UNIT–1 : SEMICONDUCTOR FABRICATION
( Detailed Notes – Simple Language )
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DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process in which dopant atoms move from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration inside silicon due to high temperature.
Pure silicon cannot be used directly to make electronic devices, so impurities like boron or
phosphorus are added. This addition of impurities using heat is called diffusion.
During diffusion, a silicon wafer is placed inside a furnace at very high temperature (900–1100°C).
Dopant atoms gain energy and slowly enter the silicon crystal without any external force.
Example: When perfume is sprayed in a room, the smell spreads everywhere without using a fan.
This spreading is diffusion.
Diffusion is mainly used to form p-type and n-type regions and to create p–n junctions in
semiconductor devices.
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
There are two main types of diffusion used in semiconductor fabrication.
1. Pre-deposition Diffusion:
In this step, dopant atoms are continuously supplied to the silicon surface. The surface
concentration becomes maximum. The main purpose of pre-deposition is to introduce dopant
atoms into silicon.
Example: Adding salt continuously into water until it becomes very salty.
2. Drive-in Diffusion:
In this step, no new dopants are supplied. Already introduced dopant atoms move deeper into
silicon due to high temperature. This step controls the junction depth.
Example: Stirring salty water so salt spreads deeper.
Pre-deposition controls concentration, while drive-in diffusion controls depth.
FICK’S FIRST LAW OF DIFFUSION
Fick’s First Law explains the movement of dopant atoms during diffusion under steady-state
condition.
J = -D (dC/dx)
Where:
J = Dopant flux
D = Diffusion coefficient
C = Dopant concentration
x = Distance inside silicon
The minus sign indicates that atoms move from high concentration to low concentration.
Example: A ball rolls faster on a steep slope compared to a flat surface.
This law is valid when concentration does not change with time.
FICK’S SECOND LAW OF DIFFUSION
Fick’s Second Law explains how dopant concentration changes with time and distance.
∂C/∂t = D ∂²C/∂x²
This law is used in non-steady-state diffusion, where concentration changes with time.
Example: Tea spreading in hot water over time.
This law is used to calculate dopant profiles and junction depth.
JUNCTION DEPTH
Junction depth is the distance from the silicon surface to the point where p-type and n-type dopant
concentrations are equal.
Junction depth is very important because it affects device speed and size.
Junction depth is controlled by:
- Temperature
- Diffusion time
- Dopant concentration
- Implantation energy (in ion implantation)
Example: Digging deeper into soil by applying more force and time.
ION IMPLANTATION
Ion implantation is a process in which dopant atoms are forced into silicon using high energy
electric fields.
Dopant atoms are converted into ions and accelerated towards the silicon wafer. The ions enter
silicon and stop at a certain depth depending on energy.
Example: Throwing stones into sand.
Advantages:
- Accurate control
- Shallow junctions
- Low temperature process
Disadvantage:
- Causes crystal damage
STOPPING MECHANISMS
When ions enter silicon, they lose energy due to stopping mechanisms.
1. Nuclear stopping:
Energy loss due to collision with silicon atoms.
Causes crystal damage.
2. Electronic stopping:
Energy loss due to interaction with electrons.
Less damage compared to nuclear stopping.
Both together decide ion depth.
GAUSSIAN IMPLANTATION PROFILE
Implanted ions do not stop at the same depth. Their distribution follows a Gaussian (bell-shaped)
curve.
Projected range (Rp): Average depth of ions.
Straggle (∆Rp): Spread of ions around Rp.
Example: Stones falling mostly near the center of a pond.
IMPLANTATION DAMAGE AND ANNEALING
High-energy ions damage silicon crystal structure during implantation.
Annealing is a heat treatment used to:
- Repair crystal damage
- Activate dopant atoms
- Restore electrical properties
Types:
- Furnace annealing
- Rapid Thermal Annealing (RTA)
Example: Heating bent metal to straighten it.
OXIDATION TECHNOLOGIES
Oxidation is the process of growing silicon dioxide (SiO■) on silicon.
1. Thermal oxidation:
Uses high temperature and oxygen or steam.
Dry oxidation gives thin oxide.
Wet oxidation gives thick oxide.
2. Plasma oxidation:
Lower temperature and faster.
3. Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP):
Very fast heating for a few seconds.
CHARACTERIZATION OF OXIDE FILMS
Oxide film properties are measured to ensure quality.
Low-k dielectric (SiO■):
Higher leakage current.
High-k dielectric:
Lower leakage, thicker oxide possible.
Example: Thick sweater gives better insulation.
LITHOGRAPHY
Lithography is the process of transferring patterns from a mask to silicon wafer.
Steps:
1. Wafer cleaning
2. Oxide growth
3. Photoresist coating
4. Soft baking
5. Mask alignment
6. UV exposure
7. Development
8. Etching
9. Photoresist removal
Example: Printing a design using a stencil.
MINIMUM FEATURE SIZE AND E-BEAM LITHOGRAPHY
Minimum feature size is the smallest pattern that can be printed.
R = kλ / NA
Smaller wavelength gives better resolution.
E-beam lithography uses electron beam instead of light.
It gives very high resolution but is slow and expensive.
Example: Drawing with a needle instead of a pen.