Module 1
1) Introduction to measurement, Methods of measurement, Classification of
instruments, Types of errors in measurement, standardization and calibration
of instruments
1. Introduction to Measurement
Measurement is the process of determining the magnitude of a quantity by
comparing it with a predefined standard.
It converts physical parameters (like length, temperature, pressure, current) into
meaningful numerical values.
Purpose of Measurement
• To monitor and control engineering processes
• To ensure product quality and reliability
• For scientific analysis and research
• For system automation and instrumentation
Basic Elements of a Measurement System
1. Measurand – quantity being measured
2. Transducer/Sensor – converts measurand to electrical signal
3. Signal Conditioning – amplifies/filters/modifies the signal
4. Display/Recording Device – shows the measured value
2. Methods of Measurement
A. Direct Measurement
Measured directly using an instrument.
Examples: measuring length with a scale, temperature with a thermometer.
Advantages: quick, simple
Disadvantages: less accurate, operator-dependent
B. Indirect Measurement
Measured indirectly by using a mathematical relationship between measured and
desired quantity.
Example: measuring velocity by measuring distance and time.
Advantage: higher accuracy possible
C. Absolute Measurement
Determined in terms of fundamental physical quantities.
Example: determining mass by 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.
Used in: scientific standards labs.
D. Comparative Measurement
Measured by comparing against a known reference standard.
Example: using a comparator to measure small deviations.
E. Null Measurement Method
The instrument balances the unknown quantity against a known quantity until the
result is zero (null).
Example: Wheatstone bridge.
Advantage: very high accuracy
F. Deflection-type Measurement
Unknown quantity causes deflection of pointer/needle.
Examples: analog ammeter, voltmeter
Advantage: fast measurement
3. Classification of Instruments
A. Based on the Principle of Operation
• Electrical Instruments (ammeter, voltmeter)
• Mechanical Instruments (pressure gauge)
• Electronic Instruments (oscilloscope)
B. Based on the Method of Measurement
• Direct reading instruments
• Comparison instruments
C. Based on the Nature of Output
• Analog Instruments: continuous output (pointer)
• Digital Instruments: discrete numeric output
D. Based on the Source of Power
• Active instruments – produce output without external power (thermocouple)
• Passive instruments – require external power (strain gauge)
E. Based on Application
• Laboratory Instruments
• Industrial Instruments
• Portable Instruments
4. Types of Errors in Measurement
Errors are deviations of measured value from the true value.
A. Gross Errors
• Occur due to human mistakes
• Examples: misreading scale, recording wrong value, using wrong instrument range
Minimized by: proper training, repetition of measurements
B. Systematic Errors
These are consistent and repeatable.
Types:
1. Instrumental Errors
Caused by imperfections in instruments
Examples: zero error, calibration error, friction error
2. Environmental Errors
Caused by changes in temperature, humidity, pressure, dust, vibration
3. Observational Errors
Due to observer’s limitations
Examples: parallax error, incorrect setting
Systematic errors are reduced by calibration and good working conditions.
C. Random Errors
• Caused by unpredictable variations
• Examples: noise, disturbances, small fluctuations
Minimized by: averaging multiple readings
5. Standardization and Calibration of Instruments
Standardization
Process of establishing national/international measurement standards.
Types of Standards
1. Primary Standards – highest accuracy; kept in national labs
2. Secondary Standards – calibrated with primary standards
3. Working Standards – used daily in labs/industries
4. International Standards – maintained by international bodies (e.g., SI units)
Calibration
Calibration is the process of comparing an instrument’s reading with a known
standard to identify and correct errors.
Steps in Calibration
1. Compare the instrument with a reference standard
2. Find deviation or error
3. Adjust the instrument to match standard (if possible)
4. Document the calibration results
5. Issue calibration certificate
Why Calibration is Important?
• Ensures accuracy of measurement
• Maintains quality control
• Satisfies regulatory requirements
• Ensures reliability and repeatability