to the ground observer, who
measures the pole to be contracted to a length Lpole:

Thus, the ground observer measures the pole to be slightly shorter than the barn and
there is no problem with momentarily capturing the pole inside it. The “paradox”
arises when we consider the runner’s point of view. The runner sees the barn
contracted to

Because the pole is in the rest frame of the runner, the runner measures it to have its
proper length
l th off 15 m. How
H can a 15-m
15 pole
l fit inside
i id a 6.6-m
6 6 barn?
b ? This
Thi is
i nott the
th
question we have asked, because it is not the important question. We asked if the
runner can make it safely through the barn.
barn
 The “pole-in-the-barn” paradox
The resolution of the “paradox” lies in the relativity of simultaneity. The closing of the
two doors is measured to be simultaneous by the ground observer. Because the doors
are att different
diff t positions,
iti h
however, th do
they d nott close
l simultaneously
i lt l as measured
d by
b the
th
runner. The rear door closes and then opens first, allowing the leading edge of the pole
to exit.
exit The front door of the barn does not close until the trailing edge of the pole
passes by.
From the ground observer
observer’ss point of view,
view the time at which the trailing end of the pole
enters the barn is found from

Thus, the pole should be completely inside the barn at a time corresponding to ct = 13.2
m. This is consistent with the point on the ct axis in the figure, where the pole is inside
the barn. From the runner’s point of view, the time at which the leading end of the pole
leaves the barn is found from

leading to ct = 8.8 m. This is consistent with the point on the ct axis in the figure where
the back door of the barn arrives at the leading end of the pole.
 The “pole-in-the-barn” paradox

(a) (b)

Space – time graphs for the “pole-in-the-barn” paradox

(a) From the ground observer’s point of view, the world-lines for the front and back doors of the barn
are vertical lines. The world-lines for the ends of the pole are tilted and are 9.9 m apart horizontally. The
front door of the barn is at x = 0, and the leading end of the pole enters the front door at t = 0. The entire
pole is inside the barn at the time indicated by the dashed line.

(b) From the runner’s point of view, the world-lines for the ends of the pole are vertical. The barn is
moving in the negative direction, so the world-lines for the front and back doors are tilted to the left.
The leading end of the pole exits the back door before the trailing end arrives at the front door.
 The “pole-in-the-barn” paradox
Finally, the time at which the trailing end of the pole enters the front door of the
barn is found from

This gives ct = 20 m, which agrees with the instant shown in the figure.

(a) (b)
 Lorentz transformations
 Suppose an event that occurs at point P is reported by two observers, one at rest in
frame S (x, y, z, t) and another in frame S
S´(x´,
(x , y
y´,, zz´,, tt´)) that is moving to the right
with speed v. If two events occur at P and Q, Galilean transformation predict Δx =
Δx´,, i.e.,, the distance between the two p
points in space
p at which the events occur does
not depend on motion of the observer. This contradicts length contraction, Galilean
transformation is not valid when v approaches c. The equations that are valid for all
speeds (0 ≤ v < c) and enable us to transform coordinates from S to S´ are the Lorentz
transformation equations (1890):
x´= γ ( x − vt) y´= y z´= z
v
t´= γ (t − 2 x) SS
S´
c
x = γ ( x′ + vt′) y´= y z´= z
v
t = γ (t′ + 2 x′) S´  S
S
c
 Lorentz transformations
 When v << c, Lorentz transformations ≡ Galilean transformation (γ → 1).
 In relativity,
relati it space and time are not separate concepts but b t rather are closely
closel
interwoven with each other.
 In many situations,
situations we would like to know the difference in coordinates between two
events or the time interval between two events as seen by observers O and O´.

Δx´= x2′ − x1′ = γ (Δx − vΔt ) Δx = x2 − x1 = γ (Δx′ + vΔt ′)

v v
′ ′
Δt´= t2 − t1 = γ (Δt − 2 Δx) Δt = t2 − t1 = γ (Δt ′ + 2 Δx′)
c c
SS
S´ S´  S
S

 These equations show again that simultaneity is not an absolute concept. Suppose
two simultaneous events (Δt´= 0) separated into space (Δx´≠ 0) for observer O´, which
is moving. Then, for observer O: Δt = γvΔx´/c2. Hence, such events would not be
perceived as simultaneous by O.
 The Lorentz velocity transformation equations
 Suppose two observers in relative motion with respect to each other are both
observing
b i the
th motion
ti off an object.
bj t Previously,
P i l we defined
d fi d an eventt as occurring
i
at an instant of time. Now, we wish to interpret the “event” as the motion of the
object.
bj t How
H d the
do th observers’
b ’ measurements
t off the
th velocity
l it off the
th object
bj t relate
l t
to each other if the speed of the object is close to c? Once again S´ is our frame
moving
i at a speed
d v relative
l i to S.
S
dx
−v
dx′ dxd − vdtd dt ux − v
′
ux = = = =
dt ′ dt − dx 1 −
v v dx uxv
1− 2
2 2
c c dt c
If the object has velocity components along the y and z axes:
uy uz
u′y = u′z =
 u v  uxv 
γ 1 − x2  γ 1 − 2 
 c   c 
 The Lorentz velocity transformation equations
 When v is much smaller than c, the denominator approaches unity, and so,
u′x = ux − v which is the Galilean velocity transformation equation .

 v
c1 − 
c−v
= 
 On the contrary, when ux = c: c
u′x = =c
cv v
1− 2 1−
c c
we see that a speed measured as c by an observer in S is also measured as c by
an observer
b i S“,
in S“ independent
i d d off the
h relative
l i motion
i off S and
d S´,
S´ and
d in
i
agreement with Einstein’s second postulate (the speed of light must be c
relative to all inertial reference frames). Furthermore, we find that the speed
of an object can never be measured as larger than c.

u′x + v
ux =
 Besides,, from the pprevious equations
q we can deduce that: u′x v
1+ 2
c
 Relativistic Linear Momentum
 The laws of physics must remain unchanged under the Lorentz transformation, so we
must generalize Newton
Newton’ss laws and the definitions of p and E to conform to the Lorentz
transformation equations and the principle of relativity.
 When two particles collide, the total p of the isolated system remains constant. Suppose
this is the case when we observe this collision in a reference frame S. Using the Lorentz
velocity transformation equation and the classical definition p = mu (u is the velocity of a
particle), p is not measured to be conserved by the observer in S" moving with velocity v
relative to the first frame. But the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames ... In
view of this contradiction and assuming that the Lorentz velocity transformation
equation is correct, we must modify the definition of p to satisfy the following conditions:
- The linear momentum of an isolated system must be conserved in all collisions.
- The relativistic value calculated for the linear momentum p must approach the classical
value mu as u → 0. 
 mu 
 The correct relativistic equation for linear momentum that p= = γm u
v2
satisfies these conditions is: 1− 2
c
 Relativistic Linear Momentum
 The relativistic force F acting on a particle whose linear momentum is p is:
 d p  
F = with p = γ m u (relativistic form of Newton’s second law)
dt
 It can be proved that under relativistic conditions, the acceleration of a particle
decreases under the action of a constant force. Hence, a constant force does
NOT produce a constant acceleration in this case. In fact:

u 2 3/ 2
a ∝ (1 − 2 )
c
 From this proportionality, we see that as the particle’s speed approaches c, the
acceleration caused by any finite force approaches zero. Hence, it is impossible
to accelerate a particle from rest to a speed u ≥ c. This argument shows that the
speed of light is the ultimate speed.
 Relativistic Energy
 The definition of Ek must also be modified to make it compatible with
Ei t i ’ postulates.
Einstein’s t l t LetL t us imagine
i i a particle
ti l moving
i ini one dimension
di i along
l
the x axis. A force in the x direction causes its momentum to change. The work
d
done b the
by th force
f F on the
th particle
ti l is:
i
x2 x2 dp d mu (du / dt)
dp = =m dx = udt
W =  Fdx
d =  dx d with
ih dt dt u 2
 u  2 3/ 2

dt 1− 2 1 − 2 
x1 x1 c  c 
Substituting and integrating: mc2
W= − mc2
u2
1− 2
c
 The work done byy a force actingg on a system
y consisting
g of a single
g p particle
equals the change in Ek of the particle. Since we assumed that its initial speed is
zero we know that its initial Ek is zero. We therefore conclude that the work W
in the previous equation is equivalent to the relativistic Ek :
 Relativistic Energy
mc2
EK = − mc2 = γmc2 − mc2 = (γ −1)mc2
u2
1− 2
c
 This equation has been experimentally verified in particle accelerators.
M
Moreover, i reproduces
it d the
h limit
li i case when
h u << c and
d hence
h EK = ½ mu2.

Relativistic
case
Non - relativistic
case
 Relativistic Energy
 The constant term mc2, which is independent of the speed of the particle, is
called the rest energy ER of the particle. The term γmc2, which does depend on
the particle speed, is therefore the sum of the kinetic and rest energies. We
define γmc2 to be the total energy E:

Total energ
energy = Kinetic energy
energ + Rest energy
energ

mc2
E = = γmc2 = EK + mc2 = EK + ER
u2
1− 2
c
 This relationship shows that mass is a form of energy, where c2 in the rest energy
term is just a constant conversion factor. This expression also shows that a small
mass corresponds to an enormous amount of energy, a concept fundamental to
nuclear and elementary - particle physics.
 Relativistic Energy
 In many situations, the linear momentum or energy of a particle is measured
rather than its speed. It is then useful to have an expression relating the total energy
to the relativistic linear momentum. This is accomplished by using the expressions
E = γmc2 and p = γmu and the result is:
E = p c +m c
2 2 2 2 4

 When the particle is at rest, p = 0 and so E = ER = mc2. For particles that have
zero mass,
mass such as photons,
photons E = pc.
pc This equation is an exact expression relating
total energy and linear momentum for photons, which always travel at the speed of
light (in vacuum).
vacuum)
 Because the mass m of a particle is independent of its motion, m must have the
same value in all reference frames. For this reason, m is often called the invariant
mass. On the other hand, because the E and p of a particle both depend on velocity,
these quantities depend on the reference frame in which they are measured.
 Mass and energy
 Even when a particle is at rest, it possesses enormous E through its mass. This is
i
important
t t in
i nuclear
l physics,
h i in i which
hi h the
th change
h i mass is
in i a relatively
l ti l large
l f ti off
fraction
the initial mass. In a conventional nuclear reactor, the U nucleus undergoes fission,
resulting in several lighter fragments having considerable Ek. In the case of 235U,
U the
fragments are two lighter nuclei and a few neutrons. The total mass of the fragments is
less than that of the 235U Δm The corresponding energy Δmc2 associated
by an amount Δm.
with this mass difference is exactly equal to the total Ek of the fragments. The Ek is
absorbed as the fragments move through water,
water raising the internal energy of the liquid,
liquid
which is used to produce steam for the generation of electrical power.

 In a fusion reaction, two deuterium atoms combine to form one He atom. The related
decrease in mass is Δm = 4.25 x 10-29 kg. Hence, the corresponding energy that results
from one fusion reaction is Δmc2 = 3.83 x 10-12 J = 23.9 MeV. If only 1 g of deuterium is
converted to He, the energy released is on the order of 1012 J. At the year 2018 cost of
electrical
l i l energy in
i Spain,
S i this
hi would
ld be
b worth
h about
b ∼ 40000 euros.
 General theory of relativity
 The two postulates of Einstein’s general theory of relativity are:
• All the laws of nature have the same form for observers in any frame of reference,
whether accelerated or not.

• In the vicinity of any point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated frame

of reference in the absence of gravitational effects (principle of equivalence).

 A beam of light should also be bent downward by a gravitational field. Experiments

have verified the effect, although the bending is small. A laser aimed at the horizon
falls less than 1 cm after traveling 6000 km.

 One effect predicted by the general theory is that time is altered by gravity.
gravity A clock
in the presence of gravity runs slower than one located where gravity is negligible.
Consequently, the frequencies of radiation emitted by atoms in the presence of a
strong gravitational field are red-shifted to lower frequencies when compared with
the same emissions in the p
presence of a weak field. Such shift has been detected in
spectral lines emitted by atoms in massive stars.
 General theory of relativity
 The second postulate suggests that a gravitational field may be “transformed away”
at any point if we choose an appropriate accelerated frame of reference - a freely
falling one. Einstein developed an ingenious method of describing the acceleration
necessary to make the gravitational field “disappear.” He specified a concept, the
curvature of space - time, that describes the gravitational effect at every point. In
f t the
fact, th curvature
t off space-time
ti completely
l t l replaces
l N t ’ gravitational
Newton’s it ti l theory.
th

 According to Einstein, there is no such thing as a gravitational force. Rather, the

presence of a mass causes a curvature of space - time in the vicinity of the mass, and
this curvature dictates the space–time path that all freely moving objects must
follow. In 1979, John Wheeler summarized Einstein’s general theory of relativity in
a single sentence:

“Space tells matter how to move and matter tells space how to curve”