• Based on Chapter 5 of the provided text, here are detailed notes on Using Moles.
• 5.1 The Mole
• Definition: A mole is the unit used to measure the amount of substance. One mole
contains $6.02 \times 10^{23}$ particles (atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons). This
number is known as the Avogadro constant.
• Mass of a Mole:
• The mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its relative atomic mass ($A_r$) or relative
molecular mass ($M_r$) in grams.
• Example: The $A_r$ of Carbon is 12, so 1 mole of carbon atoms weighs 12 grams. The
$M_r$ of water ($H_2O$) is 18, so 1 mole of water molecules weighs 18 grams.
• Calculating Moles:
• You can calculate the number of moles in a given mass using the formula: $$
\text{Number of moles} = \frac{\text{Mass (g)}}{\text{Mass of 1 mole ($A_r$ or $M_r$)}}
$$
• Conversely, $\text{Mass (g)} = \text{Number of moles} \times \text{Mass of 1 mole}$.
• 5.2 Calculations from Equations
• Stoichiometry: A balanced chemical equation tells you the ratio of moles of reactants
and products.
• Example: $C + O_2 \rightarrow CO_2$ means 1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of
oxygen molecules to produce 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
• Calculating Masses:
• Write the balanced equation.
• Write down the $A_r$ or $M_r$ for the relevant substances.
• Convert the moles from the equation into grams to find the theoretical masses.
• Use proportion to calculate the mass for the specific amount given in the question.
• Limiting Reactant: In many reactions, one reactant is used up before the others. This
reactant limits the amount of product formed and is called the limiting reactant. The
other reactants are said to be in "excess".
• 5.3 Reactions Involving Gases
• Avogadro's Law: At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different
gases contain the same number of particles (molecules).
• Molar Gas Volume: One mole of any gas occupies $24\text{ dm}^3$ (or $24,000\text{
cm}^3$) at room temperature and pressure (rtp).
• Calculating Gas Volumes:
• $$ \text{Volume at rtp (dm}^3\text{)} = \text{Number of moles} \times 24 $$
• $$ \text{Number of moles} = \frac{\text{Volume at rtp (dm}^3\text{)}}{24} $$.
• Volumes from Equations: Because moles correspond directly to volume for gases, you
can use the mole ratio from the equation to determine gas volumes directly (e.g., if 2
moles of $H_2$ react with 1 mole of $O_2$, then $48\text{ dm}^3$ of $H_2$ reacts with
$24\text{ dm}^3$ of $O_2$).
• 5.4 The Concentration of a Solution
• Definition: Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in a specific volume of
solution, typically $1\text{ dm}^3$.
• Units: Concentration is usually expressed in $\text{mol/dm}^3$ (molarity) but can also
be in $\text{g/dm}^3$.
• Formulas:
• $$ \text{Concentration (mol/dm}^3\text{)} = \frac{\text{Amount of solute
(mol)}}{\text{Volume of solution (dm}^3\text{)}} $$
• $$ \text{Amount of solute (mol)} = \text{Concentration (mol/dm}^3\text{)} \times
\text{Volume (dm}^3\text{)} $$.
• Note: Always convert volume from $\text{cm}^3$ to $\text{dm}^3$ by dividing by 1000
before calculating.
• 5.5 Finding the Empirical Formula
• Definition: The empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of
each element in a compound.
• Steps to Find It:
• Find the masses (or percentages) of the elements that combine.
• Divide the mass of each element by its relative atomic mass ($A_r$) to find the number
of moles of atoms.
• Find the simplest ratio of these moles (divide all values by the smallest number of moles
calculated).
• Write the formula using this ratio.
• 5.6 From Empirical to Final Formula
• Molecular Formula: Shows the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule
of a compound.
• Relationship: The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.
• Calculation:
• Calculate the mass of the empirical formula ($M_r$ of the empirical unit).
• Find the relative molecular mass ($M_r$) of the compound (usually given or found via
mass spectrometer).
• Divide the compound's $M_r$ by the empirical mass to find the multiple ($n$).
• Multiply the numbers in the empirical formula by $n$ to get the molecular formula.
• Note: For ionic compounds, the formula is always the empirical formula.
• 5.7 Finding % Yield and % Purity
• Percentage Yield:
• The yield is the amount of product obtained from a reaction.
• The theoretical yield is the maximum possible mass calculated from the equation.
• $$ \text{% Yield} = \frac{\text{Actual mass obtained}}{\text{Theoretical mass}} \times
100 $$.
• Percentage Purity:
• Substances often contain impurities (unwanted substances).
• $$ \text{% Purity} = \frac{\text{Mass of pure substance}}{\text{Total mass of impure
sample}} \times 100 $$.
• Purity is important in industries like pharmaceuticals and electronics. It can be checked
by measuring melting/boiling points or through titration.