PHARMACOGNOSY (PHARM-415)

[Link] KANWAL
GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
INTRODUCTION

 Pharmacognosy, known initially as Materia Medica, may be defined as the study of crude
drugs obtained from plants, animals and mineral kingdom and their constituents.
 The word pharmacognosy is derived from two Latin words pharmakon a drug and
gignoso to gain knowledge. Thus, pharmacognosy is the scientific study of drugs
obtained from natural sources.
 Crude drugs are natural substances obtained from plants, animals, or minerals. After
collection, they are usually only dried, sliced, or peeled (no chemical processing). Most
crude drugs come from plants; very few come from animals or minerals.
 Crude drug can also be obtained through basic physical procedures such as drying or
aqueous extraction without any chemical process.
 Substances naturally secreted by plants, including gums, resins and baisams, along with
volatile oils and fixed oil are also regarded as crude drugs

ORAGANIZED DRUG: are crude drugs obtained directly from different parts of plants such as
leaves, roots, bark, and seeds, and they contain cellular tissues. These drugs have a definite
plant structure because they are true parts of the plant.

UNORGANIZED DRUG: are not direct parts of plants. Although they come from plants, they are
prepared through simple physical processes like incision, drying, or extraction with water and do
not contain any cellular tissue. Examples of unorganized drugs include aloe, opium, catechu,
gums, resins, and other plant exudates.

HISTOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY

 Ancient period: The use of medicinal plants dates back to ancient civilizations such
as Egyptian, Chinese, Indian, Greek, and Roman systems. Texts like Charaka Samhita,
Sushruta Samhita, and De Materia Medica describe medicinal plants and their uses.
 Medieval period: Arab scholars contributed significantly by preserving and
expanding knowledge of medicinal plants. Unani medicine developed during this
time.
 Modern period: With the development of chemistry and pharmacology in the 18th–
19th centuries, active constituents such as alkaloids, glycosides, and tannins were
isolated from plants. Pharmacognosy became a scientific discipline integrated with
modern drug discovery and quality control.
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY: Its scope is broad and includes the following areas:

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 Identification and Authentication of Drugs

o Study of morphological, microscopic, physical, chemical, and biological

characters to ensure correct identification and to detect adulteration or
substitution.

 Cultivation, Collection, and Processing

o Selection of suitable plant varieties, cultivation methods, harvesting, drying,

storage, and preservation of medicinal plants to maintain quality and potency.

 Phytochemical Studies

o Isolation, purification, identification, and estimation of active constituents such

as alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, resins, volatile oils, and flavonoids.

 Quality Control and Standardization

o Evaluation of crude drugs and herbal formulations using pharmacopoeial

standards, chromatographic techniques and modern analytical methods.

 Pharmacological and Biological Activities

o Study of therapeutic effects, bioassays, toxicity, and safety evaluation of natural
drugs.
 Development of Herbal Medicines
o Formulation, evaluation, and commercialization of herbal drugs, nutraceuticals,
and traditional medicines.
 Ethnopharmacology and Traditional Medicine
o Study of medicinal plants used in traditional systems such as Ayurvedic, Unani,
Siddha, and Homeopathic systems.
 Biotechnology and Natural Product
o Research Use of tissue culture, genetic engineering, and microbial techniques for
the production of secondary metabolites.

HISTORY OF PHARMACOGNOSY(assignment)

1. ANCIENT CHINA:
 Chinese pharmacy stems from Shen Nung (about 2700 B.C.)
 Pen T-Sao (Native Herbal) recording 365 drugs
 Drugs subdivided into 120 emperor herbs, 120 minister herbs, 125 servant herbs
  Herbs still recognized in pharmacy: podophyllum, rhubarb, gin seng, stramonium,
cinnamon bark, ephedra Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty (1766–1122 B.C.)
recording illness, medicines and medical treatment
 Li Shi Zhen (1518–1593): Pen T’sao Kan Mu
o 1892 drugs, 376 described for the first time
o 1160 drawings, more than 11,000 prescriptions
2. ANCIENT INDIA
 Medicinal properties described in Rigveda and Atharvaveda (3500–1500 B.C.)
 Development of Ayurveda
o Major texts:
 a. Charaka Samhita
 b. Susruta Samhita
 c. Astanga Hrdayam Samhita
o Minor texts:
 a. Sarngadhara Samhita
 b. Bhava Prakasa Samhita
 c. Madhava Nidanam Samhita
 Charaka Samhita dated six to seven centuries before Christ
 Medicines from plants and animals: ricinus, pepper, lilly, valerian
3. ANCIENT EGYPT
 Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C.): 800 prescriptions, 700 drugs
 Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 B.C.): surgical instructions and formulas for cosmetics
 Kahun Medical Papyrus (1900 B.C.): health of women and birthing instructions
 Commonly used herbs: senna, honey, thyme, juniper, cumin
 Other drugs: pomegranate root, henbane, flax, oakgall, pine tar, aloe, garlic,
poppy-plant
 Use of myrrh, turpentine and acacia gum
4. ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME
 Hippocrates (460–370 B.C.): father of medicine, famous oath
 Aristotle (384–322 B.C.): writings on animal kingdom
 Theophrastus (370–287 B.C.): writings on plant kingdom
 Dioscorides (1st century A.D.): medicinal plants (belladonna, ergot, opium,
colchicum)
 Pliny: 37 volumes of natural history
 Galen (131–A.D. 200): methods of preparation of drugs (galenicals)
 Emergence of materia medica
 Development of modern pharmacognosy (1934–1960) using organic chemistry,
biochemistry, pharmacology and analytic chemistry
IMPORTANCE OF MEDICINAL HERBS IN MODERN PHARMACY

Medicinal herbs play a vital role in modern pharmacy and medicine due to their therapeutic
value, safety profile, and contribution to drug discovery.

Key Contributions to Drug Discovery

 Many widely used pharmaceutical drugs are derived from medicinal plants or their
active constituents, such as morphine (Papaver somniferum), quinine (Cinchona), digoxin
(Digitalis), atropine (Atropa belladonna), and paclitaxel (Taxus species).
 Medicinal herbs serve as a natural reservoir of bioactive compounds.
 Phytochemicals like alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids, and tannins provide
lead molecules for the development of new synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs.

Therapeutic Benefits and Safety

 Herbal medicines are generally considered safer and produce fewer side effects when
used properly, making them suitable for long-term management of chronic diseases
such as diabetes, arthritis, and liver disorders.
 Many medicinal herbs possess antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and adaptogenic
properties.
 These help in disease prevention and health promotion rather than only treating
established diseases.

Integrative Medicine and Accessibility

 Medicinal herbs are widely used alongside conventional therapy in integrative medicine
to enhance therapeutic efficacy, reduce adverse effects, and improve patient
compliance.
 Herbal drugs are relatively inexpensive compared to synthetic medicines, making them
especially important in developing countries and for primary healthcare systems.

 Modern pharmacy applies scientific techniques such as standardization, quality control,

extraction, and formulation to ensure the safety, efficacy, and reproducibility of herbal
medicines.
 Medicinal herbs are increasingly used in managing chronic conditions like cardiovascular
diseases, metabolic disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases due to their
multi-target action.
  With proper cultivation and conservation, medicinal plants offer a renewable and eco-
friendly source of therapeutic agents.

WHAT IS PHARMACOPOEIA?

A pharmacopoeia (literally, "drug-making") in its modern technical sense, is a book containing

directions for the identification of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a
government or a medical or pharmaceutical society.

WHAT IS A MONOGRAPH?

 A monograph is a work of research or literature written about a single, specific subject.

 It is primarily written by experts in a particular field of study for others in that same field
of study. The language and information contained in a monograph is specialized.
 The establishing of a set of standards which together define the identity, purity and
potency of a particular medicine.

LIST OF VARIOUS HERBAL MONOGRAPHS AND PHARMACOPOEIA

 Chinese pharmacopoeia
 Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India
 British Herbal Pharmacopoeia
 Korean Herbal Pharmacopoeia
 American Herbal Pharmacopoeia
 Japanese Herbal Pharmacopoeia
 Hamdard pharmacopoeia of eastern medicine
 EMEA (European Medicines Agency) Monographs
 ESCOP (The European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy)

TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF MEDICINE

About 80 percent of the world population still rely and use the medicines of these traditional
systems.

Examples of traditional systems include:

 Traditional Chinese medicine in China

 Unani system in Greece
 Ayurvedic system in India
 Amachi in Tibet
 Homoeopathy (more recently) in Germany
The World Health Organization (WHO) is already taking much interest in indigenous systems of
medicine and coming forward to exploit the scientific validity of the medicines used since
traditions.

Traditional systems of medicine are ancient healthcare practices that rely largely on medicinal
plants for the prevention and treatment of diseases.

 Unani  Ayurvedic

 Homeopathic

UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE

 Unani system of medicine is originated in Greece by the Greek philosopher, physician

Hippocrates (460–377 B.C.), who freed medicine from the realm of superstition and
magic, and gave it the status of science.

 Unani medicine is based on the Greece philosophy. According to Basic Principles of

Unani, the body is made up of the four basic elements, i.e. Earth, Air, Water and Fire,
which have different Temperaments, i.e cold, hot, wet and dry.

DIAGNOSIS

Diseases are mainly diagnosed with the help of pulse (nabz), physical examination of the urine
and stool. Also, patients are examined systematically to make the diagnosis easy as spot
diagnosis with the help of simple, modern gadgets.

TREATMENT

Diseases are treated in the following ways:

1. Ilajbil Tadbeer (Regimental Therapy): Some drugless regimens are advised for the
treatment of certain ailments, i.e. exercise, massage, hamam (Turkish bath), Douches
(Cold and Hot) and the Regimen for Geriatrics.

2. Ilajbil Ghiza (Dietotherapy): Different diets are recommended for the patients of
different diseases.

3. Ilajbil Dava (Pharmaco therapy): The basic concept of treatment is to correct the cause
of the disease that may be abnormal treatment due to:

o Environmental factors

o Abnormal humours either due to internal causes or external causes which may
be pathogenic microorganism, through:
  (a) drugs of opposite temperament to the temperament of the disease
that is called Ilaj-bil-zid

 (b) drugs of similar temperament as of the temperament of the disease

that is called as Ilaj-bil-misl

4. Ilajbil Yad (Surgery): The drugs used are mostly of the plant origin. Some drugs of animal
and mineral origin are also used. Patients are treated either by single drug (crude drugs)
or by compound drugs (formulations of single drugs).

AYURVEDA SYSTEM OF MEDICINE

According to ancient Indian philosophy, the universe is composed of five basic elements or
pancha bhutas:

 prithvi (earth)
 jal (water)
 teja (fire)
 vayu (air)
 akash (space)

Ayurveda has eight division

1. Medicine 5. Psychiatry medicine

2. Ent and optha. 6. Pediatrics
3. Surgery 7. Rejuvenates
4. Toxicology 8. aphrodisiac

Basic Principles Involved:

The development of the Ayurvedic medicine system is based on five pharmacological principles
of drugs, known as Panchsheel:

1. Rasa: Denotes the drug's taste (i.e., Dravya), action, and properties.
2. Guna: Denotes the drug's physical properties.
3. Virya: Denotes the drug's potency and shows two intrinsic properties.
4. Vipaka: Denotes the end product of digestion.
5. Prabhava: Denotes the drug's power.

DIAGNOSIS

The classical clinical examination in Ayurveda is called ashta sthana pariksha (eight-point
diagnosis). It includes an assessment of the state of the doshas as well as various physical signs.
The eight-point diagnoses are:

 Pulse diagnosis  Mucous and mucoid secretions

 Urine examination assessment
 Nervous system assessment  Stool examination
 Assessment of digestive fire and  Tongue examination
metabolic secretions  Examination of body sound

THE THREE STAGES OF TREATMENT:

 Ayurvedic therapy often begins with shodhana (cleansing) in which toxins,

emotional or physical, are eliminated or neutralized.
 Once shodhana is completed, shamana (palliative treatment) is used to reduce the
intensity of a disease and balance the disordered doshas.
 Finally, rasayana (rejuvenation therapy) is used to maintain health and reduce the
negative effects of disease.
 In Ayurveda, vegetable, animal, mineral substances or metals could be used for their
healing effects. The metals mentioned as drug were gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and
iron. Along with these substances elements from the earth, like arsenic, antimony,
sand and lime, were also used.

HOMEOPATHIC SYSTEM OF MEDICINE:

 Homeopathy is a system of alternative medicine based on the principle of "Similia

similibus curentur" meaning "Like cures like". It was developed by Dr. Samuel
Hahnemann in the late 18th century.
 "Homois" means like (similar) and "pathos" means treatment.
 Thus, Homeopathy is a system of treating diseases or suffering by administration of
drugs that possess power of producing similar suffering (disease) in healthy human
beings.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF HOMOEOPATHY

These fundamental principles were discussed by Hahnemann in different sections of his
medicine and philosophy. They are as follows:

1. Law of similia
The therapeutic law on which homoeopathy is based is Simillia Similibus Curentur, which means
‘Let likes be cured by likes’. In this art of healing, the medicine administered to a diseased
individual is such that if given to a healthy person it produces same sufferings (diseases) as
found in the diseases individual.

2. Law of Simplex.
Simple and single drugs should be prescribed at a time. Thus, medicines are proved on healthy
human beings singly and in simple form without admixture of any other substance.

3. Law of minimum.
Drugs are administered in a minimum quantity because of hypersensitivity in disease and the
action of drug is always directed towards normal by virtue of altered receptivity of tissue to
stimuli in disease. The medicines are just required to arouse a reaction in the body. If they are
given in large doses, they cause physiological action producing unwanted side effects and
organic damage.
The curative action of drug can only be expected without any unwanted aggravation by using
minimum quantity of medicine.

4. Drug proving.
To apply drugs for therapeutic purposes, their curative power should be known. The curative
power of a drug is its ability to produce disease symptoms when employed on a healthy person.
This serves the only true record of the curative properties of drug.

5. Drug dynamization or potentization.

Disease is a disturbance or deviation in the normal harmonious flow of life force which is
dynamic in nature.
Now medicine used to encounter disease should also have dynamic action to act on the
dynamic disturbance of life force.
Therefore, the drugs are dynamized or potentized liberating their dynamic curative power
which lies dormant in them.
This dynamization is done by the process of Trituration (in case of insoluble substances) or
Succession (in case of soluble substances).

6. Vital force.
Disease is nothing but the disharmonious flow of the vital force giving rise to abnormal
sensation and functions (symptoms and signs).
In order to restore the health, the disordered vital force is to be brought back to normal.
Disease and health are two different quantitative states of this vital force of living being, and
cure is to be affected here.
Vital force has the following characteristics: spiritual, autocratic, automatic, dynamic,
unintelligent and instinctive.
 7. Acute and Chronic Diseases.
The diseases are classified into these types depending upon their onset, nature of progress and
termination of diseases.

8. Individualization.
No two individuals are alike in the world, so the diseases affecting individuals can never be the
same assuming the unique individual picture in each diseased individual.
Thus, medicines can never be prescribed on the basis of the name of the disease without
individualizing each case of disease.

DIFFERENCES:
 Philosophical Basis:
Unani focuses on humors, Ayurveda on doshas, and Homeopathy on vital energy and "like cure
like."

 Treatment Methods:
Unani uses a range of therapies (herbs, diet, cupping). Ayurveda uses holistic lifestyle practices,
herbs, and detox, while Homeopathy uses extremely diluted substances based on individual
symptoms.

 Cultural Context:
Unani has Islamic and Greek roots, Ayurveda is deeply connected to Indian culture and
spirituality, and Homeopathy is European in origin.

:AROMATHERAPY

 The word aromatherapy means treatment using scents.

 It refers to the use of essential oils in Holistic healing to improve health and emotional
well-being, and in restoring balance to the body.
 Essential oils get absorbed into our body and exert an influence on it. The residue gets
dispersed from the body naturally. They can also affect our mind and emotions. They
enter the body in three ways: by inhalation, absorption and consumption.
 Chemically, essential oils are a mixture of organic compounds like ketones, terpenes,
esters, alcohol, aldehyde and hundreds of other molecules which are extremely difficult
to classify, as they are small and complex.
 A concentrate of essential oils is not greasy; it is more like water in texture and
evaporates quickly.
 Some of them are light liquid insoluble in water and evaporate instantly when exposed
to air.
 It would take 100 kg of lavender to get 3 kg of lavender oil; one would need 8 million
jasmine flowers to yield barely 1 kg of jasmine oil.
  Essential oils used in aromatherapy for their versatile application are:
1. Clary Sage (Salvia scared)
2. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)
3. Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens)
4. Lavender (Lavendula limon officinalis)
5. Lemon (Citrus limon)
6. Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
7. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

ORIGIN OF AROMATHERAPY

 The title Aromatherapy was coined by Gattefosse, a French chemist in the year 1928.
 He identified the use of aromatic oils accidentally, when he burned his hand while
working in his lab, and immediately he pooled his hand inside a bottle containing
lavender oil.
 The burn healed quickly due to lavender oil and left little scarring.
 The use of aroma oil is known to be as old as 6,000 years back, when the God of
Medicine and Healing, recommended fragrant oils for bathing and massaging.
 In 4,500 B.C., Egyptians used myrrh and cedar wood oils for embalming their dead and
the modern researchers after 6,500 years proved the fact that the cedar wood contains
natural fixative and strong antibacterial and antiseptic properties that preserved their
mummies.

MODE OF ACTION OF AROMA OILS

 The aroma enters our nose and connects with cilia, the fine hair inside the nose lining.
 The receptors in the cilia are linked to the olfactory lobe which is at the end of the smell
tract. The end of the tract is in turn connected to the brain itself.
 Smells are converted by cilia into electrical impulses that are transmitted to the brain
through olfactory system.