Module 2

Vectors and Matrices

Prof. Riccardo De Blasis

Marche Polytechnic University
Vectors
Vectors

n-component vector:

• ordered n-tuple of real numbers: a = (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ Rn

• null vector: 0 = (0, . . . , 0) ∈ Rn
| {z }
n times
• equality between two vectors of Rn :

a = (a1 , . . . , an ) and b = (b1 , . . . , bn )

a = b ⇔ a1 = b1 ∧ a2 = b2 ∧ · · · ∧ an = bn

1
Operations

• Sum (difference):

a ± b = (a1 ± b1 , . . . , an ± bn )
a − a = 0 = (0, . . . , 0)

• Scalar multiplication:

a = (a1 , . . . , an ) and λ ∈ R
⇒ λ · a = (λ · a1 , . . . , λ · an )

2
Operations

• Linear combination:

Given p vectors x1 , . . . , xp ∈ Rn and p scalars k1 , . . . , kp ∈ R

→ New vector of n components:

p
x = k1 · x1 + · · · + kp · xp = ki xi
X

i=1

3
Operations

• Linear combination general formula:

a1 = (a11 , . . . , a1n )



 a = (a , . . . , a )

2 21 2n
b = (b1 , . . . , bn )

 ...
ap = (ap1 , . . . , apn )



b1 = k1 · a11 + · · · + kp · ap1


p

 b = k · a + ··· + k · a

2 1 12 p p2
⇔ bi = kj · aji (i = 1, . . . , n)
X

 · · · j=1
bn = k1 · a1n + · · · + kp · apn


4
Examples

Opposite (negative) vector

−a = (−1) · a = (−a1 , . . . , −an )

Linear combinations of vectors

a = (2, 3) b = (4, −1)

2 · a + 3 · b = (4, 6) + (12, −3) = (16, 3)

5
Dot product or inner product

Given two vectors x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) , y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn

n
⇒ x · y = x1 y1 + · · · + xn yn = xi y i ∈ R
X

i=1

NOTE
If the product of two vectors is zero ; at least one factor is
zero
COUNTEREXAMPLE

x = (1, 1), y = (1, −1) ⇒ x · y = 1 − 1 = 0 6

Length of a vector (Norm)

v
u n
√
kxk = x · x = t xi2
uX
(B)
i=1

7
Distance between two vectors

• For any x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn ,

the distance between x and y is defined as the
non-negative real number

v
u n
d(x, y) = kx − yk = t (xi − yi )2
uX

i=1

8
Linear dependence

Vectors x1 , . . . , xp ∈ Rn are linearly dependent if at least one of

them is a linear combination of the others

p−1
xp = ki xi
X

i=1
p−1 p
ki xi − xp = 0 ⇒ ki xi = 0, with kp = −1
X X
⇒
i=1 i=1
⇒ k1 · x1 + · · · + kp · xp = 0
with at least one ki 6= 0 (kp = −1) 9
Linear dependence
Example
• Is vector (6, 2, 3) dependent on {(1, 2, 3), (2, −1, 4)} ?
• The following relation should hold:
(6, 2, 3) = α · (1, 2, 3) + β · (2, −1, 4)
 2α − β = 2 → α = 2


⇔ α + 2β = 6 → β = 2
 3α + 4β = 3 → not possible


The system has no solutions ⇒ the vector (6, 2, 3) is not a

linear combination of the others. 10
Linear independence

Vectors x1 , . . . , xp ∈ Rn are linearly independent if:

p
ki xi = 0
X

i=1
⇒ k1 · x1 + · · · + kp · xp = 0 ⇔ k1 = . . . = kp = 0

(the only representation of 0 as a linear combination of the

vectors x1 , . . . , xp is the trivial representation in which all the
scalars ki are zero)
Alternatively: no vector xi can be represented as a linear 11
Unit vectors Rn

• set of vectors, each of whose components are all zero,

except one that equals 1 (vector length = 1 )

e1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
e2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
e3 = (0, 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
...
en = (0, . . . , 0, 1)

Unit vectors are linearly independent 12

Vector space

n-dimension vector space Sn :

→ set of all n-component vectors
(with addition and scalar multiplication operations)

• A vector space is characterized by its dimension (in this

case, the number of components of its elements) and a
base.

⇒ Rn with addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space

13
Basis of a vector space

• In the vector space Sn , it is always possible to find n

linearly independent vectors (MAX number)
• These vectors represent a BASIS of the vector space (they
generate all vectors of vector space by linear
combinations)
• A basis is not unique, but it has always n components
(Vector space dimensions)
• RANK of a set of vectors: maximum number of linearly
independent vectors that we can extract from this set.
14
Canonical basis (Standard basis)

Unit vectors e1 , e2 , . . . , en are a canonical basis of Rn

They are a privileged basis since the coordinates of the
generic vector v = (v1 , . . . , vn ) ∈ Rn with respect to this basis
are exactly

v1 , . . . , vn
v = (v1 , . . . , vn ) = v1 · (1, 0, . . . , 0) + · · · + vn · (0, . . . , 0, 1)

15
Examples
2 dimesions

(4, −2) = (4, 0) + (0, −2) = 4 · (1, 0) − 2 · (0, 1)

Basis: {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

3 dimesions
(4, −2, 5) = (4, 0, 0) + (0, −2, 0) + (0, 0, 5) =
4 · (1, 0, 0) − 2 · (0, 1, 0) − 5 · (0, 0, 1)
Basis: {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
16
Matrices
Matrices

• A matrix n × m is a table of numbers with n rows and m

columns
a11 a12 · · · a1m
 
 a a ··· a 
 21 22 2m 
 .. .
.. . .. .. 
 . . 
an1 an2 · · · anm

• aij is a generic elements identified by two indexes (i, j).

• square matrix: n = m
• Rectangular matrix: n 6= m
17
Matrix examples
Square matrix

n=m=3⇒ matrix 3 × 3
1 2 1
 

A=7 9 2
 
0 1 3
1
Main diagonal 9
3
18
Matrix examples

Rectangular matrix
n = 2, m = 3 ⇒ matrix 2 × 3
1 −1 0
!
A=
3 −1 2

19
Particular matrices

• Null matrix (zero matrix): all zero elements

• Identity matrix: a diagonal matrix with all its diagonal
elements equal to 1 , and zero everywhere else

1 0 0
 

I =0 1 0
 
0 0 1

20
Operations

• Sum of two matrices with same sizes:

C = A + B → cij = aij + bij

Example
1 4 5 2 −2 0 3 2 5
! ! !
+ =
−2 0 3 3 −1 −3 1 −1 0

21
Operations

• Scalar multiplication:

λ · A = B → bij = λ · aij

Example
2 1 −3 4 2 −6
! !
2· =
0 4 5 0 8 10

22
Operations

• Transposition (by turning rows into columns):

AT = B → bij = aji

Example
1 4
 
1 2 3
!
T
A= →A =2 5
 
4 5 6
3 6

23
Operations

• Symmetric square matrix if AT = A :

A = (aij ) with i = 1, . . . , n; j = 1, . . . , n
aij = aji ∀i, j (i 6= j)

Example
1 2 1 1 2 1
   

A =  2 7 3 , AT =  2 7 3 
   
1 3 9 1 3 9

24
Operations

• Linear combination of matrices (same sizes):

C = λ · A + µ · B → cij = λ · aij + µ · bij

Example
1 4 5 2 −2 0
! !
2· −3· =
−2 0 3 3 −1 −3

2 8 10 6 −6 0 −4 14 10
! ! !
− =
−4 0 6 9 −3 −9 −13 3 15
25
Operations

• The set of matrices n × m forms a vector space of

dimension n · m.
Example
5 −2 1 0 0 1
! ! !
=5· −2· +
7 3 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
! !
+7 · +3·
1 0 0 1

26
Matrix Multiplication

Multiplication of two matrices is defined if and only if the

number of columns of the left matrix is the same as the
number of rows of the right matrix (CONFORMABLE matrices)
A(m × n) · B(n × p) = C (m × p)

where:
C = [cij ] , cij = a i,∗ · b∗,j = ai,1 · b1,j + ai,2 · b2,j + · · · + an,1 · bn,j
Entries cij are given by dot product of the corresponding row i
of A and the corresponding column j of B.
27
Matrix multiplication
Example

1 0 1
 
1 0 0
!
A= ,B =  0 2 0 
 
2 1 0
1 3 0
A(2 × 3) · B(3 × 3) = C (2 × 3)
1+0+0 0+0+0 1+0+0 1 0 1
! !
C= =
2+0+0 0+2+0 2+0+0 2 2 2

28
Matrix multiplication
NOTE
• Generally, if A and B are conformable, B and A are not
conformable (thus, A · B is possible, but not B · A)
• If A e B are squared with same sizes, then A · B and B · A
are possible but with different result
(matrix multiplication is not commutative)
• A · B = 0 (null matrix) does not imply that A or B are null

1 0 0 0 0 0
! ! !
A= ,B = ,A · B = =0
1 0 0 1 0 0
29
Determinant

• The determinant of a square matrix is a real number.

a11 . . . a1n a11 . . . a1n
 
 .. . . .
..  ⇒ det A = |A| = .. . . . ..
A= . . . .

an1 . . . ann an1 . . . ann

Example 2 × 2
1 2
!
A=
9 3
det A = 1 · 3 − 2 · 9 = −15
30
Determinant

• 3 × 3 Matrix (Rule of Sarrus)

a11 a12 a13
 

A =  a21 a22 a23 

 
a31 a31 a33
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
det A = |A| = a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 =
a31 a31 a33 a31 a31
= a11 · a22 · a33 + a12 · a23 · a31 + a13 · a21 · a32
−a31 · a22 · a13 − a32 · a23 · a11 − a33 · a21 · a12 31
Determinant

Example
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
1 0 1 = 1 0 1 1 0 =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

=1·0·2+2·1·2+3·1·2−2·0·3−2·1·1−2·1·2=4

32
Minor

• Let A be an m × n matrix and k an integer with

k ≤ min(m, n).
• A k × k minor of A is the determinant of a k × k submatrix
obtained from A by deleting m − k rows and n − k
columns.
• Also called minor determinant of order k of A.

33
Minor
Example
1 2 3
 

A=4 5 6
 
7 8 9
Some 2 × 2 minors:

1 2 4 6 2 3
= −3; = −6; = −3
4 5 7 9 5 6
1 3 1 3
= −12; = −6
7 9 4 6 34
Minor
Example
1 −1 0
!
A=
3 −1 2
Minors k = 2 :

1 −1 1 0 −1 0
= 2; = 2; = −2
3 −1 3 2 −1 2

Minors k = 1 :

|1| = 1; |0| = 0; | − 1| = −1 35
Cofactor

• Given an n × n matrix A, the cofactor associated to

element aij is defined as

Cij = (−1)i+j · Mij

where Mij is the minor obtained deleting the i-th row and j-th
column of aij (be careful, the cofactor sign depends on the
position of aij ).

36
Laplace expansion

• We can calculate the determinant of a matrix of order

greater than three using cofactors.
• Laplace expansion along the i-th row:
n
det A = aik · Cik
X

k=1

• Laplace expansion along the j-th column:

n
det A = akj · Ckj
X

k=1 37
Laplace expansion

Example

1 2 3
0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 = 1· −2· +3· = −2 − 0 + 6 = 4
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2

• This rule can be extended to higher order determinants.

38
Properties of determinants

• The determinant of a matrix is zero when:

• The matrix has a row or column of zeros.
• The matrix has two equal rows or columns.
• A row (column) is a linear combination of other rows (columns).
• The determinant does not change if we add a linear
combination of rows (columns) to a row (column).
• If the determinant is different from zero, rows (and
columns) are independent. The matrix is non-singular.

39
Properties of determinants

Example
1 4 5
2 5 7 =0
3 6 9

• The third column is the sum of the first two columns.

40
Rank

• The rank of a matrix A, rank(A) or rk(A) is the maximum

order of the non-zero minors that we can extract from the
matrix.
• Example: matrix of order three. The rank is three
(maximum possible rank) if the determinant of the matrix
is different from zero. Otherwise, the rank is at most
equal to two. The rank is two if we find at least one minor
of order two different from zero. If all minors of order two
are null, the rank will be equal to one (except in the
special case of the null matrix which has rank zero). 41
Rank
Example: verify if rk(A) = 3
1 0 −3
 

A =  −3 5 9 
 
2 22 −6
The only minor of order three is:

1 0 −3
1 0
−3 5 9 = 0 ⇒ rk(A) < 3, = 5 6= 0
−3 5
2 22 −6
42
⇒ rk(A) = 2
Rank

Example
1 2 3
!
C=
4 5 6
The maximum possible rank is 2

1 2
= −3 6= 0 ⇒ rk(C ) = 2
4 5

43
Rank
Example
1 4 3 2
 

A =  −2 1 0 −3 
 
−1 5 3 −1

• The maximum possible rank is 3.

• All minors of order three are zero, so rk(A) < 3 (the third
row is the sum of the first two).

1 4
= 9 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A) = 2
−2 1 44
Rank

Rule of thumb
• Consider the maximum possible rank rmax (equal to the
smallest of the number of rows and columns).
• If we find a non-zero minor of order rmax , the rank will be
rmax
• Otherwise, we consider a smaller order minor (one unit
smaller) and apply the same procedure until we find a
non-null minor.

45
Rank as function of a parameter

• When a matrix contains a real parameter k, we discuss the

rank of the matrix as a function of the parameter’s values.
Example
1 3 2
 

A =  −3 1 5 
 
−2 4 k

• If matrix A is non-singular ⇒ rk(A) = 3

46
Rank as function of a parameter

Example (cont’d)
• Compute the determinant:
1 3 2
−3 1 5 = 10k − 70 6= 0 ⇒ k 6= 7
−2 4 k

• If k 6= 7 ⇒ rk(A) = 3

47
Rank as function of a parameter
Example (cont’d)
• If k = 7
1 3 2
 

A =  −3 1 5  ⇒ det(A) = 0 ⇒ rk(A) < 3

 
−2 4 7

• There is a non-zero minor of order two, so the rank is two

1 3
= 10 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A) = 2
−3 1 48
Rank as function of a parameter
Example
1 3 −2
 

A =  −3 −9 k 
 
2 k −4

• If the matrix A is non-singular ⇒ rk(A) = 3

• Compute the determinant:
det A = −k 2 + 12k − 36 = −(k − 6)2 6= 0 ⇒ k 6= 6

49
Rank as function of a parameter
Example (cont’d)
• If k 6= 6 ⇒ rk(A) = 3
• If k =6
1 3 −2


A =  −3 −9 6  ⇒ det(A) = 0 ⇒ rk(A) < 3

 
2 6 −4
• Observe that all minors of order 2 are null (last two
columns are derived from the first). Therefore, the rank
cannot be equal to two.
• rk(A) = 1 50
Rank as function of a parameter

Example
4 1 2
!
A=
k 3 k

• The maximum possible rank of the 2 × 3 matrix A is 2.

• Examine all possible minors of order two

51
Rank as function of a parameter
Example (cont’d)
Minors of order 2:

4 1
= 12 − k 6= 0 ⇒ k 6= 12
k 3

4 2
= 2k 6= 0 ⇒ k 6= 0
k k

1 2
= k − 6 6= 0 ⇒ k 6= 6
3 k 52
Rank as function of a parameter

Example (cont’d)
Conclusion:

• If k 6= 0 the second minor is non-zero

• If k = 0 the first minor is non-zero

Therefore, we can find a non-zero minor of order two for any

value of the parameter k so the rank of the matrix is always
equal to two

53
Linear systems
Systems of linear equations

• A linear equation is a first order equation with n variables.

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 + 9x4 = −3
xi are the variables (unknowns)

• A linear system is composed of linear equations.

2x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 2
(

4x1 − 2x2 − 6x3 = 8

54
Systems of linear equations

• Generally: n equations with m unknowns.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1m xm = b1


 a x + a x + ··· + a x = b


21 1 22 2 2m m 2
 .
..

an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + anm xm = bn



or in matrix form:
Ax = b

55
Systems of linear equations

a11 a12 . . . a1m

 
 a21 a22 . . . a2m 
• Coefficient matrix: A(n × m) =  .. ... ... ..
 
. .

 
an1 an2 . . . anm
b1
 
 b2 
• Constant vector: b =  ..
 
.

 
bn

56
Solving a system

• A solution of an n × m system is an m-tuple of numbers

that satisfies all the equations of the system.
• A linear system may behave in 3 possible ways:
• The system has solutions (consistent)
• infinitely many solutions (undetermined)
• unique solution
• The system has no solution (inconsistent)
• Solving a system means finding all the solutions:
• Determine consistency (Cramer and Rouché-Capelli theorem)
• Find all possible solutions (Cramer’s rule)
57
Square system

• Cramer theorem
det A 6= 0 is a necessary and sufficient condition for a
system of n linear equations in n unknowns to have a
unique solution.
Example

 x +y+z =1


x − 2y − z = 2
 2x + y − 6z = 3

2

58
Square system
Example (cont’d)
1 1 1 1
   

A =  1 −2 −1  , b= 2 
   
2 1 −6 3/2
1 1 1
det A = 1 −2 −1 =
2 1 −6
= 12 + (−2) + 1 − (−1) − (−4) − (−6) = 22 6= 0
⇒ unique solution
59
Solutions

• Cramer’s rule (solution).

If det A 6= 0 ⇒

b1 a12 . . . a1m a11 b1 . . . a1m

b2 a22 . . . a2m a21 b2 . . . a2m
.. ... ... .. .. ... ... ..
. . . .
bn an2 . . . anm an1 bn . . . anm
x1 = , x2 =
det A det A

60
Cramer’s rule

• Generally:
det Ai
xi = , i = 1, . . . , n,
det A
where Ai is the matrix obtained from A by replacing the i-th
column with the vector of constant terms.

• NOTE: verify the solutions.

61
Cramer’s rule
Example

x +y =3 1 1
( !
, A= , det A = −2
x −y =1 1 −1
3 1 1 3
1 −1 −4 1 1 1−3
x= = = 2, y= = =1
1 1 −2 1 1 −2
1 −1 1 −1
x = 2, y=1 62
General case

• Rouché-Capelli theorem
A system of linear equations with n equations and m
unknowns has solutions if the rank of the coefficient
matrix is equal to the rank of the augmented matrix:
If rk(A) = rk(A|b) ⇒ the system is consistent (has
solutions)
a11 a12 . . . a1m
 

• Coefficient matrix: A =  ... . . . . . . .. 

. 

an1 an2 . . . anm
63
General case

• Augmented matrix: coefficients matrix augmented with

the column vector of constant terms.
a11 a12 . . . a1m b1
 
 a a ... a
 21 22 2m b2 

A|b =  .. .. . . . .. .. 
 . . . . 
an1 an2 . . . anm bn

64
Meaning of Rouché-Capelli theorem

• A system is consistent if the rank does not change when

augmenting the coefficient matrix A.
• This means that the column of constant terms is linearly
dependent on the m columns of matrix A.
• The coefficients of this linear combination are the
solutions of our system.
• On the other hand, if the rank increases (by one unit), the
vector of constant terms is independent. Therefore, there
are no solutions.
65
Solutions of a system

Note that we can have:

rk(A) = rk(A|b) or rk(A) = rk(A|b) + 1
As per Rouché-Capelli, a linear system is consistent if:
rk(A) = rk(A|b) = r
If the system is consistent, we can have two cases:
r = m → unique solution
r < m → infinite solutions
The case r > m is impossible. 66
Solutions of a system

Unique solution (r = m)
Consider the r-order minor used to identify the rank of A. The
rows contain the main equations of the system. The
remaining equations will be discarded and we are left to solve
a square system of order r with Cramer’s rule.

67
Solutions of a system

Infinite solutions (r < m)

Consider the r-order minor used to identify the rank of A. The
rows contain the main equations of the system, and the
columns contain the main unknowns. The other (secondary)
unknowns are moved to the right of the equal sign and
assume arbitrary values. Finally, we solve with Cramer’s rule.

68
Examples

Example 1

 x +y =3 1 1
  

x + 2y = 3, A =  1 2 , rk(A) = 2
 
 2x + y = 5

2 1
1 1 1 2 1 1
= 1, = −3, = −1
1 2 2 1 2 1

69
Examples

Example 1 (cont’d)
1 1 3
 

A|b =  1 2 3  , det A|b = −1 6= 0

 
2 1 5
rk(A|b) = 3 > rk(A) = 2
⇒ NO SOLUTIONS

70
Examples

Example 2

 x +y =1 1 1
  

x + 2y = 2, , A =  1 2  , rk(A) = 2
 
 2x + 3y = 3

2 3
1 1 1
 

A|b =  1 2 2  , det A|b = 0 ⇒ rk(A|b) = 2

 
2 3 3

71
Examples

Example 2 (cont’d)
Because rk(A) = rk(A|b) = 2, the system has a unique
solution
We can use any two equations to find the solution, as all
minors of order 2 are different from zero.

72
Examples
Example 2 (cont’d)
1 1


2 2


x =0


 =
1 1





x +y =1 1 2
 

⇒
x + 2y = 2 
 1 1
1 2


y= =1


1 1





1 2



73
Examples
Example 3

 x + 2y + z = 0


2x + 2y + 2z = 4
 x −y−z =1


rk(A) = rk(A|b) = 3 ⇒ Unique solution:

3 5
x = , y = −2, z =
2 2

74
Examples
Example 4 - n = 3 equations, m = 2 unknowns

 3x − 2y = 0


x − y = −1
 2x − 3y = −4


3 −2
 

Coefficient matrix A =  1 −1 
 
2 −3
3 −2 0
 

Augmented matrix A|b =  1 −1 −1 

 
75
2 −3 −4
Examples

Example 4 (cont’d)
3 −2
 

A =  1 −1 
 
2 −3

3 −2
= −3 + 2 = −1 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A) = 2
1 −1

76
Examples

Example 4 (cont’d)
3 −2 0 3 −2 0
 

A|b =  1 −1 −1  , 1 −1 −1 = −1 6= 0
 
2 −3 −4 2 −3 −4
⇒ rk(A|b) = 3
rk(A|b) = 3 > rk(A) = 2
⇒ NO SOLUTIONS

77
Examples

Example 5

 3x − 2y = 0


x − y = −1
 4x − 3y = −1


3 −2
 
3 −2
A =  1 −1  , = −1 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A) = 2
 
1 −1
4 −3

78
Examples

Example 5 (cont’d)
3 −2 0 3 −2 0
 

A|b =  1 −1 −1  , 1 −1 −1 = 0
 
4 −3 −1 4 −3 −1
⇒ rk(A|b) < 3
rk(A|b) = rk(A) = 2
⇒ UNIQUE SOLUTIONS

79
Examples
Example 5 (cont’d). Delete the third equation.
0 −2




 −1 −1
x =2

=

3 −2



3x − 2y = 0
 

⇒ 1 −1
x − y = −1
3 0


y= =3


3

−2




1 −1



80
Examples
Example 6
x + 2y − 3z = 2
(

4x − y + 2z = 3
n = 2 equations, m = 3 unknowns
1 2 −3
!
Coefficient matrix A =
4 −1 2
1 2 −3 2
!
Augmented matrix A|b =
4 −1 2 3
81
Examples
Example 6 (cont’d)
• The rank of matrix A is 2 :
1 2
= −9 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A) = 2
4 −1

• Rouché-Capelli theorem:
rk(A|b) = rk(A) = 2 < m = 3
⇒ INFINITE SOLUTIONS
Secondary variable: z 82
Examples
Example 6 (cont’d)
• Solution:
x + 2y = 3z + 2
(

4x − y = −2z + 3
3z + 2 2


 − −2z + 3 −1 = −3z−2+4z−6 = 8−z




⇒ −9 −9 9

 1 3z + 2
4 −2z + 3


x= = 14z+5

= −2z+3−12z−8

−9 −9 9 83
Examples
Example 7. Discuss as function of the real parameter k.

 x +y =4


4x − ky = 8
 x −y =0


1 1
 
1 1
A =  4 −k  , = −2 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A) = 2
 
4 −1
1 −1
1 1 4
 

A|b =  4 −k 8  , det A = 4k
 
84
1 −1 0
Examples

Example 7 (cont’d)
•
• if k 6= 0 ⇒ 4k 6= 0 ⇒ rk(A|b) = 3 > rk(A) = 2 ⇒ NO
SOLUTIONS
• if k = 0 ⇒ 4k = 0 ⇒ rk(A|b) = 2 = rk(A)
⇒ UNIQUE SOLUTIONS

x=y=2

85
Homogeneous systems

• A linear system is homogeneous if all constant terms are

zeros. Therefore, it always has the trivial null solution (all
unknowns are zeros).
• In a square system, the unique solution is the null
solution if and only if the augmented matrix is
non-singular.
• A rectangular system is always consistent→ adding the
column of constant terms (all zeros) does not increase
the rank. Therefore, if the rk(A|b) = m ⇒ unique solution
(the null one). If rk(A|b) < m ⇒ infinite solutions. 86