UNIT II.

SOURCES AND STORAGE OF IRRIGATION WATER

A. Time Allotment 3 hours

B. General Objective For the Unit

At the end of the unit the students must be able to know the different sources of
irrigation water and the methods of collection and storage.

C. Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit the students must be able to:
1. Review of the hydrologic cycle
2. Know the different sources of irrigation water
3. Know the different methods of collection and storage of water for irrigation
4. Understand the different terminologies in groundwater
5. Know basic aspects of groundwater hydrology
6. Understand the hydraulics of wells, classes of wells,
methods of construction and development of wells
7. Determination of well yield

D. Content
1. The Hydrologic Cycle
2. Sources of Irrigation Water
3. Methods of Collection and storage of water for irrigation
4. Groundwater Terminologies
5. Groundwater Hydrology
6. Hydraulics of Wells, Construction of Wells and Development of Wells
7. Yield of Wells

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 UNIT II. SOURCES AND STORAGE OF IRRIGATION WATER

Review of the Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle is the series of movement of water above, on, and
below the surface of the earth. It is the continuous circulation of water between the
earth’s surface and the atmosphere It represents the balance between the amount received
and the amount lost by the soil surface layer. It is the key to understanding the occurrence
of water.
Water evaporates from land and water surfaces, transported by moving air masses and
form into clouds upon initial accumulation. Under favorable conditions, the clouds are
condensed into water droplets and fall as precipitation in different forms like rain, snow,
sleet or hail. Part of the precipitation infiltrates into the soil from the soil surface and
moves down and percolates into the water table. The water which infiltrates into the soil
also feeds the surface plant life and some gets drawn into this vegetation. Transpiration
from plant leaves takes place during the process. Part of the water remaining in the
ground surface evaporates back to the atmosphere but a greater part of it flows to stream
as surface runoff. Part of the surface runoff may also infiltrate and move laterally to
streams as subsurface runoff.

The Hydrologic Cycle

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Four Distinct Stages of the Hydrologic Cycle

1. Storage - water maybe stored temporarily in the ground, in oceans, lakes and rivers
and in ice caps and glaciers.
- It is also stored as groundwater in the soils and rocks
- Atmosphere holds about 12,000 cu km of water at any time
- All the world’s rivers and freshwater lakes hold about 120,000 cu km
2. Evaporation – is the process by which liquid water changes to water vapor and enters
the atmosphere as a gas.
- water evaporates from the earth’s surface in times of high temperature
- water may evaporate from the leaf pores or stomata in the process of transpiration
3. Precipitation – occurs when water in the atmosphere condenses into clouds and falls to
the earth as precipitation
- can take a variety of forms including rain, snow, ice pellets and hail.
- Almost two-thirds of this precipitation re-evaporates into the atmosphere, while the
rest flow down rivers to the oceans.
4. Run-off –water that fall back into the earth may either run into lower areas and to the
seas.
- water reaches rivers in the form of either overland flow or groundwater flow and
then flows downstream as surface run-off.

Sources of Irrigation Water

Water to supply moisture essential for plant growth may come from the following:
1. Precipitation
2. Atmospheric water other than precipitation
3. Flood water
4. Groundwater

I. Precipitation – is a deposit of water in either liquid or solid form which reaches the
earth surface from the atmosphere.

Methods of Measuring Rainfall

- Using the standard raingauge
- Using recording raingauge

Effective Rainfall – that amount of rainfall that can be use for crop water requirement

Characteristics of Rainfall to be of greatest benefit for irrigation:

1. Amount should be sufficient to replace moisture depleted from the root zone.
2. Frequency should be often enough to replenish the soil moisture before plants
suffer from the lack of moisture
3. Intensity should be low enough so that water can be absorbed by the soil.

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II. Atmospheric Water Other Than Precipitation
[Link]
2. snow

III. Floodwater
Runoff – is that portion of precipitation that makes its way towards streams, rivers or
lakes as surface or subsurface flow.
Yield - that portion of precipitation on the watershed that can be collected for use which
includes direct run-off and the water which passes underground before
appearing as streamflow.
Runoff is a residual phenomena which takes place after certain losses have been satisfied:
1. evaporation 5. Surface storage
2. Interception 6. Surface detention
3. Infiltration 7. Channel detention
4. depression storage

Interception may be so great as to prevent light rain from wetting the soil.
Interception also has a detention storage effect, delaying the progress of precipitation that
reaches the ground only after running down the plant or dropping from the leaves.
Run-off will occur only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which
the water infiltrate into the soil. After infiltration is satisfied, water begin to fill the
depression, small and large, on the soil surface. As the depressions are filled, overland
flows begin. The depth of water build up on the surface until it is sufficient to result in
runoff in equilibrium with the rate of precipitation less infiltration and interception. The
volume of water involved in the depth buildup is surface detention. As the flows move
into defined channel, there is a similar build up of water in channel detention. The
volume of water in surface and channel detention is returned to runoff as the runoff rate
subsides. The water in surface storage eventually goes into infiltration or is evaporated.

Loss to the atmosphere

Deep Groundwater
Total Ppt. Infiltration Percolation Base
Flow
Delayed
Runoff Total
Subsurface Runoff
Runoff Interflow

Direct
Runoff

Precipitation Excess Surface Run-off

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Factors Affecting Run-off
1. Intensity of Rainfall
2. Soil characteristics of catchment
a. In rocky or clayey soils – the runoff will be more
b. In sandy soils- the runoff will be low since the loss due to infiltration is more
3. Topography of the catchment
a. If steep – runoff will be more
b. If the groundslope is flat and consist of depressions, the runoff will be low
4. Shape and size of the catchment
a. If the catchment area is large and fan shape, the runoff will be more
b. If the catchment area is small and fern shape, the runoff will be low
6. Geological condition of catchment
If the catchment area consist of fissures and cracks the water losses will be more and
the runoff will be low.
[Link] condition – if the temperature in the catchment area is high, the evaporation
losses will be more and hence runoff will be less.

1. Climatic factors:
Precipitation – its aerial and temporal distribution, frequency of occurrence,
temperature, wind, atmospheric pressure, solar radiation and humidity
Total runoff for a storm is clearly related to the duration for a given intensity.
Infiltration will decrease with time, whereas a storm of the same intensity but of long
duration will result in a greater runoff.
2. Physiographic Factors – includes drainage characteristics, land use, soil type
(permeability) geological condition (groundwater aquifers) and channel characteristics
- Both runoff volume and unit of watershed area decreases as the runoff area increases.
- Long, narrow watersheds are likely to have lower runoff rates than more compact
watersheds of the same size.
- Topographis features such as slope of upland areas, the degree of development and
gradient of channel, and the extent and number of depressed areas affect the rate and
volume of runoff. Watershed having extensive flat areas without surface outlets have
lower runoff than the areas with steep, well-defined drainage patterns.
- The geologic or soil material determine to a large degree the infiltration rate
- Vegetation and the practices incident to agriculture and forestry also influence
infiltration. Vegetation retards flows and increases surface detention to reduced peak
runoff rates.

IV. Groundwater
- Groundwater as used in hydraulic engineering, refers to water recoverable by
springs and wells.
- Subsurface water available for development.
- Groundwater results from precipitation that has reached the zone of saturation in
the earth through infiltration and percolation.
- Groundwater is developed for use through wells, springs or dugout ponds.
- Groundwater is a viable source of water where rainfall is insufficient if
river/stream flows are not available.

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Methods of Collection and Storage
Surface Water
On many streams and rivers flow fluctuates widely from season to season and
from year to year. Also peak demands occur and seasons of minimum flow and require
that as much of the annual flow be conserved and diverted for beneficial use.
Surface water supplies maybe increased by water harvesting, which is any
watershed manipulation carried out to increase surface runoff. Vegetation management
has shown to be effective as a means of increasing steamflow. Catchment treatment may
include soil smoothing and removal of vegetation, application of salts or other chemicals
that disperse the soil aggregates and greatly reduce infiltration, or application of plastic
film or wax seals.
Surface water requires the construction of reservoirs to hold flow during season of
high runoff for later release for beneficial use.

Surface Reservoir
Surface reservoirs are built to store irrigation water for use when the natural flow
of a stream is not sufficient to meet irrigation demands.
1. Detention reservoir- a reservoir where floodwater is stored relatively brief period, part
of it being retained until stream safely carry ordinary flow plus release water
2. Impounding Reservoir – Reservoir where the water is stored for release when ordinary
flow of the stream is insufficient to satisfy requirements.
3. Small Farm Reservoir (SFR)
4. Small Water Impounding Projects (SWIP)
5. Diversion Type or Run-of-the River System - irrigation systems which depends
heavily on the amount of stream flow for diversion

General Rules for the Choice of a Reservoir Site

1. A suitable dam site must exist
2. The cost of real estate for the reservoir must not be excessive
3. The reservoir site have adequate capacity - storage capacity
4. Tributary areas which are unusually productive of sediments must be avoided
5. The quality of stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use
6. Sites where considerable quantity of leakage may occur must be avoided.

Selection of Probable Site for Dam

1. The course of the river should be straight at least a distance of about one kilometer
both on the upstream and downstream side of the dam.
2. The width of the riverside should be minimum and the section of the river should be
well defined.
3. A suitable basin should be available for the storage reservoir
4. The elevation of the site should be higher than that of the cultivable command area
5. The storage reservoir should not submerge much valuable land
6. the capacity of the reservoir should fulfil the total water requirement.

Problems on Surface Storage

1. Siltation

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 2. Inavailability of good groundwater storage sites
3. Lack of surface storage sites
4. Excessive evaporation

Terminologies in Groundwater
1. Water table – it is a surface or a line on the soil which the soil mass is saturated
with water.
2. Ground water yield – the quantity of water that can be extracted from the
saturated aquifer by the force of gravity.
3. Aquifer – a permeable geologic formation which contains water ( water-bearing
stratum) and transmit it from one point to another in quantities sufficient to permit
economic development.
4. Unconfined Aquifer – It is the topmost aquifer in which the water table lies in the
surface of saturation. It is known as the water table aquifer. The surface water
enters this aquifer through the surface water.
5. Confined Aquifer – The aquifer which is sandwiched between two impervious
strata.
6. Perched Aquifer- An unconfined aquifer which is separated from the main water
table by a shallow and curved impervious strata. The water table in this aquifer is
known as perched water table which maybe above the main water table.
7. Aquicludes – impervious formation which may contain water but these are not
capable of transmitting water through them (i.e. clay).
8. Aquifuges – impervious formations which neither contain nor can transmit water
(i.e. rocks like granite).
9. Aquitards –these are poor permeable formations which contain water but obstruct
ground water movement (i.e. sandy clay).
10. Well – a hole or shaft sunk into the earth’s surface to a depth below the free water
level or into deep water bearing strata for the purpose of obtaining groundwater.
11. Yield of a well- the rate of pumping of water from the well without causing the
failure of the well.
12. Spacing of well – the spacing of wells should be such that the circle of influence
of the adjacent well may not coincide. Due to mutual interference, the yield of the
well may be reduced considerably.
13. Cone of depression
During pumping from a well the original water table forms a curved
surface in the form of an inverted cone known as the cone of depression. The
curved surface is known as the draw down curved.
14. Circle of Influence
The base of cone of depression is known as circle of influence. The radius
of this circle is known as the radius of the circle of influence.
15. Draw Down
When water is pumped out from a well, then the original head is reduced
to the depressed head, h, and the water around the well enters into the well under
the influence of the head (H-h). This head is known as depression head or
percolation head or draw down.

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Ground Water Hydrology
Ground water hydrology is the science of water in the unsaturated and saturated
zones below the earth’s surface.
The profile of the earth is divided into two primary rock zone
1. the zone of rock fracture
2. the zone of rock flowage
In the zone of rock fracture interstitial water is contained in the pores of the soil or in the
interstices of gravel and rock formations. The zone containing interstitial water is divided
into the unsaturated and saturated zones. Groundwater occur in the zone of saturation.
Perched water tables are often encountered in the unsaturated zones. Good examples of
perched and ground water tables can be observed in shallow and deep wells,
respectively.
Groundwater is often referred as phreatic water. Capillary fringe water and
intermediate water exist above the ground water table and are pr4sent above perched
water table.
A good water bearing formation should have high hydraulic conductivity and high
drainable porosity called specific yield.

Aquifer
The hydraulic properties of an aquifer maybe represented by two parameters:
1. Coefficient of Storage
- the volume of water the aquifer releases from or takes in to storage per unit area of
aquifer per unit decline or rise of head. For unconfined aquifer (0.01 to 0.3) and for
confined aquifer (0.00001 to 0.001)
2. Transmissivity
- the rate of flow through a unit width of aquifer under a hydraulic gradient of unity.

Classification of the Earth’s Crust and Occurrence of Subsurface Water

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Groundwater Investigations for the Occurrence of Aquifers
1. Geological observations and investigations
Physical surface features and geological patterns are often indicative of what can
reasonably be expected beneath the surface particularly with regard to the occurrence of
suitable aquifer from which water can be withdrawn. Coarse-textured, highly permeable
material or fractured sedimentary deposits are essential in the aquifer from which water
can be withdrawn.
-Most important aquifer : 1.) sand 2.) gravel 3.) sandstone 4.) limestone
2. Geophysical Method of Exploration –
This is based upon detecting the differences in the physical properties of surface
and subsurface material.
a. Electrical Resistivity - decrease in resistivity indicates the presence of water
b. Seismic Survey
Conducted by firing a charge of explosive near the ground surface and timing the
travel of the resulting shockwaves to a series of geophones remote from the shot point.
The velocity of the shockwave depends on the type of formation and the presence of
water.
3. Logs of Existing wells
4. Physical aspect of the existing groundwater such as pressures, elevations, movements,
temperatures and quality

Classes of Wells
I. According to the Type of Aquifer Supplying Water
a. Gravity Well- are those that penetrate the water table where water is not confined
under pressure
b. Artesian well – are those where water rises above the level at which it is encountered
in the aquifer because of the pressure in the confined water of the aquifer.
-whenever the piezometric surface, as measured in a vertical hole drilled into the
aquifer, rises above the ground water table, artesian conditions are present. An
artesian well is not necessarily a flowing well.
For artesian flow, the following conditions are present:
1. Pervious stratum with an intake area
2. Impervious stratum below and above the water bearing formation
3. Inclination of the strata
4. Source of water for recharge
5. Absence of a free outlet for the water-bearing formation at the lower elevation.

A Piezometric Surface
It refers to the height water will stand in a piezometer or pipe open at the end
which extends into the aquifer. The height water will rise in the pipe above the bottom of
the pipe is equal to the pressure divided by the unit weight of the water, h = p/w
II. According to Depth
a. Shallow wells –
- wells which draws the water from the unconfined aquifer.
- wells under 30-m depth and wherein the water table stands within the sucking
distance of a pump located at or near the top of the well

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The yield of this well is dependent on the water table. In dry season when the water table
goes below the bed of the well, the discharge of the well is stopped and the well is dried
up.
b. Deep Well
- wells which draws water from the confined aquifer.
- wells wherein there is no fluctuation of the water table and the yield is nearly
uniform
The yield of the well is not dependent on the water table. The discharge is reliable
throughout the year

III. According to the Method of Construction

a. Dug wells
b. Driven wells
c. Drilled wells

Hydraulics of Wells
Under static conditions the water level will rise to the water table. When pumping
begins, the water level in the well is lowered, thus removing free water from the
surrounding aquifer. The distance from the well to where the static water table is not
lowered significantly by drawdown.
The rate of flow into a gravity well;

q = Π k (H2 – h2 )
loge R/r
where:
q – rate of flow (L3 /T)
k - hydraulic conductivity ( L/T)
H - height of static water level above the bottom of the water-bearing formation (L)
h - height of water level at well, measured from the bottom of the water-bearing
formation (L)
R - radius of influence(L)
r - radius of the well (L )

The flow into an artesian well completely penetrating an extensive confined aquifer;

Q = 2Πkd(H–h)
Loge R / r

where:

d - thickness of the confined layer (L),

H - height of the static piezometric surface above the top of the water-bearing
formation (L)
h - height of the water in the well above the top of the water-bearing formation (L)

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Cross Section of a Typical Gravity well in Homogeneous Soil

Cross Section of a Typical Confined Well

22
Radius of Influence of Wells

Soil Formation Radius of Influence,

ft

Fine sand formation with some clay and silt 100 - 300
Fine to medium sand formation fairly clean and free from clay 300- 600
and silt
Coarse sand and fine sand formation free from clay and silt 600- 1,000
Coarse sand and gravel, no clay or silt 1,000 – 2,000

Construction of Wells

A. Open Wells
1. Construction of Unlined Open Wells
Open wells is constructed in hard soil. The excavation of the earth is started
according to the required diameter of the well. The excavation is continued until the
water rushes out from the bottom. The diameter varies from 1.5 to 2 meters and the depth
varies from 10 to 12 meters.

2. Construction of Lined Open Wells

a. By pre-cast R.C.C. Rings
A pit is first excavated up to a depth of 30 cm according to the diameter of the
rings and one ring is placed in position perfectly. Then two more rings are set on it.
Excavation is started and the rings go on sinking gradually due to their weight. More and
more rings are set over the previous rings as the excavation proceeds. Finally, the water
rushes out from the bottom. The diameter varies from 1 m to 1.5m and depth of 15 to 18
meters. Care should be taken for the vertical sinking of well.

b. By Masonry wall
A pit is first excavated up to a depth of 30 cm and a well curb having a cutting
edge at the bottom is placed in position. The top width of the circular is equal to the
thickness of the well wall. On the top of the well curb the masonry wall is constructed up
to a height of 1.5 meters. After proper curing of the wall, the excavation is started inside
the well and below the curb. The masonry wall goes on sinking due to its weight. The
masonry wall is constructed step-by-step as the excavation proceeds (!.5 m height at a
time). The well is sunk up to the required depth. The verticality of the well should be
maintained.

A. Tube Wells
A tube well consist of G.I. pipes of diameter varying from 3.75 cm to 15 cm and
of length varying from 7m to 8 m. The tube well is sunk into the ground by boring. The
joints of the pipes are socket joints. It penetrates a number of water bearing strata which
are sandwiched between impervious layers.

23
 The tube well maybe shallow or deep. The diameter of shallow tube well varies
from 3.75 cm to 5cm and the depth from 30 m to 40 meters.
The diameter of the deep well varies from 10 cm to 15 cm and the depth from 200
m to 300 m.
The following are the types of tube wells:

1. Strainer Type Tube well

The G.I. pipe of length 6 m and of required are assembled with socket joint and
driven into the ground upon the required depth. The conical shoe is provided at the
bottom of the pipe and the strainers are fitted in such a way so that they exist within the
aquifers. The portion of the plain pipe which exist within the impermeable strata is
known as blind pipe.
A strainer is a perforated pipe around which fine wire mesh is wrapped allowing
an annular space between the two. The water enters the pipe through the wire mesh and
the fine sand particles are prevented from entering the tube well.

2. Cavity Type Tube Well

The G.I. pipe of required diameter is driven into the ground up to the depth so that
it just penetrates clay layer and finds a water bearing strata. No strainer is provided in this
tube well. When pumping is started fine sands come out with the water and consequently
a cavity is formed. As the pumping is continued, the cavity finally takes the shape of a
hemisphere and no more sand particles enter the well. The cavity formed behaves like a
clear water pool.

3. Slotted Type Tube Well

The G.I. casing pipe of bigger diameter ( about 30cm) is first driven into the
ground up to the required depth. The G.I. pipe of lesser diameter (about 15 cm)is
inserted into the casing pipe. The lower portion of the well pipe is slotted up to a length
of about 6 m. The casing pipe is then gradually withdrawn and the annular space between
the pipe and casing pipe is filled up with a mixture of gravel and coarse sand. This is
known as shrouding. The shrouding should be such so as to cover the slotted portion
completely. When pumping is started the sandy water comes out through the well initially
and finally the fine sand is eliminated and clear water comes out.

Sinking of Tube Wells

I. Shallow Tube Wells
a. Wash Boring Method
In this method, a pit of depth about 1 m and diameter 10 cm is first excavated at a
position where the tube well is proposed to be sunk. A G.I. pipe of diameter 3.75 cm and
length 6 meters is held vertically in the pit by the lever. The pipe is completely filled with
water and an operator standing on the bamboo frame covers the upper end of the pipe
with palm of the hand. Sufficient quantity of water is poured continuously on the pit.
Now, the pipe is moved up and down with the lever which is operated by a group of
laborers. During upward stroke, the pipe’s end palm is kept tightly closed with palm and
during downward stroke it is kept open. Thus, in upward motion the suction takes place
and in downward motion the slurry rushed out through the upper end of the pipe. In this

24
way, the pipe sunk gradually. When the first pipe reaches the ground level, another pipe
is fixed with it by socket joint. The procedure is continued until the required depth is
reached. The washing of pipe is done until clear water comes out. This method is suitable
for sandy and clayey soil.

b. Water Jet Method

in this method, a pit is first excavated to a depth of about 1 m and diameter
slightly larger than the diameter of the casing pipe. The casing pipe is held vertically in
the pit. Then a jet pipe with a nozzle at the bottom is lowered inside the casing pipe.
Water is forced under high pressure through the jet pipe and it come out of the nozzle
with tremendous force, the soil at the bottom of the casing pipe is loosened and slurry is
formed. This slurry comes out through the annular space between the jet pipe and the
casing pipe. The casing pipe is rotated slowly and it sinks gradually. When the casing
pipe comes to the ground level another is fitted to it by socket joint. This procedure is
continued until the required depth is attained. This method is suitable for sandy and
clayey soil. Finally, tube well pipe with strainer is inserted and casing pipe is withdrawn

II. Deep Tube Wells

a. Percussion Method
In this method, a pit is first excavated to a depth of about 1 meter and is filled up
with water. A casing pipe of required diameter having cutting edge at the bottom is
placed vertically at the pit. The casing pipe consist of a platform for loading sand bags. A
plunger of hollow metal tube is suspended by a rope which passes through a pulley fixed
with a wooden tripod. The plunger consist of cutting edge and ball valve. Now, repeated
blows are given with the plunger by stretching the rope up and down. During each down
stroke, the ball valve opens and the slurry enters the plunger. Again, during upward
stroke, the ball valve closes and the slurry is prevented from coming out, When the
plunger is filled up with slurry, it is taken out and the slurry is remove. The plunger is
again lowered and the same procedure is repeated. Thus the casing pipe goes on sinking.
When the upper end of the casing pipe reaches the ground level, an additional pipe is
fixed to it by socket joint. When the desired depth is attained the platform is removed and
a tube well pipe with strainer is inserted within the casing pipe. The casing pipe is then
gradually withdrawn step- by-step and the annular space between casing pipe and the
tube well pipe is shrouded with gravel and coarse sand.

b. Rotary Method
This method consist of the following components:
a. a derrick
b. a pump set ( with motor)
c. drill pipe with drill bit
d. rotating device
e. a platform carrying the derrick and pump set
The whole arrangement is known as drill rig.

The rig is anchored at the site properly. A suitable tank is excavated near the site
and is filled with muddy water. The rotating device and drill pipe is placed in position.

25
When the rotating device is started, the drill pipe rotates and slides downwards cutting
the soil with the drill bit. The water is continuously pumped into the hole through the drill
pipe and thus slurry is formed. This slurry comes out through the annular space between
the drill pipe and the wall of the hole. This slurry is taken again to the mud water tank for
recharging. A portion of the slurry is taken to setting basin to determine the type of
formation at various layers. When the required depth is attained, the drill pipe is
withdrawn. The tube well pipe with strainers at appropriate layers is inserted immediately
into the hole. Then washing of the well is done properly to get clear water and more
yield.

Well Development
This refers to the steps taken after a well is drilled to ensure maximum flow and
well life by preparing the sediments around the well. It is the process of removing finer
materials from the aquifer, thereby cleaning out, opening up or enlarging passage in the
formation so that the water can enter the well more freely. The layer of sediments from
which the water is drawn often consist of silt. When the well is first pumped, the fine
materials will be drawn into the well and make the water muddy. The mud has to be
removed to keep the sediments near the well porous. If the water is pumped rapidly at
first, the fine particles may collect against the perforated casing or the sand grains at the
bottom of the well and block the flow of the water into it.

Purpose:
1. To increase the water yield – This is accomplished by increasing the permeability of
the formation through which the water moves towards the well
2. To determine the water supply available and the needed characteristics of the pump
and power unit to be installed.

Methods of Developing Wells

1. Developing by Pumping
Well development by pumping is done at high discharge rate. With high speed
and large capacity pumps, higher velocities through the screen and in the aquifer adjacent
to the screen can develop thereby bringing fine sands and silts. Pumping should be started
slowly since a constant speed will cause bridging of the sand particles and a mark
lowering the capacity of the well. Then the capacity should increased in steps and held
constant between steps until no further sand is withdrawn. Pumping should be continued
until the maximum discharge is reached and no further sand is removed. The pumped is
then shut-off and the water level allowed to return to the normal position. This cycle is
repeated until no further sand is removed. In developing a well, new pump should not be
used because of the damage and lowering of efficiency brought about by the wearing
effect of sand as it moves through the pump.

2. Developing by Surging
Surging is the most common and effective method of developing a well in sand-
gravel formations. The plunger is move up and down opposite the perforated casing
thereby causing water to move alternately in and out the well. Surging is started slowly at
first and increased in speed as development proceeds. On the downward stroke, water

26
passes through the valve and is forced into the aquifer. On the upward stroke, water is
drawn rapidly into the well.

3. Developing by Compressed Air

Use of compressed air for well development is best suited for small wells. This
option requires an operating pressure of 100 to 150 pounds per square inch and the depth
of water should be at least two-thirds the depth of the well. The air pipe is inserted into
the lower end of the discharge pipe. As the valve open, air from the compressor will be
mixed up with water producing bubbles resulting to a lighter mixture of fluid. This
enables the air and hydrostatic pressure to push upward the water containing the bubbles.
In using this approach, potential pump horsepower should be known so that appropriate
compressor rating can be selected.

4. Other Methods
a. Use of Chemicals
b. Using dry ice

Determination of Yield of Open Well

The yield of an open well can be determined by the following test:
1. Constant level Test or Pumping test
In this test, the water from the open well is pumped for some period so that the
water level is depressed by a head H which is known as depression head or drawdown.
Then the rate of pumping is adjusted in such a way so that the water level remain
constant in the well. At this time, the rate of pumping is equal to the rate of yield from the
well. From the rate of pumping, the discharge can be computed by suitable measuring
device, and from the Darcy Law:
Q = kAi
Q = k A H/L where I = H/L
Q = C A H where c = K/L
where:
Q - discharge
K - coefficient of permeability
A - c/s - area of permeable layer through which water enters the well
i - hydraulic gradient
H - depression head (Head from the static water table to the water level after
Pumping)
L - length of flow path
C - percolation intensity coefficient

2. Recuperation Test
The water from the well is pumped to a depression head H 1 and the pumping is
stopped. The water level rises due to ground water flow. The total time taken by the water
to reach the static level is noted. Then,

K = 2.303 A log10 H1
T H2

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where:
K - specific capacity of well in m3/hr/unit head
H1 – depression head when pumping was stopped in meters
H2 - depression head after certain period in meters
T - time taken by the water level to rise from H1 to H2 in hours
A - area of the bottom of well in m2

and Q = K H where H = constant depression head

Yield of Tube in Unconfined Aquifer

Q = 1.36 K s ( S + 2h )
R__
log10 r

where:
Q - discharge of the well
S - drawdown
h - depth of water in well from the point of maximum drawdown to the top of
the impervious layer
R – radius of circle of influence
r -radius of well
k - coefficient of permeability

Yield of Well in Confined Aquifer

Q = 2.72 k b s

log10 R_
r
where:
Q - discharge of the well
s - drawdown
R - radius of the circle of influence
r - radius of the well
k - coefficient of permeability
b - thickness of the confined aquifer

LEARNING ACTIVITY

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Learning Activity 1. After the occurrence of a rainfall, observe a run-off-the-river
irrigation system. Describe how the water is collected for irrigation
use.

Learning Activity 2. Observe the yield of an open well.

ASSESSMENT

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Instructions: Answer all questions and problems.

I. IDENTIFICATION. 1 pt each
_____1. The portion of precipitation that makes its way towards streams, rivers or lakes as surface or
subsurface flow.
______2. That part of rainfall which is considered usable for crop water requirement.
______3. A geologic formation which contains water and transmit it from one point to another quantities
sufficient to permit economic development.
______4. It refers to water recoverable by springs and wells
______5.The depression head after pumping water in the well
______6. The unconfined aquifer that is usually above the main water table
______7. The area surrounding the well that contributes to its yield
______8. The aquifer that can be found between two impervious strata
______9. Wells that draws water from the unconfined aquifer
______10. Wells where the piezometric surface is above the ground water table
______11. Wells where the yield is nearly uniform throughout the year and there is no fluctuation of the
water table
______12. The test conducted to determine the yield of the well where the time required to recharge the
well is observe.
______13. The impermeable formation which may contain water but is not capable of transmitting water
______14. It is part of the zone of rock flowage where the groundwater occurs
______15. Head from the static water table to the water level after pumping

II. ENNUMERATION
1. Give the three (3) characteristics of rainfall to be of greatest benefit for irrigation (3 pts)
2. Give four (4) factors affecting the amount of runoff ( 4 pts)
3. Give three (3) methods of investigations for the occurrence of groundwater ( 3)
4. Give three (3) methods of well development ( 3 pts)
5. Give the three (3) types of tube wells ( 3 pts)
6. Give the four (4) methods of sinking tube wells
III. PROBLEMS. Solve the problems correctly.
1. Calculate the yield of an open well using the following information ( 10 pts)
Initial depression head = 5 m
Final depression head = 2 m
Time of recuperation = 2 hours
Diameter of well = 3 hours
2. A tube well is constructed in unconfined aquifer. Calculate the discharge. ( 10 meters)
diameter of the well = 15 cm
drawdown = 4 meters
length of tube well strainer below drawdown = 10 meters
Coefficient of permeability of aquifer = 0.05 cm/sec
Radius of the circle of influence = 200 meters
3. A tube well penetrates completely a confined aquifer. Determine the diameter of the tube well from the
following information ( 15 pts)
Required yield = 100 liters per second
Radius of the circle of influence = 200 meters
Thickness of the confined aquifer = 30 meters
Drawdown = 5 meters
Coefficient of permeability = 60 meters per day

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References

1. Orcullo, N.A. Jr., . 1997. Irrigation Systems Handbook. . 1st Edition. Busy Books
Distributors, Pasig City, Philippines.
2. Schwab, G. O., D. D. Fangmeier, W. J. Elliot, R.K. Frevert. 1993. Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering, 4th Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
3. Basak, N.N. 1999. Irrigation Engineering. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi, USA

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