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If x and y are both negative, then xy is positive.
If x is positive and y is negative, then xy is negative.
If xy = 0, then x = 0 or y = 0, or both.
C. Exponentiation
If , then
If , then .
If , then .
If , then .
3.2 Algebra, Equalities, and Inequalities
1. Algebraic Expressions and Equations
A. Algebra is based on arithmetic and on the concept of an unknown quantity. Letters like x or n
are variables that stand for unknown quantities. Other numerical expressions called
constants stand for known quantities. A combination of variables, constants, and arithmetical
operations is an algebraic expression.
Solving word problems often requires translating words into algebraic expressions. The table
below shows how some words and phrases can be translated as math operations in algebraic
expressions:
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3.2 Translating Words into Math Operations
x+y x−y xy xy
x added to y x decreased by y x multiplied by y x divided by y x to the power of
x increased by y difference of x and the product of x x over y y
y and y x to the yth
x more than y the quotient of x
y fewer than x x times y and y power
x plus y
the sum of x and y less than x the ratio of x to y
y x minus y
If y = 2: If y = 2: If y = 2:
the total of x and x reduced by y
y double x half of x x squared
y subtracted from
x twice x x halved
If y = 3: If y = 3:
triple x x cubed
B. In an algebraic expression, a term is a constant, a variable, or a product of terms that are each
a constant or a variable. A variable in a term may be raised to an exponent. A term with no
variables is a constant term. A constant in a term with one or more variables is a coef icient.
Example:
Suppose Pam has 5 more pencils than Fred has. If F is the number of pencils Fred has,
then Pam has F + 5 pencils. The algebraic expression F + 5 has two terms: the variable F
and the constant 5.
C. A polynomial is an algebraic expression that’s a sum of terms and has exactly one variable.
Each term in a polynomial is a variable raised to some power and multiplied by some
coef icient. If the highest power a variable is raised to is 1, the expression is a irst degree (or
linear) polynomial in that variable. If the highest power a variable is raised to is 2, the
expression is a second degree (or quadratic) polynomial in that variable.
Examples:
F + 5 is a linear polynomial in F, since the highest power of F is 1.
19x2 − 6x + 3 is a quadratic polynomial in x, since the highest power of x is 2.
is not a polynomial, because it’s not a sum of powers of x multiplied by
coef icients.
D. You can simplify many algebraic expressions by factoring or combining like terms.
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Examples:
In the expression 6x + 5x, x is a factor common to both terms. So, 6x + 5x is equivalent to
(6 + 5)x, or 11x.
In the expression 9x − 3y, 3 is a factor common to both terms: 9x − 3y = 3(3x − y).
The expression 5x2 + 6y has no like terms and no common factors.
E. In a fraction is the numerator and d is the denominator. In a numerator and
denominator, you can divide out any common factors not equal to zero.
Example:
If , then .
So, .
F. To multiply two algebraic expressions, multiply each term of one expression by each term of
the other.
Example:
G. To evaluate an algebraic expression, replace its variables with constants.
Example:
If x = 3 and y = −2, we can evaluate as
.
H. An algebraic equation is an equation with at least one algebraic expression. An algebraic
equation’s solutions are the sets of assignments of constant values to its variables that make it
true, or “satisfy the equation.” An equation may have no solution, one solution, or more than
one solution. For equations solved together, the solutions must satisfy all the equations at
once. An equation’s solutions are also called its roots. To con irm the roots are correct, you
can substitute them into the equation.
I. Two equations with the same solution or solutions are equivalent.
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Examples:
The equations 2 + x = 3 and 4 + 2x = 6 are equivalent, because each has the unique
solution x = 1. Notice the second equation is the irst equation multiplied by 2.
Likewise, the equations 3x − y = 6 and 6x − 2y = 12 are equivalent, although each has
in initely many solutions. For any value of x, giving the value 3x − 6 to y satis ies both
these equations. For example, x = 2 with y = 0 is a solution to both equations, and so is x
= 5 with y = 9.
2. Linear Equations
A. A linear equation has a linear polynomial on one side of the equals sign and either a linear
polynomial or a constant on the other side—or can be converted to that form. A linear
equation with only one variable is a linear equation with one unknown. A linear equation
with two variables is a linear equation with two unknowns.
Examples:
5x − 2 = 9 − x is a linear equation with one unknown.
3x + 1 = y − 2 is a linear equation with two unknowns.
B. To solve a linear equation with one unknown (that is, to ind what value of the unknown
satis ies the equation), isolate the unknown on one side of the equation by doing the same
operations on both sides. Adding or subtracting the same number on both sides of the
equation doesn’t change the equality. Likewise, multiplying or dividing both sides by the same
nonzero number doesn’t change the equality.
Example:
To solve the equation , isolate the variable x like this:
To check the answer , substitute it for x in the original equation to con irm it satis ies
that equation:
So, is the solution.
C. Two equivalent linear equations with the same two unknowns have in initely many solutions,
as in the example of the equivalent equations 3x − y = 6 and 6x − 2y = 12 in Section 3.2.1.I
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above. But if two linear equations with the same two unknowns aren’t equivalent, they have at
most one solution.
When solving two linear equations with two unknowns, if you reach a trivial equation like 0 =
0, the equations are equivalent and have in initely many solutions. But if you reach a
contradiction, the equations have no solution.
Example:
Consider the two equations 3x + 4y = 17 and 6x + 8y = 35. Note that 3x + 4y = 17 implies
6x + 8y = 34, contradicting the second equation. So, no values of x and y can satisfy both
equations at once. The two equations have no solution.
If neither a trivial equation nor a contradiction is reached, a unique solution can be found.
D. To solve two linear equations with two unknowns, you can use one of the equations to
express one unknown in terms of the other unknown. Then substitute this result into the
second equation to make a new equation with only one unknown. Next, solve this new
equation. Substitute the value of its unknown into either original equation to solve for the
remaining unknown.
Example:
Let’s solve these two equations for x and y:
In equation (2), x = 2 + y. So, in equation (1), substitute 2 + y for x:
Since y = 1, we ind x − 1 = 2, so x = 2 + 1 = 3.
E. Another way to remove one unknown and solve for x and y is to make the coef icients of one
unknown the same in both equations (ignoring the sign). Then either add the equations or
subtract one from the other.
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Example:
Let’s solve the equations:
(1) 6x + 5 y = 29 and
(2) 4x − 3 y = −6
Multiply equation (1) by 3 and equation (2) by 5 to get
18x + 15 y = 87 and
20x − 15 y = −30
Add the two equations to remove y. This gives us 38x = 57, or .
Substituting for x in either original equation gives y = 4. To check these answers,
substitute both values into both the original equations.
3. Factoring and Quadratic Equations
A. Some equations can be solved by factoring. To do this, irst add or subtract to bring all the
expressions to one side of the equation, with 0 on the other side. Then try to express the
nonzero side as a product of factors that are algebraic expressions. When that’s possible,
setting any of these factors equal to 0 makes a simpler equation, because for any x and y, if xy
= 0, then x = 0 or y = 0 or both. The solutions of the simpler equations made this way are also
solutions of the factored equation.
Example:
Factor to ind the solutions of the equation x3 − 2x2 + x = −5(x − l)2:
So, x = −5 or x = 1.
B. When factoring to solve equations with algebraic fractions, note that a fraction equals 0 if and
only if its numerator equals 0 and its denominator doesn’t.
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Example:
Find the solutions of the equation = 0.
The numerator must equal 0: x(x − 3)(x2 + 5) = 0.
Thus, x = 0, or x − 3 = 0, or x2 + 5 = 0. So, x = 0, or x = 3, or x2 + 5 = 0.
But x2 + 5 = 0 has no real solution, because x2 + 5 = 0 for every real number x. So, the
original equation’s solutions are 0 and 3.
C. A quadratic equation has the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
Examples:
D. Some quadratic equations are easily solved by factoring.
Example (1): Example (2):
E. A quadratic equation has at most two real roots but may have just one or even no root.
Examples:
The equation x2 − 6x + 9 = 0 can be written as (x − 3)2 = 0 or (x − 3)(x − 3) = 0. So, its
only root is 3.
The equation x2 + 4 = 0 has no real root. Since any real number squared is greater than
or equal to zero, x2 + 4 must be greater than zero if x is a real number.
F. An expression of the form a2 – b2 can be factored as (a – b)(a + b).
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Example:
We can solve the quadratic equation 9x2 − 25 = 0 like this:
G. If a quadratic expression isn’t easily factored, we can still ind its roots with the quadratic
formula: If ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a ≠ 0, the roots are
These roots are two distinct real numbers unless b2 − 4ac ≤ 0.
If b2 − 4ac = 0, the two root expressions both equal , so the equation has only one root.
If b2 − 4ac < 0, then is not a real number, so the equation has no real root.
4. Inequalities
A. An inequality is a statement with one of these symbols:
≠ is not equal to
> is greater than
≥ is greater than or equal to
< is less than
≤ is less than or equal to
Example:
5x − 3 < 9 and 6x ≥ y
B. Solve a linear inequality with one unknown the same way you solve a linear equation: isolate
the unknown on one side. As in an equation, the same number can be added to or subtracted
from both sides of the inequality. And you can multiply or divide both sides by a positive
number without changing the order of the inequality. However, multiplying or dividing an
inequality by a negative number reverses the order of the inequality. Thus, 6 > 2, but (−1)(6) <
(−1)(2).
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Example (1): Example (2):
To solve the inequality 3x − 2 > 5 for To solve the inequality < 3 for x,
x, isolate x:
isolate x:
5. Functions
A. An algebraic expression in one variable can de ine a function of that variable. A function is
written as a letter like f or g along with the variable in the expression. Function notation is a
short way to express that a value is being substituted for a variable.
Examples:
i. The expression x3 − 5x2 + 2 can de ine a function f written as f(x) = x3 − 5x2 + 2.
ii. The expression can de ine a function g written as .
In these examples, the symbols “f(x)” and “ ” don’t stand for products. Each is just a
symbol for a function, and is read “f of x” or “g of z.”
The substitution of 1 for x in the irst expression can be written as f(1) = −2. Then f(1) is
called the “value of f at x = 1.”
Likewise, in the second expression the value of g at z = 0 is g(0) = 7.
B. Once a function f(x) is de ined, think of x as an input and f(x) as the output. In any function,
any one input gives at most one output. But different inputs can give the same output.
Example:
If , then .
C. The set of all allowed inputs for a function is the function’s domain. In the examples in Section
3.2.5.A above, the domain of f is the set of all real numbers, and the domain of g is the set of
all numbers greater than −1.
Any function’s de inition can restrict the function’s domain. For example, the de inition “a(x) =
9x − 5 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 10” restricts the domain of a to real numbers greater than or equal to 0 but
less than or equal to 10. If the de inition has no restrictions, the domain is the set of all values
of x that each give a real output when input into the function.
D. The set of a function’s outputs is the function’s range.
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Examples:
i. For the function in the example in Section 3.2.5.B above, the range is
the set of all numbers greater than or equal to 0.
ii. For the function a(x) = 9x − 5 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 10 de ined in Section 3.2.5.C above, the
range is the set of all real numbers y such that −5 ≤ y ≤ 85.
6. Graphing
A. The igure below shows the rectangular coordinate plane. The horizontal line is the x-axis
and the vertical line is the y-axis. These two axes intersect at the origin, called O. The axes
divide the plane into four quadrants, I, II, III, and IV, as shown.
The Coordinate Plane
B. Any ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers de ines a point in the coordinate plane. The point’s x-
coordinate is the irst number in this pair. It shows how far the point is to the right or left of
the y-axis. If the x-coordinate is positive, the point is to the right of the y-axis. If it’s negative,
the point is to the left of the y-axis. If it’s 0, the point is on the axis. The point’s y-coordinate is
the second number in the ordered pair. It shows how far the point is above or below the x-
axis. If the y-coordinate is positive, the point is above the x-axis. If it’s negative, the point is
below the x-axis. If it’s 0, the point is on the axis.
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Example:
In the graph below, the (x, y) coordinates of point P are (2, 3). P is 2 units to the right of
the y-axis, so x = 2. Since P is 3 units above the x-axis, y = 3.
Likewise, the (x, y) coordinates of point Q are (−4, −3). The origin O has coordinates (0,
0).
C. The coordinates of the points on a straight line in the coordinate plane satisfy a linear
equation of the form y = mx + b (or the form x = a if the line is vertical).
In the equation y = mx + b, the coef icient m is the line’s slope, and the constant b is the line’s
y-intercept.
The y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where the line intersects the y-axis. Likewise,
the x-intercept is the x-coordinate of the point where the line intersects the x-axis.
For any two points on the line, the line’s slope is the ratio of the difference in their y-
coordinates to the difference in their x-coordinates. To ind the slope, subtract one point’s y-
coordinate from the others. Then subtract the former point’s x-coordinate from the latter’s—
not the other way around! Then divide the irst difference by the second.
If a line’s slope is negative, the line slants down from left to right.
If the slope is positive, the line slants up.
If the slope is 0, the line is horizontal. A horizontal line’s equation has the form y = b, since m
= 0.
A vertical line’s slope is unde ined.
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Example:
In the graph below, each point on the line satis ies the equation . To check
this for the points (−2, 2), (2, 0), and (0, 1), substitute each point’s coordinates for x and y
in the equation.
You can use the points (−2, 2) and (2, 0) to ind the line’s slope:
The y-intercept is 1. That’s y’s value when x is 0 in .
To ind the x-intercept, set y to 0 in the same equation:
Thus, the x-intercept is 2.
D. You can use the de inition of slope to ind the equation of a line through two points (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) with x1 ≠ x2. The slope is . Given the known point (x1, y1) and the
slope m, any other point (x, y) on the line satis ies the equation , or equivalently
(y – y1) = m(x – x1). Using (x2, y2) instead of (x1, y1) as the known point gives an equivalent
equation.
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Example:
The graph below shows points (−2, 4) and (3, −3).
The line’s slope is . To ind an equation of this line, let’s use the point (3,
−3):
So, the y-intercept is .
Find the x-intercept like this:
The graph shows both these intercepts.
E.I f two linear equations with unknowns x and y have a unique solution, their graphs are two
lines intersecting at the point that is the solution.
If two linear equations are equivalent, they both stand for the same line and have in initely
many solutions.
Two linear equations with no solution stand for two parallel lines.
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F. Graph any function f(x) in the coordinate plane by equating y with the function’s value: y =
f(x). For any x in the function’s domain, the point (x, f(x)) is on the function’s graph. For every
point on the graph, the y-coordinate is the function’s value at the x-coordinate.
Example:
Consider the function
If f(x) is equated with the variable y, the function’s graph is the graph of in
the example above.
G. For any function f, the x-intercepts are the solutions of the equation f(x) = 0. The y-intercept is
the value f(0).
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Example:
To see how a quadratic function f(x)= x2 − 1 relates to its graph, let’s plot some points (x,
f(x)) in the coordinate plane:
The graph below shows all the points for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2:
The roots of this equation f(x) = x2 − 1 = 0 are x = 1 and x = −1. They match the x-
intercepts, since x-intercepts are found by setting y = 0 and solving for x.
The y-intercept is f(0) = −1, because that’s the value of y for x = 0.
7. Formulas and Measurement Conversion
A. A formula is an algebraic equation whose variables have speci ic meanings. To use a formula,
assign quantities to its variables to match these meanings.
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Example:
In the physics formula F = ma, the variable F stands for force, the variable m stands for
mass, and the variable a stands for acceleration. The standard metric unit of force, the
newton, is just enough force to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram by 1 meter/second2.
So, if we know a rock with a mass of 2 kilograms is accelerating at 5 meters/second2, we
can use the formula F = ma by setting the variable m to 2 kilograms, and the variable a to
5 meters/second2. Then we ind that 10 newtons of force F are pushing the rock.
Note: You don’t need to learn physics formulas or terms like this for the GMAT, but some
speci ic GMAT questions may give you the formulas and terms you need to solve them.
B. Any quantitative relationship between units of measure can be written as a formula.
Examples:
i. Since 1 kilometer is 1,000 meters, the formula m = 1000k can stand for the
relationship between kilometers (k) and meters (m).
ii. The formula can stand for the relationship between temperature
measurements in degrees Celsius (C) and degrees Fahrenheit (F).
C. Except for units of time, a GMAT question that requires converting one unit of measure to
another will give the relationship between those units.
Example:
A train travels at a constant 25 meters per second. How many kilometers does it travel in
5 minutes? (1 kilometer = 1,000 meters)
Solution: In 1 minute the train travels (25)(60) = 1,500 meters, so in 5 minutes it travels
7,500 meters. Since 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters, we ind 7,500 meters = 7.5 kilometers.
3.3 Rates, Ratios, and Percents
1. Ratio and Proportion
A. The ratio of a number x to a nonzero number y may be written as x:y, or , or x to y. The
order of a ratio’s terms is important. Unless the absolute values of x and y are equal,
Examples:
The ratio of 2 to 3 may be written as 2:3, or , or 2 to 3.
The ratio of the number of months with exactly 30 days to the number of months with
exactly 31 days is 4:7, not 7:4.
B.A proportion is an equation between two ratios.
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