EC-437

Satellite Communications

Unit-2
Course Coordinator : Dr. Gaurav Singh Baghel
 CONTENT

• Orbital Aspects:
• Orbit and Trajectory,
• Basic Principles of Orbiting Satellites,
• Orbital Mechanics,
• Orbital Parameters,
• Injection Velocity and Resulting Satellite Trajectories,
• Types of Orbits.
ORBIT AND TRAJECTORY

The path a Satellite follows around a planet is defined as an orbit.

SATELLITES ORBITS

• Satellite Orbits
▪ GEO
▪ LEO
▪ MEO
▪ Molniya Orbit
▪ HAPs

• Frequency Bands
 GEOSTATIONARY EARTH ORBIT
(GEO)
• These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s surface
along the equator.

• Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve around the earth at the

same speed as the earth rotates. This means GEO satellites
remain in the same position relative to the surface of earth.
 GEO (CONT.)

• Advantages
▪ A GEO satellite’s distance from earth gives it a large coverage area, almost a fourth of
the earth’s surface.
▪ GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
▪ These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and other multipoint applications.
• Disadvantages
▪ A GEO satellite’s distance also cause it to have both a comparatively weak signal and a
time delay in the signal, which is bad for point to point communication.
▪ GEO satellites, centered above the equator, have difficulty broadcasting signals to near
polar regions
 LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)

• LEO satellites are much closer to the earth than GEO satellites,
ranging from 500 to 1,500 km above the surface.
• LEO satellites don’t stay in fixed position relative to the
surface, and are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.
• A network of LEO satellites is necessary for LEO satellites to
be useful
 LEO (CONT.)

• Advantages
▪ A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO satellite gives it a better signal
strength and less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to point communication.
▪ A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is less of a waste of bandwidth.

• Disadvantages
▪ A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly
▪ LEO satellites have to compensate for Doppler shifts cause by their relative movement.
▪ Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual orbital deterioration.
MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT (MEO)

• A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between 8,000

km and 18,000 km above the earth’s surface.
• MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in
functionality.
• MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of
time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 to 8 hours.
• MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO
satellites.
MEO (CONT.)

• Advantage
▪ A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and
wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed
in a MEO network than a LEO network.
• Disadvantage
▪ A MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer time
delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite,
though not as bad as a GEO satellite.
 OTHER ORBITS

• Molniya Orbit Satellites

▪ Used by Russia for decades.

▪ Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The satellite remains in
a nearly fixed position relative to earth for eight hours.
▪ A series of three Molniya satellites can act like a GEO
satellite.
▪ Useful in near polar regions.
 OTHER ORBITS (CONT.)

• High Altitude Platform (HAP)

▪ One of the newest ideas in satellite communication.

▪ A blimp or plane around 20 km above the earth’s surface is
used as a satellite.
▪ HAPs would have very small coverage area, but would have
a comparatively strong signal.
▪ Cheaper to put in position, but would require a lot of them
in a network.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORBITING SATELLITES:
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Kepler’s First Law, as it applies to artificial satellite orbits, can be simply stated as follows:
‘The path followed by a satellite around the earth will be an ellipse, with the center of mass
of earth as one of the two foci of the ellipse.’ This is shown in Figure:

If no other forces are acting on the satellite, either

intentionally by orbit control or unintentionally as in
gravity forces from other bodies, the satellite will
eventually settle in an elliptical orbit, with the earth as
one of the foci of the ellipse. The ‘size’ of the ellipse
will depend on satellite mass and its angular velocity
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORBITING SATELLITES:
KEPLER’S LAWS

Kepler’s Second Law can likewise be simply stated as follows: ‘for equal time intervals, the
satellite sweeps out equal areas in the orbital plane.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORBITING SATELLITES:
KEPLER’S LAWS
Kepler’s Third Law is as follows: ‘the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the
cube of the mean distance between the two bodies.’ This is quantified as follows:

where T=orbital period in s; a=distance between the two bodies, in km; µ= Kepler’s Constant
=3.986004×105 km3/s2. If the orbit is circular, then a=r, and

This demonstrates an important result:

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORBITING SATELLITES:
KEPLER’S LAWS
Under this condition, a specific orbit period is determined only by proper selection of the orbit
radius. This allows the satellite designer to select orbit periods that best meet particular
application requirements by locating the satellite at the proper orbit altitude. The altitudes
required to obtain a specific number of repeatable ground traces with a circular orbit are listed
in Table
 ORBITAL MECHANICS

✓ To achieve a stable orbit around the earth, a spacecraft must first be beyond the bulk of the earth’s atmosphere, i.e., in
what is popularly called space.
✓ According to Newton's law of motion 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎. Where 𝑎 = acceleration, 𝐹= force acting on the object and 𝑚= mass of
the object. It helps us understand the motion of satellite in a stable orbit. (neglecting any drag or other perturbing
forces).
✓ (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎) states that the force acting on a body is equal to the mass of the body multiplied by the resulting
acceleration of the body.
✓ Thus, for a given force, the lighter the mass of the body, the higher the acceleration will be.
✓ When in a stable orbit, there are two main forces acting on a satellite: a centrifugal force due to the kinetic energy of
the satellite, which attempts to fling the satellite into a higher orbit, and a centripetal force due to gravitational
attraction of the planet about which the satellite is orbiting, which attempts to pull the satellite towards the planet.
✓ If these two forces are equal the satellite remains in a stable orbit.
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Q. A satellite is in a 322 km high circular orbit. Determine: a. The orbital angular velocity in
radians per second; b. The orbital period in minutes; and c. The orbital velocity in meters per
second.
Note: Assume the average radius of the earth is 6378.137 km and Kepler’s constant
has the value 3.986 004 418 × 105km3/s2.

Solution:
Total radius of the orbit 𝑟 = 322 + 6378.137 𝑘𝑚 = 6700.137 𝑘𝑚

orbital velocity 𝑣 = 7713.066 𝑚/𝑠.

𝑇 = 5458.037372 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 90.9672895 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 90.97 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠.

2𝜋
Orbital angular velocity = 𝑇
= 0.0011512 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
Q. A SpaceX mission to the ISS is an example of a LEO satellite mission. Before rendezvousing
with the ISS on this mission, SpaceX inserted the Dragon capsule into an initial circular orbit
250 km above the earth’s surface, where there are still a finite number of molecules from the
atmosphere. The mean earth’s radius, re, is approximately 6378.14 km. Using these numbers,
calculate the period of the Dragon capsule of SpaceX in its 250 km orbit. Find also the linear
velocity of the Dragon capsule along this orbit.
Solution: Dragon orbit = 𝑟𝑒 + ℎ = 6378.14 + 250.0 = 6628.14 𝑘𝑚

𝑇 = 5370.30 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 89 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 30.3 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.

The circumference of the orbit 2𝜋𝑎 = 41 645.83 𝑘𝑚

2𝜋𝑎
Hence the velocity of the Dragon in orbit = = 7.755 𝑘𝑚/𝑠.
𝑇
 ORBITAL PARAMETERS
➢ Apogee – the point farthest from earth.
➢ Perigee – the point of closest approach to earth.
➢ Line of Apsides – the line joining the perigee and
apogee through the center of the earth.
➢ Ascending Node – the point where the orbit crosses
the equatorial plane, going from south to north.
➢ Descending Node – the point where the orbit crosses
the equatorial plane, going from north to south.
➢ Line of Nodes – the line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the center of the earth.
➢ Argument of Perigee (ω), – the angle from ascending node to perigee, measured in the orbital plane.
➢ Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (φ or Ω), – the angle measured eastward, in the equatorial
plane, from the line to the first point of Aries (Y) to the ascending node.
➢ The eccentricity is a measure of the ‘circularity’ of the orbit. It is determined from

where e=the eccentricity of the orbit; ra =the distance from the center of the earth to the apogee point; and
rp =the distance from the center of the earth to the perigee point.
➢ The higher the eccentricity, the ‘flatter’ the ellipse. A circular orbit is the special case of anellipse with
equal major and minor axes (zero eccentricity). That is:
✓ Elliptical Orbit 0 < 𝑒 < 1
✓ Circular Orbit 𝑒 = 0
❑ The orbit may be elliptical or circular, depending on the orbital velocity and direction of motion
imparted to the satellite on insertion into orbit.

The inclination angle, 𝜃𝑖 , is the angle between the orbital plane and the earth’s equatorial
plane.
❑ A satellite that is in an orbit with some inclination angle is in an inclined orbit.
❑ A satellite that is in orbit in the equatorial plane (inclination angle=0◦) is in an equatorial orbit.
❑ A satellite that has an inclination angle of 90◦ is in a polar orbit.
❑ An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same direction as the earth’s rotation is called a prograde
orbit. The inclination angle of a prograde orbit is between 0◦ and 90◦.
❑ A satellite in a retrograde orbit moves in a direction opposite (counter to) the earth’s rotation, with an
inclination angle between 90◦ and 180◦.
❑ Most satellites are launched in a prograde orbit, because the earth’s rotational velocity enhances the
satellite’s orbital velocity, reducing the amount of energy required to launch and place the satellite in
orbit.
 ORBITAL PARAMETERS
❑ An almost endless number of combinations of orbital parameters are available for satellite orbits.
❑ Orbital elements defines the set of parameters needed to uniquely specify the location of an orbiting
satellite.
❑ The minimum number of parameters required is six:
✓ Eccentricity (𝑒);
✓ Semi-Major Axis (𝑎);
✓ Time of Perigee (𝑡𝑝 );
✓ Right Ascension of Ascending Node (φ);
✓ Inclination Angle (𝜃𝑖 );
✓ Argument of Perigee (ω).
 𝒓𝒂 − 𝒓𝒑
𝒆=
𝒓𝒂 + 𝒓𝒑
•The subsolar point is where the Sun’s rays strike the Earth’s surface at a 90° angle (zenith position).
•At this location, an object casts no shadow at noon.
•At Equinoxes: The subsolar point lies on the Equator (day and night are equal everywhere).
•The Solar Declination Angle is the latitude where the Sun is directly overhead (subsolar point) at
solar noon.

•A Solstice is the moment when the Sun appears to reach its most northerly or southerly position
relative to the celestial equator.
•Solstices occur because of Earth’s axial tilt (23.5°).
INJECTION VELOCITY AND RESULTING SATELLITE
TRAJECTORIES
Orbit
➢ A repeating path that an object follows around another due to gravity.
➢ Example: The Moon orbits Earth in a nearly circular path.
➢ Orbits can be circular, elliptical, or even hyperbolic (if escaping).
Trajectory
➢ A one-time path an object takes through space or air.
➢ Often used for rockets, missiles, or spacecraft during launch or travel.
➢ Can include gravity assists, burn maneuvers, and re-entry paths.

❖ Think of it this way: a trajectory is like a road trip, and an orbit is like a
racetrack you keep looping around.
INJECTION VELOCITY AND RESULTING SATELLITE
TRAJECTORIES

Injection velocity is the horizontal speed imparted to a satellite or spacecraft by

a launch vehicle at the moment it transitions from launch phase to orbital
motion. It determines the shape and stability of the resulting orbit.

𝒓 𝑹
 ✓ If the injection velocity equals the
first cosmic velocity (≈7.9 km/s
near Earth’s surface), the satellite
enters a circular orbit.

✓ If it’s less than that, the satellite

follows a suborbital or elliptical
path and may fall back to Earth.

✓ If it’s greater, it can enter a higher

orbit or even escape Earth’s
gravity entirely.

- First Cosmic Velocity is the speed needed to balance gravitational pull with centrifugal force—like a
satellite circling Earth.
- Second Cosmic Velocity is about overcoming Earth’s gravitational potential energy entirely.
- Third Cosmic Velocity factors in both Earth’s and the Sun’s gravity—used for deep space missions like
Voyager.
7.9, 11.2, 16.7 km/s

Fourth Cosmic Velocity conceptually: the speed needed to escape the Milky Way galaxy. But
that’s more theoretical and rarely used in practical mission planning.
- First Cosmic Velocity: The minimum speed required for a body to move in a circular orbit close to the
Earth’s surface without falling back.
It is the injection velocity at which apogee and perigee distances are equal.
Salient Points
- Second Cosmic Velocity: The minimum speed required to escape Earth’s gravity completely (without
further propulsion), neglecting atmospheric resistance.

𝐑→∞
Salient Points
- Third Cosmic Velocity: The minimum speed required for a spacecraft, starting from Earth, to escape not
only Earth’s gravity but also the Sun’s gravitational field (i.e., to leave the Solar System).

𝑉𝑡 = S𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ’𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑛

Thanks