Module IV – OP-AMP & Voltage Regulators
Repeated 4 times: Explain ideal characteristics of Op-Amp.
ANS:- An ideal operational amplifier (op-amp) is a theoretical device whose characteristics are
“perfect” and used as assumptions for circuit analysis and design.
Main ideal characteristics
• Infinite open-loop voltage gain:
The differential gain (gain without feedback) is infinite, so any tiny difference between
the inverting (−) and non-inverting (+) inputs drives the output to the required level.
• Infinite input impedance:
The input impedance is infinite, so no current flows into either input terminal; the
op-amp does not load the previous stage and input currents are taken as zero.
• Zero output impedance:
The output impedance is zero, so the op-amp can drive any load without voltage drop;
output voltage is independent of load current.
• Infinite bandwidth:
The op-amp amplifies all frequencies from DC to very high frequencies with the same
gain; there is no gain roll-off and the phase shift is assumed zero over the entire range.
• Infinite CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio):
The common-mode gain is zero and only the difference between the two inputs is
amplified; any signal common to both inputs (noise, interference) is completely
rejected.
• Zero input offset voltage:
When both inputs are at exactly the same potential, the output is exactly zero; there is
no inherent output voltage for zero differential input.
• Infinite slew rate:
The output can change instantaneously for any change at the input; there is no limitation
on the rate of change of output voltage with time.
• Zero input bias and offset currents:
The DC currents required at the inputs are zero, and there is no difference between the
input currents; thus, no voltage drops appear across source resistances due to input
bias.
• The voltage difference between the two input terminals is effectively zero when negative
feedback is used (virtual short: 𝑉 + ≈ 𝑉 − ).
• The input currents into both terminals are zero (no current enters the op-amp
inputs).
Repeated 4 times: Explain inverting & non-inverting amplifiers.
ans:- Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers are the two basic closed-loop op-amp
configurations used to obtain a desired gain with feedback.
Inverting amplifier
Circuit idea:
Input signal is applied to the inverting (−) input through an input resistor 𝑅𝑖𝑛 .
The non-inverting (+) input is grounded.
A feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 connects the output back to the inverting input, providing negative
feedback.
Virtual ground concept:
For an ideal op-amp with negative feedback, the inverting input node is held at approximately 0
V (same as the non-inverting terminal), called virtual ground.
No current flows into the op-amp input; so current through 𝑅𝑖𝑛 equals current through 𝑅𝑓 .
Gain derivation (brief):
𝑉𝑖𝑛 −0
Current through 𝑅𝑖𝑛 : 𝐼 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛
.
0−𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Same current flows through 𝑅𝑓 : 𝐼 = .
𝑅𝑓
Equate and rearrange:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
=− ⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − ( ) 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑛
So voltage gain:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑛
Non-inverting amplifier
Circuit idea:
Input signal is applied directly to the non-inverting (+) input.
The inverting (−) input is connected to a potential divider formed by 𝑅𝑖𝑛 (to ground) and 𝑅𝑓 (from
output to − input).
This again provides negative feedback.
Node relation:
For an ideal op-amp with feedback, voltage at inverting input equals the input voltage: 𝑉− ≈
𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
The divider gives:
𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑉− = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⋅ .
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑓
Gain derivation (brief):
Rearranging,
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (1+ 𝑅 ).
𝑖𝑛
So voltage gain:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = =1+ .
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑛
Repeated 3 times: Explain differential amplifier & derive CMRR.
Ans:- A differential amplifier is a circuit that amplifies the difference between two input
signals and rejects any signal common to both inputs. It is the basic building block of
op-amps and instrumentation amplifiers.
Differential amplifier concept
• Let the two input voltages be 𝑉1and 𝑉2.
• The amplifier produces an output mainly proportional to the difference (𝑉1−𝑉2).
• In practice, it also has a small gain for the common-mode component (the part
common to both inputs), which is unwanted.
Define:
• Differential input voltage:
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
• Common-mode input voltage:
𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑉𝑐 =
2
The output of a practical differential amplifier can be written as:
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑉𝑑 + 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑐
where
𝐴𝑑 = differential gain (desired, usually high)
𝐴𝑐 = common-mode gain (undesired, should be very small)
Definition and derivation of CMRR
The Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) expresses how effectively the differential
amplifier rejects common-mode signals compared to differential signals.
1. Define differential gain
Output due to differential input 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑑 = = (with 𝑉𝑐 = 0)
Differential input voltage 𝑉𝑑
2. Define common-mode gain
Output due to common‑mode input 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑐 = = (with 𝑉𝑑 = 0)
Common‑mode input voltage 𝑉𝑐
3. Define CMRR (linear form)
CMRR is the ratio of differential gain to common-mode gain:
𝐴𝑑
CMRR =
𝐴𝑐
A good differential amplifier has a large 𝐴𝑑 and a very small 𝐴𝑐 , so CMRR is very high.
4. CMRR in decibels (dB)
Often specified in dB:
𝐴𝑑
CMRR(dB) = 20log10 ( )
𝐴𝑐
• If 𝐴𝑑 is large and 𝐴𝑐 is nearly zero, CMRR → ∞ (ideal case).
• In a practical differential amplifier, CMRR may be 60 dB, 80 dB, 100 dB, etc.,
depending on design and matching of components.
Repeated 2 times: Explain 3-terminal voltage regulators.
ans:- A three-terminal voltage regulator is an IC which provides a constant DC output
voltage using only three pins: input, output and ground. It is commonly used to obtain
fixed regulated voltages such as +5 V, +9 V, +12 V etc. from an unregulated DC supply.
Definition and terminals
• A 3-terminal regulator is a series linear voltage regulator IC with three pins:
1. Input (Vin): Takes unregulated DC voltage from rectifier/filter (must be
higher than desired output).
2. Output (Vout): Gives fixed regulated DC voltage.
3. Ground (GND/Common): Common reference terminal for input and
output.
• Internally it consists of a reference voltage source, error amplifier, series pass
transistor and protection circuits to maintain a constant output voltage.
Types and examples
• Positive fixed regulators (78xx series):
Example: 7805 (+5 V), 7809 (+9 V), 7812 (+12 V) etc.
• Negative fixed regulators (79xx series):
Example: 7905 (−5 V), 7912 (−12 V) etc.
• Typical output current rating is up to about 1 A (depending on package and
heat-sink).
Important characteristics / advantages
• Provides fixed and accurate output voltage with good line and load regulation.
• Has built-in current limiting and thermal shutdown, so it is protected against
overload and overheating.
• Requires only a few external components (typically two capacitors), so the
circuit is simple, compact and reliable.